Ascend Iliad Guide 2024

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115 QUESTIONS ON THE ILIAD BY HOMER
A READER’S GUIDE
PRESENTED BY
DCN. HARRISON GARLICK
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www.thegreatbookspodcast.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... 2

115 QUESTIONS ON THE ILIAD BY HOMER ......................................................................................... 4
THE PRELIMINARIES ....................................................................................................................... 4
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MAIN CHARACTERS & TERMS .................................................................. 6
The Achaeans ................................................................................................................................ 6
The Trojans ................................................................................................................................... 7
The Gods & Goddess ...................................................................................................................... 7
Select Working Definitions ............................................................................................................. 8
COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT ............................................................................................................. 8
Book One....................................................................................................................................... 8
Book Two .................................................................................................................................... 13
Book Three .................................................................................................................................. 15
Book Four ................................................................................................................................... 17
Book Five .................................................................................................................................... 19
Book Six ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Book Seven .................................................................................................................................. 26
Book Eight................................................................................................................................... 27
Book Nine.................................................................................................................................... 29
Book Ten ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Book Eleven ................................................................................................................................ 33
Book Twelve ................................................................................................................................ 35
Book Thirteen .............................................................................................................................. 37
Book Fourteen ............................................................................................................................. 39
Book Fifteen ................................................................................................................................ 40
Book Sixteen ................................................................................................................................ 42
Book Seventeen............................................................................................................................ 45
Book Eighteen ............................................................................................................................. 47
Book Nineteen ............................................................................................................................. 50

Book Twenty ................................................................................................................................ 52

Book Twenty-one ......................................................................................................................... 54
Book Twenty-two ......................................................................................................................... 56
Book Twenty-three ....................................................................................................................... 58
Book Twenty-four ........................................................................................................................ 59
AFTER THE ILIAD .......................................................................................................................... 62
Congratulations on reading Homer’s Iliad! .................................................................................. 65
End of Guide ............................................................................................................................... 65
Copyright 2023 by Ascend: The Great Books Podcast, Inc.

All rights reserved.

115 QUESTIONS ON THE ILIAD BY HOMER
THE PRELIMINARIES
1. Who was Homer?
The city of Troy is said to have fallen in 1184 B.C.1 Such a date would place it just prior to ancient
Israel’s foray into a monarchy under King Saul and the subsequent zenith of the reign of King David at
1000 B.C. Troy was a well-fortified Greek city-state2 or polis situated on the west coast of ancient Asia
Minor—now predominantly modern-day Turkey—across the Aegean Sea from Greece. It was a city of
tremendous wealth and culture. The fall of Troy was already part of the ancient history of Greece during
the classical era (400-300s BC). Classical Greek historians generally set the fall of Troy from 1334 to
1150 B.C.3 The classical historian Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC), who set the date for the fall of Troy at
1250 B.C., opined that Homer lived “four hundred years before my own time, at the most;”4 thus, he
placed Homer at around 850 BC—several hundred years after the Trojan war. Modern scholarship tends
to date Homer in the late 700s B.C. 5
Very little is known about Homer the person, except that he was Greek, most likely born in Asia Minor,
and was a bard of great mastery, i.e., an oral poet who would compose and perform verses, especially
on the histories and great deeds of his people.6 Various traditions also present him as a slave and as
blind.7 One thinks of the wonderful painting entitled Homer and his Guide by the French painter William
Bouguereau (AD 1825—1905).
2. Did Homer write the Iliad?
The Iliad, Homer’s poem about the fall of Troy, did not originate as a written epic. It originally consisted
of oral poems or rhapsodies memorized and performed by Greek bards in the centuries between the fall
of Troy and Homer. Consequently, we should see Homer as an inheritor of a centuries old tradition of
oral stories about the Trojan War.8 The brilliance of Homer was his capacity to compose a written epic
out of a myriad of oral traditions spanning several centuries. He most likely wrote the Iliad (or dictated
it to a scribe) around 750 B.C.9 with his sequel, the Odyssey, at 725 B.C.
The Iliad, as we know it today, “consists in the Original Greek of 15,693 lines of hexameter verse.”10
Copies of it existed on papyrus scrolls, and it is arguable that the demarcation of the now twenty-four
1
Homer, The Iliad, trans. Richmond Lattimore (The University of Chicago Press: London, 1961), citing Eratosthenes, 18.
2
Ancient Greece was not a modern-nation state or even a unified kingdom; rather, each city or polis had its own independent
government and the stronger cities exerted a certain dominance over the weaker ones.
3
Lattimore, 18.
4
Lattimore, 18.
5
Ed. M. C. Howatson, Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2013), 302.
6
Lattimore, 19.
7
Homer, The Iliad, trans. Robert Fagles (The Penguin Group: New York, 1990), 7.
8
Fagles, 15; Lattimore, 23.
9
Fagles, 19; Companion, 302.
10
Fagles, 5.

“books” of the Iliad correspond with the original number of scrolls utilized to record the entire epic. 11
One notable remnant of the oral tradition in the written verse is the use of “ornamental epithets.” 12
Epithets are short descriptive phrases of characters that are found throughout the Iliad, e.g., “lord of
war,” “man-killing Hector,” “white armed Hera,” “lord of the war cry,” etc. These phrases provided the
bard a certain lattice work upon which to improvise and mention key characters while preserving the
poetic meter.13
3. Why should we read the Iliad by Homer?
The Iliad is arguably the first “great book” in the Western canon—save Holy Scripture. As one would
start with Genesis to understand the Hebrews, one starts with Homer to understand the Greeks. Homer
represents an insight into the ancient Greek culture whose maturation will eventually assist in the
formation of Christianity and Christendom. Almost four hundred years after Homer, his poetry and its
cultural influence on the Greeks will serve as an interlocutor to the philosopher Socrates (c. 470-399
BC). In turn, through Socrates, one may find the beginning of a Greek or Hellenized culture that plays a
profound role in the formation of the New Testament. Greek reason coupled with Hebrew faith under
Roman order helped till the soil for Incarnation of God.14 Saint Paul observes that Jesus Christ came in
the “fullness of time” (Gal 4:4); thus, the cultures selected by Providence to provide the proper
receptivity to the Eternal Word made flesh bare a distinctly unrepeatable vocation in the history of
mankind.15 While truth can be found amongst the writings of Confucius (c. 551-479 BC) or the
Babylonian epic the Enuma Elish (c. 1900 BC), they lack a certain historical prominence demonstrated
by those cultures more proximate to the earthly life of Jesus Christ.
Consequently, we will approach Homer as a teacher—a teacher not only of his own ancient Greek culture
but of humanity. The observations and teachings Homer provides in the Iliad provide in turn an insight
into our own human nature. We discover truths about ourselves and truths that started to till the earth for
the coming of Christ. The “great books” of the West often deal with perennial truths or topics that are
relevant to the reality of man regardless of the age. In Homer, several of these truths are expressed in a
nascent form that must mature through the cultivation of subsequent thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle. In Homer, we may ask: What is the relation between fate and the divine? What is the
relationship between the free will of man and the providence of the gods? What does it mean to be an
excellent human? These questions are perennial, and we turn to Homer the teacher to guide us through
them.
4. What translation of the Iliad should I read?
The 1951 translation of the Iliad by Richmond Lattimore, professor at Bryn Mawr College, is an
excellent translation published by the University of Chicago. Another notable translation would be the
classic work by Alexander Pope, the English poet, in 1720 with final revisions in 1743. This guide makes
ample use of the beautiful, dynamic 1990 translation of the Iliad by Robert Fagles, a professor at
Princeton University, with an introduction by Bernard Knox, the Director Emeritus of the Harvard Center
11
Fagles, 6.
12
Fagles, 5.
13
See Fagles, 14-15.
14
The most approachable writing on the harmony of Greek reason and Hebrew faith is Pope Benedict XVI’s 2006
masterpiece, the Regensburg Address.
15
See, Dcn. Harrison Garlick, “Avoiding the Unreal: How to Read the Great Books Well” at thegreatbookspodcast.com.

for Hellenic Studies in Washington D.C. All quotes from the Iliad shared herein are taken from the
Fagles translation unless otherwise noted. Both the editions by Lattimore and Fagles have worthwhile
introductions that are cited herein alongside other sources. For first time readers, the Fagles’ edition is
recommended.
As a companion to reading the Iliad, a good quick reference for understanding Greek mythology is Edith
Hamilton’s 1942 classic Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. Another excellent resource is
the Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, which serves as a dictionary for classical characters and
concepts. Both texts are referenced in this guide.
5. How should I use this guide?
One recommendation would be to read each book of the Iliad prior to reading its corresponding chapter
in this guide. With this approach, you can compare your attention to the text to the observations provided
in the guide. In this manner, your own skill in reading a great book can be exercised and strengthened.
Many insights in this guide (and with any other) are simply drawn from a close reading of the text and
from reading the text multiple times. Readers of the Iliad and of all great books should read a text to
reread it. In other words, the reader should annotate the text (e.g., underlining, marginal notes, etc.,) to
mark key ideas and movements in the narrative that will serve as guideposts to a future reading. A first
reading of the Iliad often focuses on simply tracking the facts of the narrative and the major themes. As
a final note, the questions in this guide are not encyclopedic but meant to be read as a holistic dialogue;
thus, an earlier question introducing a topic may not mention future details in deference to how Homer,
our teacher, reveals the narrative.
For those using this guide for small group discussions, simply use the questions to open the conversations
and then check the answers along the ones given herein.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MAIN CHARACTERS & TERMS
The Achaeans
Achilles: the son of King Peleus and Thetis, the sea nymph; also called Pelides, i.e., “son of Peleus,”
and was the leader of the Myrmidons and the most skilled warrior on the Achaean side. Famous for his
rage, he is a contender for the main protagonist of the Iliad.
Agamemnon: the son of Atreus, also called Atrides, brother of Menelaus, and the king of Mycenae. He
is the husband of Clytemnestra and the father of Iphigeneia. He is the leader of the largest contingent of
Achaean warriors and is the “supreme commander” of the entire Achaean army. 16
Menelaus: the son of Atreus, also called Atrides, brother of Agamemnon, and the king of Lacedaemon
(Sparta). He is the rightful husband of Helen.
Great Ajax: the son of Telamon, also called Telemonian Ajax, leader of the army from Salamis, and is
listed as the second most skilled warrior amongst the Achaeans. 17
16
Fagles, 641.
17
Fagles, 642.

Little Ajax: the son of Oileus, also called Oilean, and the leader of the army from Locris. 18
Diomedes: the son of Tydeus, the king of Argos, also called Tydides.
Odysseus: the son of Laertes, the king of Ithaca, married to Penelope and father of Telemachus. He is
favored by Athena, the goddess of wisdom, for his cunning and wit.
Nestor: the son of Neleus and the king of Pylos; he is the father of Antilochus and Thrasymedes; he is
the oldest Achaean king in the Trojan war and is a link to elder age.
The Trojans
Hector: the son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy, brother of Paris, husband to Andromache,
and father to the infant Astyanax. Hector is the leader of the Trojan army. He is a contrast to Achilles
and a contender for the protagonist of the Iliad.
Priam: the King of Troy and the son of Laomedon, the former King of Troy. He is the husband of Queen
Hecuba and the father of fifty sons, including Hector and Paris.
Paris: the son of Priam and Hecuba, a prince of Troy, brother of Hector, who absconded with Menelaus’
wife, Helen, when he was a guest in the Spartan king’s home.
Helen: the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of the then king of Sparta, Tyndareus. She was divinely
beautiful and was married to Menelaus, the Spartan king, and later absconded with Paris to Troy.
Aeneas: the son of Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite, he is the “commander of the Dardanians,” and
is prophesied to be “the future king of the Trojans.” 19
The Gods & Goddess
Zeus: the son of Cronus and the titan Rhea, husband and brother to Hera, he overthrew his father and
now rules as the king of gods and men from Mount Olympus. It is said his will animates all, but how his
divine will is related to the force of fate in the Iliad is a mystery to unravel. He is more powerful than all
the other gods combined.
Hera: the daughter of Cronus and the titan Rhea, wife and sister to Zeus, she is the goddess of childbirth.
Hera, alongside Athena, bears a tremendous hatred for Troy.
Athena: also called “Pallas Athena” or “Pallas,” the daughter of Zeus who sprung forth from his head,
she is the goddess of wisdom, which includes crafts, artistry, and military strategy and tactics. She favors
Odysseus, the Achaean king of Ithaca. Athena, alongside Hera, bears a tremendous hatred for Troy.
18
Fagles, 642.
19
Fagles, 641.

Apollo: the son of Zeus and the goddess Leto, he is the twin brother of Artemis, the goddess of the hunt,
and bears the patronage “of the arts, especially music and poetry,” and archery, and he is the “principal
divine champion of the Trojans.”20
Aphrodite: the daughter of Zeus and Dione, mother of Aeneas, the Trojan prince, and she is the goddess
of love. She is the primary influence behind Helen absconding with Paris, and she favors Troy.
Ares: son of Zeus and Hera, the god of war, who favors the Trojans. He is often set in contrast to Athena
who also oversees warfare. He favors Troy.
Select Working Definitions
Arete: the Greek term for virtue. The man of arete is a man of excellence (Question 39). The question
in Homer is what is arete and what does it mean to be an excellent man? This exploration begins in
Homer and is then taken up later by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Aristeia: drawn from the Greek word aristos or “best,” a warrior’s aristeia is the height of his glory and
excellence in his life. The story of the Iliad includes several aristeiai, i.e., Diomedes (Books 5), Hector
(Book 8), Agamemnon (Book 11), Patroclus (Book 16), and Achilles (Book 20-22).
Fate: not a god or goddess, but a nameless providential power that moves both gods and men according
to its will. The relationship between the nameless fate and Zeus is one of much debate.
Guest-Friendship (xenia): an unwritten code of hospitality under the patronage of Zeus that governed
the relationship between a guest and his host (Question 24). It was a “bond of trust imitating kinship”
that served as a “social institution” between Greeks.21 To violate guest-friendship was to incur divine
retribution from Zeus. The principle of guest-friendship is central to both the Iliad and the Odyssey.
COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT
Book One
The Rage of Achilles22
Rage—Goddess, sing of Peleus’ son Achilles.
Iliad (1.1)
6. What happens in the first half of book one?
The rage of Achilles is both the theme of book one and of the Iliad as a whole. Achilles is the son of
Peleus, King of Phthia, a legendary city-state in ancient Greece. Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae and
leader of the federation of ancient Greek tribes that have come to war with Troy, holds as his slave and
20
Fagles, 644.
21
Companion, 256.
22
The subtitles are taken from the Fagles’ translation and are his own invention.

concubine a girl named Chryseis—a spoil of war (1.30). Her father, a priest of Apollo named Chryses,
offers Agamemnon a “priceless ransom” (1.14) for his daughter. Despite the Achaeans (another name
for the ancient Greeks), petitioning Agamemnon to accept the offer, he does not; thus, Apollo, moved
by his priest’s prayer (1.42), strikes the Achaean army with a plague, i.e., his “arrows” (1.56, 69, 78, et
al.), until Agamemnon finally agrees to return the daughter of Apollo’s priest and offer to the god a
fitting sacrifice (1.135). However, Agamemnon finds it unfair that he, as high king, should have his
“prize” taken from him while the lesser kings retain their women, their “prizes,” from war (1.158). He
then demands that the concubine of Achilles, a girl named Briseis, be handed over to him (1.141, 203-
221). The contention between Agamemnon and Achilles provides the catalyst for the events at the
beginning of the Iliad that will shape the entire narrative.
7. Why does Homer open in the middle of the narrative?
Homer begins the Iliad in what is called in media res, which is Latin for “in the midst of things” or “in
the middle of things.” The Achaeans have already been on the beaches of Troy for nine years when
Homer opens the Iliad (1.157). Questioning Homer’s rationale in opening his epic in such a fashion can
provide greater insight into the purpose of the Iliad. In short, the opening may be in the middle of the
Trojan War, but it is at the beginning of the narrative Homer wants to tell. It is notable Homer does not
invoke the Muses to assist him in telling of the fall of Troy; rather, he invokes them to assist with the
story of the rage of Achilles. The Iliad is the story of the tragedy that is Achilles.23
The in media res opening, however, bears a distinct effect upon modern readers of the epic. As noted
above (Question 2), Homer did not invent the story of the fall of Troy. As such, his ancient readers
would have been already familiar with the characters and the general narrative. Homer, at times, does
not mention key aspects of his narrative until quite late in the development of his story. For example,
Homer does not explain why Hera and Athena have a “deathless hate” for Troy until almost the very end
of the text (24.34). At other times, Homer will not mention a key aspect of the Trojan war at all. Lattimore
refers to these ancillary stories as “marginal material.” 24 The existence of these ancillary stories to the
Iliad are known only because later writers included them in their poems or plays. There is much debate,
however, on whether Homer elected not to include these stories in his epic or such stories were a later
invention by other authors. Nonetheless, if one is to tutor others in the Iliad, one may elect to share all
these ancillary stories at the beginning to provide greater context. This approach is taken by Edith
Hamilton in her summary of the Iliad in her magisterial encyclopedia: Mythology: Timeless Tales of
Gods and Heroes.25 While somewhat fitting for a summary, such an approach arguably numbs the mind
to the subtleties of Homer, as one no longer has to carefully watch for allusions or note missing influences
or intentions. As such, and to rely more on Homer as the teacher, this guide will discuss such ancillary
stories as they correspond to Homer’s development of the text.
8. Who are the Muses?
The Muses are the nine daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. Homer invokes the
Muses for inspiration—to help him recall and tell the story of Achilles. The effect of the Muses is
23
24
Lattimore, 23.
25
Edith Hamilton, Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes (Black Dog & Levanthal Publishers: New York, 2017)
198.

captured in English by amuse and its opposite, bemuse. Other notable derivatives are music, museum,
and musings. In later Greek mythology, the nine muses were named and assigned patronages: “Clio was
Muse of history, Urania of astronomy, Melpomene of tragedy, Thalia of comedy, Terpsichore of the
dance, Calliope of epic poetry, Erato of love-poetry, Polyhymnia of songs to the gods, [and] Euterpe of
lyric poetry.”26 Homer’s invocation sets a template for later epic poetry. The Aeneid by the Roman poet
Virgil (70-19 BC), the Divine Comedy by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (AD 1265-1321), and Paradise
Lost by the English poet and protestant John Milton (AD 1608-1674) all invoke the Muses at the
beginning of their epic poems.
9. What should we know about Agamemnon and his family?
One may have noted that Agamemnon praises the concubine Chryseis over and above his own wife. The
high chieftain and king states: “I rank her higher than Clytemnestra, my wedded wife—she’s nothing
less in build or breeding, in mind or works of hand” (1.132-34). The relationship between Agamemnon
and his wife is one Homer will develop even into his sequel to the Iliad, the Odyssey. There is, however,
an ancillary story here that has already occurred and is never mentioned by Homer in either of his epics.
On their way to Troy, the thousand-ship fleet of the Achaeans anchored at the island of Aulis.27 The fleet
was unable to leave due to a persistent north wind. Desperate to leave, a prophet named Calchas revealed
that the goddess Artemis—the deity of the hunt, animals, care of children, etc.—was enraged because a
rabbit, sacred to the goddess, had been slain by the Achaeans. To appease her anger, Artemis demanded
that Iphigeneia, the daughter of Agamemnon, be sacrificed. As Hamilton records, “this was terrible to
all, but to her father hardly bearable,” but “his reputation was at stake, and his ambition to conquer Troy
and exalt Greece.”28 Agamemnon consented.
The problem, however, was that his daughter was back at home. As such, he wrote his wife that “he had
arranged a great marriage” for their daughter to Achilles. 29 Iphigeneia arrived, and “when she came to
her wedding, she was carried to the altar to be killed.”30 As written:
And all her prayers—cries of Father, Father,

Her maiden life,
These they held as nothing,
The savage warriors, battle-mad.31
The human sacrifice was accepted and the Achaean fleet permitted to leave. Though this narrative is not
mentioned by Homer, it is important context to the relation between Agamemnon and his wife.
Moreover, it is unfortunately not the last time human sacrifice will appear in the story of the Trojan war.
26
Hamilton, 33.
27
Hamilton, 200.
28
Hamilton, 200-01.
29
Hamilton, 201.
30
Hamilton, 201.
31
Hamilton, 201.

10. What is the role of the gods in the Iliad?
The Greek gods dwell on Mount Olympus and are ruled by the chief god, Zeus. As Lattimore observes,
“the gods of Homer are mainly immortal men and women, incomparably more powerful than mortals,
but like mortals susceptible to all human emotions and appetites, therefore capable of being teased,
flattered, enraged, seduced, chastised.”32 Each god has a patronage or represents “projections of feelings
or activities in the observed world.” 33 Phoebus Apollo, for example, is the god of archery, light, and
truth, and Pallas Athena, who emerged from the head of Zeus, is the goddess of wisdom. “To be a god,”
Fagles notes, “is to be totally absorbed in the exercise of one’s own power, the fulfillment of one’s own
nature, unchecked by any thought of others except as obstacles to be overcome.” 34 The Homeric
depiction of the gods—and also of characters such as Agamemnon and Achilles—as indomitable,
obsessive personalities serves as a template for the tragic characters of later classical Greek
playwrights.35
Though the opening of the Iliad marks the rage of Achilles against Agamemnon, it also mentions the
“will of Zeus” moving things toward their end. 36 A primary theme to unfurl throughout the Iliad is the
interplay between the will of the gods and the actions of man. Notably, the gods disagree. Hera, Athena,
and Poseidon support the Achaeans, while Apollo, Aphrodite, and Ares defend Troy. How much any
god, however, may stray from the will of Zeus is a matter of some debate. Moreover, though Zeus reigns
supreme on Mount Olympus, his will seems to encounter the boundaries of a nameless fate. Some see
Zeus as “thwarted by fate,” while others declare emphatically that “Zeus is not subject to fate.”37
Opportunities to explore these themes are abundant in the Iliad. As a preliminary, we may follow Fagles
who observes Homer presents “the idea of destiny, which is fixed, is flexible.” 38
11. What happens in the second half of book one?
Here, let us discuss the second half of the narrative of book one. The woman Briseis serves as a catalyst
for the brewing hatred between Achilles and Agamemnon. The latter explicitly tells Achilles: “I hate
you most of all the warlords loved by the gods” (1.208). Agamemnon views Achilles as a threat to his
rule; thus, he elects to take Achilles’ concubine to reinforce that he, not Achilles, is the superior (1.219,
334-41). Achilles begins to draw his sword against Agamemnon when he is checked by the goddess
Athena (1.229). Wisdom tempers rage. Note, however, that Athena tells him: “if only you will yield,”
which gives some insight into the cooperation of the human will with the divine (1.243). 39 Achilles then
makes an oath that gives structure to the entire text. He swears that a “yearning for Achilles will strike
Achaea’s sons and all your armies,” (1.281-2) and eventually makes clear he will retire to his ships and
no longer fight for his fellow Achaeans (1.342-55, 403). Agamemnon does in fact take Briseis from
Achilles (1.410) and returns Chrysis to her father alongside a penitential sacrifice to Apollo (1.525, 45).
32
Lattimore, 54.
33
Lattimore, 54.
34
Fagles, 45.
35
Fagles, 45.
36
Fagles, 38-41.
37
38
Fagles, 40.
39
Fagles, 39.

12. What is the importance of Achilles’ prayer to his mother?
Achilles prays to his mother, Thetis, to plead with Zeus “to help the Trojan cause” (1.485) in order to
avenge the disgrace he suffered by Agamemnon (1.421). Thetis, a sea nymph, is the daughter of Nereus,
the “Old Man of the Sea” (1.424), who is associated with the Mediterranean. 40 He is distinct and
subservient to Poseidon—the Lord of the Sea and the brother of Zeus and Hades. 41 Achilles recounts
how Thetis once unleashed the great sea beast Aegaeon to aid Zeus who the other Olympian gods had
attempted to shackle (1.470). Thus, Zeus is in Thetis’ debt, and she is positioned well to intercede for
Achilles. His mother vows to plead with Zeus (1.510), and she is successful in doing so (1.625). Note
even the subtle nod of his divine assent is marked by “giant shock waves,” and his word cannot be
revoked (1.629). This begins a series of requests by both gods and mortals that are woven together by
Zeus into the ultimate fate of Achilles and Troy.
As an aside, it should be noted that Thetis and Peleus, King of Phthia, were in fact married and Achilles
is their son, a demigod. Their wedding feast itself, however, holds an important insight into the genesis
of the Trojan war—an ancillary story not yet alluded to by Homer.42
13. Who are Hera & Hephaestus?
Hera is one of the deathless gods of Mount Olympus and the wife and sister of Zeus. She is the goddess
who cares for married women, though she is arguably most famous for punishing the women with whom
her husband has affairs. She is eternally suspicious of Zeus and, in the Iliad, bears an insatiable hatred
for Troy. Here, she is concerned that Zeus has assented to Thetis’ request, which will cause Achaeans to
be slaughtered against their ships (1.672). Note Hephaestus, the god of fire and forger of fantastic
weapons and artifacts, attempts to quell the dispute of Zeus and Hera (1.687). Hephaestus is unique
amongst the gods as he is both ugly and lame.43 When Hera saw Hephaestus was born crippled, she
tossed the infant fire god off Mount Olympus (18.462). At the end of book one, Hephaestus references
a separate event in which Zeus tossed him off Mount Olympus when the “crippled Smith” attempted to
protect Hera (1.711).44 In the Iliad, Hephaestus is married to one of the three Graces,45 but in Odyssey,
the fire god is married to Aphrodite, the goddess of love.46 The reader should take note of Hephaestus,
because, though he is good natured, his memory about his fall as an infant will play an important part in
fall of Troy.
40
Hamilton, 35, 198.
41
Hamilton, 35.
42
Hamilton, 198.
43
Hamilton, 30.
44
Fagles, 622; Hamilton, 30.
45
A triad of female goddesses embodying beauty and various auxiliary concepts.
46
Hamilton, 31.

Book Two
The Great Gathering of Armies
The rage of kings is strong—they’re nursed by the gods, their honor comes from Zeus—they’re dear to
Zeus, the god who rules the world.
Odysseus (2.226)
14. What happens in the second book of the Iliad?
Having accepted the petition of Thetis, Zeus sends a “murderous dream” to Agamemnon imploring him
to muster his army and attack Troy (2.07). It is notable that “Dream” is personified, as is the “Dawn,” as
a goddess (2.57), and Rumor, as “Zeus’ crier” (2.109). Agamemnon receives the dream and shares it
with his war council (2.63). The high king or chieftain of the Greeks then elects to test his men (2.86)
and tells the army Zeus commands them to return to “Argos in disgrace” (2.129). The men rush to the
ships to leave (2.174), but Hera sends Athena to intervene (2.183). Athena inspires Odysseus who in turn
rouses the men to stay—reminding them of Calchas’ prophecy they would conquer Troy in the tenth
year (2.386). Nestor, the oldest of the Achaean war lords, encourages the men to stay as well (2.398),
and, notably, Agamemnon only thanks Nestor afterward (2.439). There is then a roll call of the Achaean
kings (2.573). The book ends with a similar roll call for the Trojans, which serves to introduce Prince
Hector, commander of the Trojans and son of Priam, King of Troy (2.927).
15. What is the relation between Zeus and the kings of men?
Odysseus declares, “The rage of kings is strong, they’re nursed by the gods, their honor comes from
Zeus—they’re dear to Zeus, the god who rules the world” (2.226). Zeus’ governance of the world is, at
least in part, mediated through the kings of men. Homer provides such an example by Zeus working his
will by influencing the actions of Agamemnon via the dream (2.07). The episode sheds further light on
the relation between the will of Zeus and the free will of man. Note also, however, that the dream is a
deceit. The gods are not united and Troy is not prime to be destroyed (2.16). The Dream also takes on
the voice of Nestor (2.24). It is common for the gods to present their messages through faces familiar to
the recipient. In response to the dream, Agamemnon tests his men and tells them Zeus has “plotted brutal
treachery” and now commands they return home (2.134). The levels of irony and of deceit are notable.
As Zeus lied to Agamemnon, Agamemnon now lies to his men. Moreover, Agamemnon’s lie to his men
about Zeus’ treachery is more true than Agamemnon realizes.
16. Why is the dream repeated three times?
It is a common characteristic for messages to repeated in full within the Homeric epics. Outside the
benefit this would have for a bard, it also permits Homer a subtle literary device. Though the reader may
be tempted to a certain inattention by all the repetition, Homer often has retellings change, add, or omit
something. These small changes can have significant plot effects. A moderate example of this exercise
can be seen in the fact that Zeus does not state that he pities Agamemnon. Such a statement is a gloss
provided by Dream. To the extent such a statement could be true, it is certainly not true in the way
Agamemnon believes.

17. Who is Odysseus?
Odysseus, the Achaean who piloted the ship that returned Chryseis to her father in book one, is the king
of Ithaca. He is known for his cunning and his rhetoric. It is telling that Athena, the goddess of wisdom,
flies first to Odysseus to help unravel the knot Agamemnon has caused by his test (2.196); and more
telling that Odysseus “knew the goddess’ voice” (2.211). In the Iliad, the gods will work upon man in
various ways, but not all men have the capacity to discern it is the gods at work. It is another facet of the
interplay of divine providence and the actions of man. Finally, it is not unremarkable that Odysseus, and
not Agamemnon, bears the epithet of “a mastermind like Zeus” (2.197). We may draw a connection here
back to Athena, as Athena emerged from the head of Zeus. Given Zeus’ deceit upon Agamemnon,
however, we are left to wonder about the true nature of a man who bears such an epithet. Odysseus and
his character merit careful observation.
18. Who is Helen of Argos?
In book two of the Iliad, Homer provides a few broad references to the Achaeans warring in Troy for
Helen (2.189, 423, 682). The story of Helen would have been known to Homer’s ancient audience and
is an ancillary story to the Iliad (Question 7). Helen is a daughter of Zeus and was known throughout
ancient Greece for her goddess-like beauty. Her mother’s husband, King Tyndareus of Sparta, was
inundated with marriage proposals for the hand of Helen from every imaginable suitor in Greece. As
Hamilton records, the king “was afraid to select one among then, hearing that the others would unite
against him.”47 It was Odysseus who advised the Spartan king on how to deal with the suitors. 48
Following Odysseus’ plan, “he exacted first a solemn oath from all that they would champion the cause
of Helen’s husband, whoever he might be, if any wrong was done to him through his marriage.” 49 The
king then chose Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon, to marry Helen and become king of Sparta. As
Lattimore observes, “the oath of the suitors to Tyndareus is not mentioned in the Iliad,” least not
explicitly.50 Homer more fully develops the connection between Helen and the war in book three.
19. What is the significance of the roll call of Achaean warlords?
The listing of the Achaean chieftains and their peoples bears, for most people, a similar charm as the
genealogies in the Bible. A broad consideration here, however, would be that Homer includes such a
passage as a sign of Greek unity. As aforementioned (Question 1), ancient Greece was a collection of
independent city-states and for them to unite toward a common cause was unique. War amongst the city-
states was the norm. A clue to the importance of this passage is found in Homer’s threefold invocation
to the Muses (2.573, 787, 664). It also serves as a formal introduction to many of the characters. It also
tells us that the best warrior amongst the Achaeans, save Achilles, is Telamonian Ajax (2.873)—not to
be confused with “Little Ajax” (2.617). Achilles, per his promise, remains by his ships, and the Achaeans
awaiting his return provides much structure to the text (2.791).
47
Hamilton, 199.
48
Odysseus offered the advice in exchange for the Spartan king helping Odysseus in his courtship of Penelope. In the Odyssey,
Odysseus will have to deal with his own problem suitors.
49
Hamilton, 199.
50
Lattimore, 24.

Similarly, a short listing is made for the Trojans, which, amongst others, includes Prince Hector, Aeneas,
a son of Aphrodite (2.931), and Sarpedon, a son of Zeus (2.988).
20. What can be observed in the sacrifice made to Zeus?
Agamemnon prays to Zeus for victory, and Zeus denies his prayer—least for now (2.487). It is not
unremarkable that Agamemnon, as high king, offers the prayer and sacrifice to Zeus. He offers the fat
and bones to Father Zeus, while the meat is feasted upon by man. The allotment of the sacrifices finds
its genesis in a myth of the titan Prometheus. In addition to giving mankind the divine gift of fire,
Prometheus also tricked Zeus into choosing the bones and fat as the portion due to him.51 As Zeus’ will
is unalterable (Question 12), man may retain the best of sacrifice for his own feast. Recalling
Agamemnon’s murderous dream and his subsequent test of his men, it seems fitting that not even the
virtue of religion for the ancient Greeks, i.e., giving to the gods what is due to them, is free from cunning
and deceit. On a more positive tone, the sacrifice bears both a horizontal and vertical dimension; thus,
the sacrificial act binds man to both the gods and his fellow man. It is a political, cosmic act.
Book Three
Helen Reviews the Champions
Paris’ spirit shook, backing into his friendly ranks he cringed from death…
dreading Atrides—magnificent, brave Paris.
Iliad 3.35, 41
21. What happens in the third book of the Iliad?
The Achaean and Trojan armies line up against one another, and Paris, son of Priam and brother of
Hector, struts out and challenges the best of the Argives (i.e., the Achaeans) to single combat (3.21).
Menelaus, King of Sparta, answers the call, and Paris, upon seeing Menelaus, “cringed from death” and
hides back amongst the Trojans (3.36). Hector chastises Paris, and Paris then agrees to single combat
against Menelaus (3.84). The “challenge of Paris” is issued and accepted with the terms being that Helen
and her treasures go to the victor, and friendship will be sealed in blood between the Achaeans and the
Trojans (3.105). King Agamemnon and King Priam seal the challenge with an oath and sacrifice to Zeus
(3.129). When it is clear that Paris has lost the duel, Aphrodite swoops in and transports Paris to his
“bedroom full of scent” (3.439). Aphrodite coerces Helen to go to Paris, and Helen, at the longings of
Paris, makes love to him (3.460, 517). Meanwhile, Menelaus, Helen’s former (or actual) husband, is
outside Troy “like a wild beast,” and his brother, Agamemnon, declares Menelaus the winner (3.527,
536). Helen and her treasures should go to Menelaus and the Achaeans; friendship should be bound in
blood between Troy and the ancient Greeks; and the war should be over.
22. What is the story of Helen and Paris?
Homer continues to unravel slowly the narratives that brought about the Trojan war. As noted above
(Question 18), Menelaus was now the king of Sparta and husband to Helen, daughter of Zeus. Paris and
51
Hamilton, 72.

a contingency of Trojans visited Sparta and were welcomed warmly by Menelaus. 52 Menelaus left his
guests in good care to visit Crete, and in his absence Paris absconded with Helen to Troy. 53 Given the
oath secured by King Tyndareus (Question 18), Menelaus turned to all of ancient Greece to help him
return Helen to Sparta. Homer presents several references to Helen departing with Paris: Paris “carried
off a woman” (3.55); why Menelaus will not trust the oaths of the princes of Troy (3.129); Helen’s
emotions for Menelaus, her “husband long ago” (3.169); and Paris’ own account of sweeping Helen
away from the “lovely hills of Lacedaemon,” i.e., ancient Sparta (3.520). Notably, Homer introduces
Helen in book three weaving a “growing web, a dark red folding robe” as a clear analogue of the war
(3.151).
23. What are Trojan politics concerning Helen and Paris?
As book one revealed the complexities of Achaean politics, so too does book three reveal the internal
politics of the Trojans. In short, almost no one likes Paris. After Paris hides from Menelaus, Hector
chastises him saying, among other things, that it be better if Paris had never been born (3.45), he’s a
“curse” to his father, and a “joy” to the enemies of Troy (3.57-8). Moreover, the people of Troy seem to
want to give his new bride, Helen, back the Achaeans (3.191). Helen also laments that if she shares “that
coward’s bed once more” the women of Troy scorn her (3.476). Helen later wishes Paris had died at the
hands of Menelaus (3.500). She seemingly sleeps with Paris primarily out of fear of Aphrodite (3.486).
When Menelaus is looking for Paris after Aphrodite swept him away, it is mentioned that no one in the
Trojan army would help hide Paris (3.531).
It is remarkable that despite the hatred everyone else shows Paris, King Priam of Troy explicitly tells
Helen she is not to blame for the war (nor does he blame Paris) but rather blames the gods (3.199). What
is Helen’s culpability for the war? Homer presents her as showing contrition for leaving Menelaus
(3.218) and being forced into relations with Paris (3.460, 86). Such emotions would leave us with the
initial impression that Helen sees herself as culpable for leaving Menelaus but is now coupled with Paris
against her will by Aphrodite.
Whether King Priam’s statement to Helen is a father’s inability to lay blame on his own son or a more
penetrating insight than the rest of Trojans is left to be resolved. It is not unremarkable that Priam cannot
stay and watch his son Paris duel Menelaus (3.360). The character of King Priam continues to unfold.
24. What is guest-friendship?
When Menelaus appeals to Zeus to help him crush Paris, he references, in part, that an example should
be made of men who betray their host (3.412). An important concept amongst ancient Greece was what
may be called guest-friendship—an unwritten code of hospitality under the patronage of Zeus. A stranger
who presented to a house would be met with an overwhelming amount of warmth and generosity, to the
degree that many times guests were bathed and feasted long before the host even asked their name. The
guest, in a spirit of reciprocity, would often tell his host a story—often his own story. At the guest’s
departure, the host would often give the guest a magnificent present. Similar to the New Testament belief
that a man who hosts a stranger may be entertaining angels in disguise, the Greeks held that the stranger
52
Hamilton, 199.
53
Hamilton, 199.

at the door may be a god. 54 An example of this in Greek mythology is the story of a poor couple that
generously offer what food they have to two guests—not knowing said guests were Hermes and Zeus in
disguise.55 Guest-friendship will play a prominent role in the narrative of the Odyssey.
The generosity given and received creates a certain intimacy and vulnerability between the host and
guest; thus, if one or the other betrays that trust, he is condemned and cursed by Zeus. It is a human
relation cared for by the divine. It is this relation, amongst others, that Paris violated in absconding with
Helen.
25. What else should be noted in book three?
After Paris hides from Menelaus, Homer refers to Paris as “magnificent, brave Paris” (3.41). It is an
obvious use of irony that should alert us to be watchful for Homer’s more subtle uses of humor and
irony. When Helen describes the Archaean heroes to Priam, she says of Odysseus: “he’s quick at every
treachery under the sun—the man of twists and turns” (3.243-4). The latter half of Helen’s description
will be used later by Homer to open the Odyssey. She also reveals that Odysseus led a prior delegation
to the Trojans to try and resolve the war (3.247). In the tragic comedy that is Paris, we are left to wonder
whether Paris has his own armor, as he wears his brother’s in his duel with Menelaus (3.389). In the
classical era of Greece, tragic plays would often have such complicated, hopeless plots, that the only
resolution was for a god to come down at the end and resolve it. This was later known as deus ex machina
or god of the machine given the fact the actor involved would be lowered onto the stage by some
mechanism. The rescue of Paris by Aphrodite seems an ancient precursor to this plot device (3.439).
Book Four
The Truce Erupts in War
The Iliad is a poem that lives and moves and has its being in war.
Bernard Knox56
26. What happens in the four book of the Iliad?
Zeus taunts Hera with possibly supporting the truce and ending the war (4.17). Amongst the bickering,
Zeus reveals that he esteems Troy (Ilium) more than any other city, and its destruction is given to Hera
by Zeus of his own free will (4.50-58). Moreover, Zeus’ jest of supporting the truce seems a bit of theatre
given his promise to Thetis. Nonetheless, he sends Athena to do two things: first, ensure the Trojans
break the truce; and second, that the Trojans “trample the Argives in their triumph” (4.83-84). Athena
successfully tempts the Trojan archer Pandarus—who seems unable to perceive the goddess for who she
is—into shooting Menelaus (4.145). Athena deflects the arrow into a non-mortal wound, and
Agamemnon calls for the healer, Machaon, son of Asclepius, the god of medicine (4.223). With the truce
broken by the Trojans with no observable attempt from Hector or anyone else to diffuse the situation,
Agamemnon marshals his chieftains for war (4.257). The armies clash and various conflicts are recorded
54
“Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels unawares.” Hebrews 13:2.
55
The myth of Baucis and Philemon; Hamilton, 118.
56
Fagles, 35.

(4.517). The book ends with Apollo encouraging the Trojans, and Athena the Greeks (4.585, 596)—
while the edict of Zeus for the Trojans to triumph, at least temporally, remains pending.
27. Is the Iliad an accurate depiction of fighting in the Bronze Age?
“The Iliad is a poem that lives and moves and has its being in war,” as Knox observes. 57 The material of
war is bronze. Iron, a rarity, makes an appearance as a precious gift later in the poem.58 Book four
introduces the actual warfare, and we may observe that it presents as more individualistic than expected.
It is less group tactics and strategies and more individual feats of skill and bravado. Moreover, rarely are
the soldiers generic. The opponents are named and, later in the poem, entire backgrounds will be orated
prior to the toss of a spear. In fact, at times, it will seem as if the entire war stops while opponents share
genealogies and family histories before slaying one another. One may recall that Homer’s audience is
an aristocratic class of Greeks whose ancestors fought in the Trojan war. It is in their interest to hear of
the bravery (or cowardice) of their forefathers and their individual exploits. One could also compare
these duels to another bronze age duel: David and Goliath. In addition to the duels, Homer will make it
clear later in the work that the armies utilized a phalanx—“a disciplined line of overlapping shields”
while striking out with spears. 59
Another unique attribute of the warfare is the grasping for loot. The soldiers kill their opponents and
then attempt to take the corpse and strip it of its armor and goods. Homer will develop the rationale
behind this act, but, in short, to capture your opponent’s gear added to your glory (kleos).
28. Who is Cronus?
As Cronus (i.e., Cronos or Kronos) is referenced several times in book four. Who is he?
Homer and the Ancient Greek poets tell us that in the beginning there was the world, Gaia, and
the heavens, Uranus. The earth and the heavens came together and gave birth to the great and
powerful Titans—and the chief titan, Cronos, waged war against his own father and killed him
and ascended in power and ruled over the world.
In turn, Cronos had children—the Olympian gods—but fearing his children would dethrone him,
he ate them when they were born. Yet, at the birth of one of his sons, Cronos was tricked into
swallowing a stone and the young male child, named Zeus, escaped and grew strong and bold
until he led an assault against his own father and cast Cronos down—and Zeus, having defeated
his own father, became the chief god of Mount Olympus. From his throne, Zeus used his power
to live a life of adultery and manipulation. 60
Moreover, Cronus’ Latin name is Saturn and is the namesake of Saturday. He is the father of both Zeus
and Hera (4.69), and, though defeated, his name is generally used in an epithet for Zeus, i.e., “son of
Cronus” (4.192). It is worth mentioning that the epithet for Cronus is quite similar to the “man of twists
and turns” used for Odysseus (4.88).
57
Fagles, 35.
58
For the appearance of iron and its relation to the dating of the Iliad, see Fagles, 13.
59
Fagles, 25.
60
In praise of the Holy Family Against the Gods. Dcn. Harrison Garlick, Alcuin Institute for Catholic Culture, 12.6.21.

29. What else should be noted in book four?
The depth of Hera’s hatred for Troy is displayed in her offering up the cities she loves for destruction
(4.61). It is a hatred for which we continue to seek an origin. Along with the promise to Thetis, we should
now hold in our minds the Trojans breaking their oath and that oath-breaking bears a curse backed by
Zeus (4.180-91). One may judge Agamemnon’s lament for his brother’s impending death and whether
it is his relation with Menelaus or his own reputation that is primary (4.192-211). As we continue to
track the character of Odysseus, one may discern what is to be made of Agamemnon’s critique of
Odysseus “cowering” and letting others engage the fighting (4.394). Finally, Homer is famous for his
metaphors and what may be mined by their meaning. It is hard not to note the comical introduction of
the Trojan armies as ewes whose breasts are swollen with milk (4.503). Though Zeus has promised
Thetis a temporary Trojan victory, fate seems to have already marked the Trojans as lambs for slaughter.
Book Five
Diomedes Fights the Gods
Now take heart, Diomedes, fight it out with the Trojans!

Deep in your chest I’ve put your father’s strength.
Athena (5.137)
30. What happens in book five of the Iliad?
Athena grants Diomedes, an Achaean, power to fight the Trojans (5.01) and convinces Ares, who has
sided with the Trojans, to refrain from entering the fray (5.33). Diomedes is “smashing the Trojan lines
before him” (5.105) when Pandarus, the Trojan who previously broke the truce by shooting Menelaus,
shoots Diomedes (5.107). Diomedes is restored by Athena who tells him not to fight any of immortals
save Aphrodite and grants him the ability to see the gods (5.142). Diomedes delivers a brutal death to
Pandarus (5.321) and gravely wounds Aeneas (5.340). As she did for Paris, Aphrodite now attempts to
whisk Aeneas, her son, away from his immanent death, but Diomedes spears the immortal goddess in
the wrist (5.380). Apollo, who has to repel Diomedes several times, is able to rescue Aeneas and places
a “phantom” Aeneas on the battlefield (5.517). Apollo convinces Ares to return to the fight on behalf of
the Trojans (5.523). Sarpedon, son of Zeus, chides his fellow Trojan, prince Hector, for his lack of
courage in the face of the onslaught of Diomedes (5.540), and Aeneas, having been tended to by the
gods, returns to the battle (5.592).
Hector and Ares push the Trojans forward, and Diomedes—who was given the gift to see the gods by
Athena—warns his fellow Achaeans of the war god’s presence (5.694). Hera and Athena return to the
field of battle, and Athena assists Diomedes in spearing the god of war (5.989). A wounded Ares returns
to Olympus and, after a tirade against Athena to Zeus, is healed and then sits next to Zeus (5.1050).61
31. Is Athena or Ares the actual god of war?
61
Thank you to Grayson Quay of the Daily Caller for joining Adam Minihan and Dcn. Garlick on Ascend: The Great Books
Podcast to discuss Book V.

The more robust presentation of Athena in book five challenges our preliminary understanding of Athena
as the goddess of wisdom and Ares as the god of war. Note she arguably outwits Ares by having him
refrain from fighting (5.33) while she continues to intervene (5.136). Zeus seemingly defers to both
regarding war, as he tells the wounded Aphrodite that “Athena and blazing Ares will deal with all the
bloodshed” (5.494). Athena’s role is not reducible to simply influencing warriors, as she has her own
war-gear (5.841) and, after seeking Zeus’ blessing, Zeus states, “she’s the one—his match, a marvel at
bringing Ares down in pain” (5.880). Athena outwits Ares and helps Diomedes spear him in the bowels
(5.989).
In contrast, Ares is a “maniac” and without a “sense of justice” (5.874). He is “born for disaster, double-
dealing, lying two-faced god” (5.960). He a “butcher” (5.978). He is called the “war-god” (5.960), and
his “lust for slaughter never dies” (5.997). In short, Homer presents Ares as a god of slaughter, violence,
and chaos, while Athena retains her rationality in war—a goddess of tactics and strategy. 62 One recalls
here her affinity for Odysseus, the great tactician of the Achaeans.
At the end of book five, Homer gives a comical juxtaposition of Ares and Athena. The war-god is racked
with “self-pity” (5.1006) and “whining” to Zeus about Athena (5.1029). In the mouth of Ares, Homer
provides one of the earliest accounts of Athena’s origin: she emerged from the head of Zeus (5.1017).
The favor Zeus shows Athena, as described by Ares, is compared with the hatred Zeus shows to Ares,
i.e., “You—I hate you most of all the Olympian gods” (5.1030). A statement reminiscent of Agamemnon
to Achilles (1.208).
32. What should we make of the obedience of Diomedes?
Book five opens with Athena blessing Diomedes with power (5.01) and, after being shot by the archer
Pandarus, Athena blesses Diomedes with the “strength of his father,” Tydeus (5.137). As such, Diomedes
is often called “Tydides,” meaning “son of Tydeus.” Diomedes listens to Athena’s order to not engage
the gods save Aphrodite (5.142)—though he arguably pushes the boundary by charging Apollo who was
guarding the wounded Aeneas (5.495). One may observe that Aphrodite’s mother, Dione, 63 comforts her
daughter by describing the pain Diomedes’ wife will feel at his death—a fitting comfort for the goddess
of love (5.465). Moreover, in her attempt to assuage her daughter, Dione tells Aphrodite of other times
gods have suffered at the hands of mortals (5.431)—a series of tales that seem to have their sole origin
in the Iliad.64
Diomedes withdraws the Achaeans when he sees it is Ares approaching their ranks (5.694). Upon
Athena’s return, she chastises Diomedes as unworthy of his father, Tydeus, due to his retreat (5.920).
Diomedes’ response, however, seems tempered, as he responds that he was being obedient to her order
not engage an immortal save Aphrodite (5.944). Athena then calls him the “joy of her heart,” and they
62
Who then is “Queen Enyo” (5.681)? She is associated with Ares and, at times, his wife with whom he has a son, Enyalius
or Enyalios—though this name is also associated with Ares himself. She is presented as a goddess of war and as part of Ares’
entourage. Her Latin name is arguably Bellona. Her mythology is less distinct and robust as others. See, Companion, 229;
Hamilton, 30.
63
In the Iliad, Aphrodite is the daughter of Zeus and Dione, but in later mythology she simply rises from the sea. The identity
of Dione is somewhat obscure, but she may be associated with the sea; thus, the name Aphrodite is drawn from Aphros
meaning “foam,” as in “sea foam,” in Greek. Hamilton, 27-28.
64
Fagles, 625.

go to engage Ares (5.953). One may question whether Athena did not understand Diomedes was being
obedient to her command or whether her chastisement was a test of his piety.
33. Did Heracles already sack Troy?
In book five, we see the son of Heracles, Tlepolemus, an Achaean, position himself against Sarpedon,
the son of Zeus and member of the Trojan army (5.722). As Heracles—or Hercules in its Latin
derivative—is the son of Zeus, Homer notes this is essentially the grandson of Zeus against the son of
Zeus (5.725). It is notable that Tlepolemus asserts that his father, Heracles, has already “razed the walls
of Troy” (5.738). He refers to the time Laomedon, the king of Troy and father of Priam, “cheated Apollo
and Poseidon of their wages after at Zeus’ command they had built for the King the walls of Troy.” 65 In
response, Apollo sent a plague against Troy, and Poseidon sent a sea monster. The only way to satiate
the sea monster was to let it devour the daughter of the Trojan king. Heracles offers to defeat the sea
monster and rescue the king’s daughter in return for King Laomedon giving him horses that were
originally gifts from Zeus. The Trojan king agrees, and Heracles saves the princess; however, as he did
with Apollo and Poseidon, the king reneges and refuses Heracles the horses.
Heracles musters an army and sacks the city of Troy. It is remarkable that amongst Heracles’ army is
Telamon, the father of Giant Ajax or Telamonian Ajax, and also Peleus, the father of Achilles. 66
Furthermore, Heracles gives the Trojan princess to Telamon, and she becomes the mother of Ajax’s half-
brother, Teucer.67 As such, we learn that the famous walls of Troy were built by the gods at the command
of Zeus, and that the fathers of the two greatest Achaean warriors, Ajax and Achilles, have already sacked
Troy.
Returning to the duel, Sarpedon slays the son of Heracles, but he suffers a spear to the thigh (5.755).
Finally, it is notable that Sarpedon, who had previously criticized Hector for not being on the frontlines
(5.540), cries out to Hector for help (5.785). Homer provides the following line: “But Hector, his helmet
flashing, answered nothing—he swept past him, Hector burning to thrust the Argives back at once and
tear the life and soul out of whole battalions” (5.790). Sarpedon is laid below an oak sacred to Zeus
under which his wounds are tended (5.795).
34. What else should we observe in book five?
As Aphrodite saved Paris, we see Hephaestus saving the son of one of his priests (5.24). We are also
told of Phereclus, a Trojan, whom Athena loves most, “her protégé,” who built Paris his ships that were
“freighted with death for all of Troy”—a freight named Helen of Sparta (5.70). Athena’s love for this
Trojan affords him little, as he dies “screaming” speared through the buttocks and bladder (5.73). Homer
notes, “what could the man know of all the gods’ decrees” (5.71). This is another consideration in our
ongoing observance of the interplay between the providence of the gods and the actions of man. In
addition to the duels and looting (Question 27), Homeric warfare also centers on corpses. For example,
Aeneas stands over the broken body of Pandarus, his comrade, “like some lion” (5.332). We will need
to observe this aspect of the war, as it will become a crucial plot point to the text. We should also take
65
Hamilton, 181; Fagles notes that Apollo shepherded his flocks and Poseidon built the walls, see, 626.
66
Companion, 285.
67
Companion, 285.

note of another divine vow, as Hera discloses that she and Athena had vowed to Menelaus that he would
“sack the mighty walls of Troy” (5.820).
Book Six
Hector Returns to Troy
Always be the best, my boy, the bravest, and hold your head up high above the others.
Never disgrace the generation of your fathers.
Hippolochus to Glaucus, his son (6.247)
35. What happens in book six of the Iliad?
Pressed against an Achaean advance led by Ajax and Diomedes, Hector and Aeneas receive word of an
omen from Helenus, son of Priam, the seer (6.88). The Trojan army is to hold the line, while Hector is
to return to Troy and direct his mother, the queen of Troy, to arrange a sacrifice to Athena—a sacrifice
to entice the goddess of wisdom to pity Troy and hold back Diomedes (6.102). Hector obeys and returns
to the palace of Priam—a magnificent structure that houses the fifty sons and twelve daughters of King
Priam (6.291). Hector tells Hecuba, his mother and queen of Troy, to perform the sacrifice (6.318). It is
notable that she is to lay before Athena the robe she personally prizes the most, which illuminates the
personal sacrifice being ask of her (6.323). Hecuba obeys, but Athena refuses to listen to the Trojan
prayers (6.366). It is not unremarkable that Homer immediately follows Athena’s rejection with the
introduction of Paris into the narrative (6.368).
Hector chastises Paris—who has remained in his bedroom since his duel with Menelaus—and exhorts
him to return to the war (6.383). Before returning to the war, Hector visits his wife, Andromache, and
his son Scamandrius, who the Trojans affectionately call the “Lord of the City” (6.477). Hector then
rendezvouses with his brother, Paris, and returns to fight the Achaeans (6.601).
36. What should be noted in the duel between Glaucus and Diomedes?
After we see Hector begins his return to Troy, we are introduced to the duel between Glaucus, the Trojan,
and Diomedes, the Achaean (6.138). Diomedes, whom Homer gives the epithet usually reserved for
Menelaus—“the lord of the war cry”—taunts his opponent but notably gives the caveat he will not fight
a deathless god in disguise (6.148). He is still obedient to Athena’s command to not fight the gods—
save Aphrodite (5.142).68 At first, Glaucus provides a somewhat nihilistic response, stating, in part, “like
the generations of leaves, the lives of mortal men” (6.171). He then, however, begins his lineage with
Sisyphus, “the wiliest man alive,” who is a prominent figure in Greek mythology (6.180). To wit,
Sisyphus had a habit of wanting to outsmart the gods, and this resulted in him being damned to Hades
to roll a stone up a hill (only to have it roll back down) for all eternity. 69 His son, Glaucus (the great-
68
As an aside, Diomedes references the maenads of Dionysus (6.153). These are the “madwomen,” the “female devotees of
the god Dionysus who range the hills in ecstasy” (see Fagles, 626). As Fagles notes, Homer presenting Dionysus as afraid of
a mortal and sheltering with Thetis, Achilles’ mother, is quite different than the terrifying Dionysus presented several hundred
years later in Euripides’ play Bacchae (c. 405 BC) (see Fagles, 626). The development of the cult of Dionysus into one of
madness and primal vitalism (sex and violence) will be central to the lessons on erotic love Plato’s Symposium.
69
Hamilton, 143-44.

grandfather of the Glaucus dueling Diomedes) decided to habituate his horses to eating “human flesh to
make them fierce in battle.”70 For this horrific act, the gods ensured Glaucus was tossed from his chariot
and devoured by his own horses.71 His son Bellerophon, who may have been sired by Poseidon instead,
is a classic hero in Greek mythology. 72
The narrative of Antea being unable to seduce Bellerophon but then blaming him for lusting after her
(6.188) bears many similarities with the Hebrew story of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife (Gen 39:5-20).
Bellerophon carries his own death sentence to Antea’s father, and the king of Lycia’s welcome to
Bellerophon—nine days of feasting before asking him his business—recalls the importance of guest-
friendship for the ancient Greeks (Question 24).73 The king attempts to comply with the letter by
ordering Bellerophon to slay the Chimera—a part lion, part serpent, and part goat monster (6.212).
Homer does not mention that Bellerophon had tamed the famous winged horse, Pegasus, and it was upon
Pegasus that Bellerophon was able to slay the Chimera.74 Bellerophon had three children, and it is notable
that the Trojan warrior Sarpedon (Question 33) is the son of Bellerophon’s daughter, Laodamia, and
Zeus (6.233). Glaucus is the son of Bellerophon’s son, Hippolochus. The peace Diomedes makes with
Glaucus is a testament to the resilient power of guest-friendship, even over generations (6.259). Why
Zeus, in his providence, elects to steal Glaucus’ wits in the exchange of gifts is a matter of some debate
(6.280).
37. What may be noted in Helen’s lament to Prince Hector?
As we track the culpability of Helen for absconding with Paris (Question 18, 22), we should give care
to her short monologue to Hector when he comes to rouse Paris back to the war (6.406). Helen continues
to show contrition and remorse, as she refers to herself as a “bitch” and a “whore” (6.408, 422). She also
states, “I wish I had been the wife of a better man, someone alive to outrage,” which leaves Homer’s
audience immediately thinking of Menelaus, the Spartan king (6.415). Helen critiques Paris’ lack of
spirit and portrays him as “blind mad Paris,” a reference reasonably interpreted as the effect of his lust
(6.423).
Helen’s short speech presents certain similarities to two distinct texts in the Bible. First, she laments the
day of her birth by wishing some “black whirlwind” would have left her exposed on the mountainside
or upon the beach to be swallowed by the waves (6.410). Her words recall a certain comparison to the
Old Testament story of Job in which he too curses the day of his birth (Job 3). Second, Helen states:
“Zeus planted a killing doom within us both, so even for generations still unborn we will live in song”
(6.424). Her words present as a horrific contrary to the words of the Blessed Virgin Mary who, after
being impregnated with Jesus by the Holy Spirit, sings, in part: “henceforth all generations will call me
blessed” (Luke 1:48).
Helen’s words also evoke the ongoing question of the interplay between the free will of man and the
providence of the gods. Along with the aforementioned statements, she also avers “since the gods
70
Hamilton, 144.
71
Hamilton, 144.
72
See Hamilton, 144-46.
73
Moreover, Bellerophon carrying his own death sentence to Antea’s father is reminiscent of the fate of Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern in Shakespeare’s Hamlet.
74
Hamilton, 145; Companion, 142.

ordained it all,” and, as mentioned, posits that Zeus rooted in her and Paris a “doom” that is coming to
fruition (6.414, 424). Did Helen have a free choice in absconding with Paris or what it more an
abduction? Does she now stay with Paris of her own free will or is she coerced by Aphrodite? Helen is,
without question, a conflicted character.
38. What lesson does Homer provide by Hector returning to Troy?
The ancient notion of piety is one of gratitude. A man who is thankful and humble before the gods is a
pious man. The notion of piety, however, is also extended to the polis and to the family; because, as a
man is in debt to the gods, he is also in debt to his country and to his family. The presentation of Hector
in book six is an invitation to consider his piety. 75 It is notable that Hector, upon entering Troy, exhorts
his fellow citizens to “pray to the gods,” and, furthermore, he refuses to pour a libation to Zeus due to
his “unwashed hands,” i.e., he’s covered in blood and grime (6.286, 315). He displays a certain piety
toward the gods—one that should be coupled with the fact the omen elected him to return to Troy to
arrange a sacrifice the goddess Athena (6.102).
Though he is arguably not without fault (5.540), Hector’s piety toward Troy is evidenced in his
leadership of the Trojans and his defense of Troy. It is notable that his wife, Andromache, critiques
Hector’s habit of fighting on the front lines and asks him to “pity” her (6.511, 482). Andromache’s words
may be seen as a temptation against piety. Piety exists in hierarchy moving from higher to the lower—
the gods, the polis, and the family. As the Iliad painfully demonstrates, the polis cannot survive without
the gods any more than a family can without the polis; thus, one must be pious in due order. Hector
rejects the temptation of Andromache not by rejecting his family but by caring for it within the proper
whole (6.523).
39. Is Homer presenting Hector as a virtuous character?
Hector displays many characteristics we would refer to as virtues. He is brave, magnanimous, and pious.
The narrative of him seeing his wife and son in Troy is a charming testament to Hector’s character
(6.462). Though not without his shortcomings, Hector presents to us as a virtuous leader. This is,
however, us looking back at Hector as moderns through the more robust virtue tradition of Aristotle and
St. Thomas Aquinas. What was virtue for Homer?
In the Greek, the term arete means “excellence.” While its ancient etymology is somewhat obscure, it
may be derived from Ares, the god of war, and recall excellence in battle. By the fourth century B.C.,
however, Plato uses the term arete, translated “virtue” in English, to speak about the excellence of things
broadly. For example, in Socrates’ dialogue with Polemarchus and later with Thrasymachus, Socrates
speaks of the arete of dogs, horses, and his classic example of the pruning knife. 76 Here, Socrates attaches
the excellence of a thing, its virtue, to it fulfilling its purpose, end, or telos. In other words, if we know
the purpose or telos of a thing, we can determine whether its quality is good or bad. For example, if the
purpose of the knife is to cut, then a good knife would be sharp and a bad knife would be dull. The
75
The ancient notion of piety presented by Homer is more nascent and less developed than say Virgil writing about Aeneas
in the Aeneid (19 BC). The basic infrastructure, however, of piety toward the gods, the polis, and the family is observable in
the Iliad. For a more robust understanding, see St. Thomas Aquinas’ treatment in his Summa Theologica, in which he relies
heavily on the Roman orator, Cicero (II-II.101).
76
Republic, 335b; 353a.

quality of being sharp would be a virtue or arete of the knife—its excellence. We could also then tell
what is good or bad for the knife—a whetstone would be good for the knife while anything that dulled
it would be bad.
What then is the telos of the human being? To understand whether a man is good or bad, virtuous or
vicious, we must know the purpose of a man. This question will be taken up explicitly by Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle. In Homer, however, we are presented with the very beginning of the virtue tradition. A
primary question is whether Homer’s concept of virtue is limited to prowess in war or is he pushing his
aristocratic Greek audience to start to think of virtue, the excellence of a human being, as something
more.77 If virtue is simply military might, to be like the war-god Ares, then Achilles is no doubt the most
virtuous character of the Iliad. If virtue is to be more broadly construed as an overall excellence of man,
then the reader is often drawn to Hector.
We should ponder Homer’s intent with presenting a character like Hector, a Trojan, to his Greek
audience. The warmth of Hector seeing his family in Troy is a clear contrast to the opening story of
Achilles and Agamemnon fighting over a slave girl—with all its trappings of rage and pride (Question
1). Moreover, compare Hector refusing to not return to the front lines (6.521) with Achilles sitting idle
by his ships while his countrymen die. What is Homer teaching his audience, teaching us, with the
character of Hector? It is a question to ponder as evidence of Homer’s intent matures throughout the
Iliad.
40. What else should we observe in book six?
Homer gives us the first narrative of a solider taken captive (6.44). We see again the action of the
supplicant hugging the knees of the person with whom he’s pleading (6.53)—as Thetis did to Zeus.
Notably, Menelaus is “moved” by the captive’s words and is about to take him for ransom when
Agamemnon berates him and spears Menelaus’ Trojan captive (6.68). The same pericope gives us a
mention of iron as a precious treasure (6.56). The Iliad, which is set in the bronze age, makes a few
notable references to iron—primarily as a precious material. 78
One could debate the significance that neither Helen nor Andromache join Hecuba and the other noble
women in making the sacrifice to Athena (6.406, 455). We are also introduced to the fact that Achilles
killed Andromache’s father and her seven brothers (6.491) and ransomed her mother back to her father’s
house—who was then killed by Artemis, the goddess (6.504). One should note that Achilles treated
Andromache’s father’s body with respect (6.495), as how Achilles treats the dead will be a point of later
discussion.
The perennial question into fate is further developed in the text. Observe that Hector declares he will
“stand up bravely, always to fight in the front ranks of Trojans,” despite knowing that Troy is doomed
to die (6.528). He also desires to die prior to hearing his wife’s cries, as she is dragged into slavery by
the Achaeans (6.554). The sorrowful narrative of the fated end of Troy, Hector, and Andromache is
contrasted with the warmth and laughter of Hector holding his son. Only after his son recoils does Hector
finally remove his war helm (6.564). Moving from soldier to father, Hector kisses him, playfully tosses
him in the air, and prays to Zeus for his son (6.566). It is notable that Hector discusses his fate and that
77
Most notably, Homer does use arete to describe a woman, Odysseus’ wife, Penelope.
78
See Fagles, 13.

of his wife assuming Troy will fall but does not do so with his son. The unspoken shadow here is that it
would be a common fate for the child to be tossed from the walls of the conquered polis. One may see
Agamemnon’s cruelty to Menelaus’ captive and his statement afterward of what will happen to the
citizens of Troy as somewhat haunting this passage of Hector and his family (6.68).
Hector addresses fate directly, stating: “No man will hurl me down to Death, against my fate. And fate?
No one alive has ever escaped it, neither brave man nor coward, I tell you—it’s born with us the day that
we are born” (6.581). Andromache has her own reaction to fate—she returns to her and Hector’s home,
stirs the women of the house into mourning, and raises the “dirges for the dead” for her still alive husband
(6.596). The intimate dialogue of Hector and his wife on fate stands in contrast to Hector’s concluding
comment to Paris (6.627). He gives encouragement to Paris and speaks of driving the Argives out of
Troy, if Zeus permits (6.631). The reader is left to decide whether Hector is simply playing the role of
an encouraging leader—despite knowing in his heart Troy will die (6.528)—or does Hector truly have
some hope that Troy will survive the Achaean assault.
The long ancillary story into the multigenerational guest-friendship forged between the families of
Glaucus and Diomedes coupled with the story of Hector seeing his son and wife gives book six a notable
familial theme.
Book Seven
Ajax Duels with Hector
War—I know it well, and the butchery of men.
Hector (7.276)
41. What happens in book seven?
Hector and Paris lead the “rampaging Trojans” on a counteroffensive against the Achaeans (7.19).
Athena goes to intervene, but Apollo convinces her to “halt the war and the heat of combat now” to
presumably save the Trojans from Athena’s wrath (7.34). To do this, Athena inspires Helenus, one of
the fifty sons of Priam, that the gods have commanded that Hector challenge the bravest Achaean to
single combat (7.58). Hector makes the challenge, and it should be noted that the victor can retain the
war gear of the deceased—but the body of the loser will be given back to his people for full burial rites
(7.92). Homer says a “hushed silence went through the Achaean ranks, ashamed to refuse, afraid to take
his challenges” (7.106). Menelaus stands to take the challenge, but his brother, Agamemnon, talks him
down—one may once again ponder whether Agamemnon cares more for his brother or cares more that
Menelaus’ death might demotivate the Achaeans and end the Trojan war.
Nestor, the old Achaean war chief, gives an oration on how if he was younger he would best Hector and
taunts his “spineless” comrades (7.183). Nine Achaeans respond to the challenge and enter a lottery to
see who fate selects (7.202). Giant Ajax is selected and his heart is filled with joy (7.220). Ajax and
Hector duel, and Ajax arguably has the better of Hector who must be assisted by Apollo—but the duel
ends at a draw due to nightfall (7.322). Both sides then separately come to the decision that the next day
should have a break in the fighting in order that the dead may be given their ritual burials (7.380, 432).
The parties make an oath to this effect (7.476) and bury their dead.

42. What else should we observe in book seven?
We continue to track the theme of fate. Apollo speaks of the “fixed doom of Troy” (7.35), and Hector,
when speaking to the Achaeans, says Zeus could give the victory to either side (7.80). It is interesting
that Ajax at first wants his comrades to pray but not out loud (7.224)—presumably so their prayers are
not construed as him or the Achaeans being afraid (7.226). Attention should be given to the Trojan
Antenor who both declares that Troy, having broken the truce, “fight as outlaws,” and recommends they
give back Helen and all her treasures (7.400). His statement on the truce to his fellow Trojans is much
more direct than Hector’s statement to the Achaeans blaming Zeus (7.80). Paris refuses to offer Helen
but agrees to offer the treasure—it is notable that Priam, who agrees not to offer Helen, blames Paris
“who caused our long hard campaign” (7.430). Compare his statement to when he told Helen it was the
fault of the gods (Question 23). We should ponder to what degree these statements are contradictory to
each other. Remember when messengers repeat lines, Homer uses these opportunities to add a gloss (or
an omission). Here, the Trojan messenger for Priam to the Achaeans adds that he wishes Paris would
have drowned (7.450) and that Helen is the “lawful wife” of Menelaus (7.452). Another insight into the
Trojan view of Paris.
The end of book seven should be seen as introducing the reader to the importance of burying the dead—
a theme that will take on central significance in the Iliad. Moreover, note that Poseidon laments that the
Achaeans are building ramparts and an “enormous trench” (7.520). In other words, the Achaeans are
building military defenses under the guise of building burial mounds for the dead. Poseidon, who is
concerned the world will forget he and Apollo built the walls of Troy, is referencing the aforementioned
myth of when Heracles sacked Troy (Question 33). The book ends with an insight into the Greek supply
chain (7.540) and the notable juxtaposition of prayers to Father Zeus and Zeus plotting “fresh disaster”
(7.551).
Book Eight
The Tide of Battle Turns
Many attempts have been made to reconcile these two ideas, to assert the overriding power of Zeus’s
will on the one hand, or that of a nameless destiny on the other.
Knox79
43. What happens in book eight?
Zeus issues a new, “strict decree” that the gods are no longer to help the Achaeans or the Trojans in order
that Zeus may “bring this violent business to an end” (8.08). The gods are in “stunned silence” when
Athena acknowledges Father Zeus’ command but also provides the caveat that she’ll “simply offer the
Argives tactics” (8.42). As the fighting begins anew, Zeus holds out his “sacred golden scales” of fate,
and they show a “day of doom” for the Achaeans, the Greeks (8.85). Zeus makes known this judgment
by letting loose his lightning and thunder against the Argives (8.89), and as they retreat, Nestor is left
behind—because Prince Paris shoots his horse (8.97). Diomedes charges the front lines by himself and
saves Nestor using the horses he took from Aeneas (8.116); but then he also decides to charge Troy alone
79
Fagles, 40.

in an attempt to kill Hector (8.129). Diomedes turns around, however, due to the advice of Nestor and
the lightning and thunder of Zeus (8.163).
Hector, bolstered by Zeus’ favor, leads Troy in an onslaught against the Argives (8.197). The goddess
Hera, who is raging in Olympus, first tempts Poseidon to intervene against Zeus’ decree, but Poseidon
wisely declines to fight Zeus (8.239). Hera inspires Agamemnon (8.250), the Achaean high chieftain
inspires his men and cries out to Zeus for mercy (8.271). Zeus, moved by the weeping of Agamemnon
(8.280), sends an eagle as an omen that the Argives may turn and fight (8.282). Zeus, however, favors
the Trojans, and Hector leads an assault with eyes blazing like the war god, Ares (8.383, 398). Having
failed to tempt Poseidon, Hera tempts Athena to intervene against Zeus’ decree, and Athena acquiesces
and prepares for war (8.401). Zeus sends Iris, the messenger goddess, to Hera and Athena, and the two
goddesses, not wanting to war with Zeus, call off their return to the battlefield (8.490). On Olympus,
Zeus partially reveals his plan to Hera and Athena, the so-called “doom of Zeus” (8.551)—that there
will be a battle over the body of Patroclus, friend of Achilles. Hector pushes the advance against the
Greeks until nightfall, and the Trojans, the Achaeans, and the gods all wait for “Dawn to mount her
glowing throne” (8.654).
44. Do the Achaeans actually need Achilles?
The movement of book eight is largely structured by Zeus’ promise to Thetis—that the Trojans would
prosper until King Agamemnon sees his need for Achilles (8.423). Often times, however, this is read as
a self-fulfilling prophecy. In other words, that the lack of Achilles on the battlefield will inevitably lead
to a Trojan advancement; yet, in contrast, it would seem that Homer presents a situation in which Zeus
must bless the Trojans or the Argives will win even without Achilles. For example, examine the role of
Diomedes. First, the Trojans have already stated they fear Diomedes more than they even did Achilles.
Second, when Diomedes charges the Trojans to kill Hector while the rest Achaeans are in retreat (8.129),
one would suspect this to be a death sentence carried out by the Trojans; yet, Zeus sends Diomedes one
lightning strikes and three clashes of thunder to convince Diomedes not to engage the Trojans (8.192).
Why does Zeus do this? One argument would be that it is for the benefit of Hector who, despite the
current situation, will die to Diomedes—which would at least complicate Zeus’ dictate for a Trojan
advance (4.83-84). Recall that Ajax arguably already bested Hector in a duel and would have died not
for Apollo’s intervention (7.322).
To unearth Homer’s intent, it seems worthwhile to engage the hypothetical of what would happen if
Achilles refused to fight and the two armies were allowed to fight without divine interference. Simply
because Achilles is the best warlord amongst the Achaeans does not mean he is necessary for their victory
over Troy.
45. What is the relationship between Athena and Zeus?
Book eight provides another look into the intimate relationship between Athena and Zeus. At the end of
book four, Ares tells us that Athena sprung from the head of Zeus, and that Zeus greatly favors her. That
favored relationship, however, is in conflict in book eight. Athena states: “Zeus hates me now. He fulfills
the plans of Thetis” (8.423). Yet, she states, “but the day will come when Father, well I know, calls me
his darling gray-eyed girl again” (8.427). Even when she prepares for war against the Father’s command,
she still dons his battle-shirt of lightning (8.442). Zeus makes a similar statement, as he is commanding

Iris to tell Hera and Athena to stand down. He states, “So that grey-eyed girl of mine may learn what it
means to fight against her Father” (8.465). Note also that when Iris gives the message to Athena and
Hera, Iris comments that Zeus is less angry at his wife, Hera, as her actions are expected (8.483). But to
Athena, Iris calls her a “insolent brazen bitch” who would “really dare to shake that monstrous spear in
Father’s face” (8.485). The closeness between Athena and Zeus makes her actions more insulting. The
relation between Zeus and Athena is somewhat tender as far as Hellenic gods are concerned, though
Zeus is certainly no paragon of fatherhood. Despite Athena and Hera obeying him, he mocks them
(8.515). Athena is quiet, but Hera—her strategy of open disobedience having failed—now employs
Athena’s first strategy of a caveat of helping with tactics (8.539). It would appear the goddess of wisdom
allowed the rage of Hera to tempt her into a decision less prudent than her own.
46. What else should be observed in book eight?
One of the key texts of understanding the distinction between Zeus and fate appears in book eight: the
sequence with the golden scales (8.81). Some commentators see a Homeric tension between the will of
Zeus and a nameless fate, while others confidently declare: “Zeus is not subject to fate.”80 The latter sees
the scales as simply a “ceremony representing compromise with a different view.” 81 In other words, fate
is simply the alter ego of Zeus. Homer will provide further opportunities to explore the will of Zeus and
its relation to the nameless fate. Once again, Homer refers to the Trojans as “sheep” (8.150).
Andromache’s unique care for Hector’s horses is notable (8.211), as is the appearance of Ajax’s half-
brother, Teucer (8.307)—whose mother was a Trojan princess.
We may also debate whether Apollo defies Zeus’ strict decree to not intervene by protecting Hector from
an arrow (8.356). Observe that Homer describes Hector with eyes “glaring bright” like Ares and then
uses Arean (i.e., like Ares) language, e.g., “hacked to pieces” and “this maniac,” to describe Hector’s
actions (8.397, 406). The text ends with Troy being placed on alert, because its army is camping away
from the city, which includes a reference to the towers of Troy being “built by the gods” (8.602)—a
citation to the myth of King Laomedon.
Amongst all the important aspects of book eight, the body of Patroclus, friend of Achilles, lending to the
“doom of Zeus,” is the most important to note (8.550).
Book Nine
The Embassy to Achilles
But now at last, stop, Achilles—let your heart-devouring anger go!
Odysseus (9.307)
47. What happens in book nine?
Night has fallen. As the Trojans set their watch, the Achaeans are distraught and panicked (9.02). King
Agamemnon despairs and tells his men to sail home (9.31). After a long silence, Diomedes tells
Agamemnon to “sail away” (9.49), but Diomedes and company will stay and fight until the “fixed doom
80
Fagles, 40-41; Lattimore, 54.
81
Lattimore, 54.

of Troy” occurs (9.56). Nestor, the old Achaean war chief, exhorts Agamemnon to have the night sentries
take their posts (9.76) and to throw a feast of “grand hospitality” for his senior chieftains (9.80).
Agamemnon obeys and, at the feast, Nestor appeals to Agamemnon to make peace with Achilles (9.122).
Agamemnon again follows Nestor’s lead. He sends Odysseus, Ajax, and Phoenix (9.201) with the
promise that Agamemnon will return Briseis to Achilles along with hordes of treasure and more treasure
to come when Troy falls (9.146).
The embassy finds Achilles playing the lyre by his ships (9.222). Achilles greets them warmly and each
member of delegation attempts to convince Achilles to return to the war and save the Argives. But
Achilles still harbors an undying rage against Agamemnon, stating: “I hate that man like the very Gates
of Death” (9.379). Agamemnon has wounded the honor of Achilles and no gifts can undo that fact
(9.470). Achilles even tells Odysseus that Agamemnon can keep and enjoy Briseis (9.407). The heart of
Achilles “still heaves with rage” (9.789), and he will not even think of “arming for bloody war again”
until Hector has slaughtered the Argives all the way to his own ship (9.795). The embassy reports back
to Agamemnon and, as they were all “struck dumb,” Diomedes rallies the chieftains and tells
Agamemnon to fight on the front lines tomorrow (9.865). The Achaeans, who are stirred by the speech,
make their offerings to Zeus and go to sleep awaiting the dawn (9.866).
48. Who is Phoenix?
Phoenix, an Achaean, was charged by Peleus, Achilles’ father, to train Achilles in war and rhetoric
(9.533). Regarding his own background, Phoenix tells the story of sleeping with his father’s concubine,
at his mother’s request, and his father finding out (9.549). Phoenix runs away from home, and Peleus
welcomes him into his home as a son (9.583). One may observe the similarity that Phoenix’s past and
Achilles’ present both hinge on a concubine or slave-girl. Phoenix claims to Achilles: “I made you what
you are—strong as the gods… I loved you from the heart” (9.587). He expresses his love for Achilles,
as a man who knew he’d never have his own son (9.595). In fact, he leverages this into an argument
stating: “I made you my son, I tried, so someday you might fight disaster off my back” (9.600). He then
gives an explanation of the Prayers of Zeus, personified, who “heal the wounds of mankind” (6.117).
The explicit appeal to family and then to the gods (to save his people) invites another comparison
between Achilles and Hector—whose piety toward family, polis, and the gods was on display in book
six. Phoenix’s appeal to the ancient story of Meleager is such a close parallel to Achilles’ current
situation that it is believed to be a Homeric invention (9.646).82 Despite his appeal that the Achaeans
will honor Achilles “like a god” (9.734), Achilles only sees Phoenix as currying favor of Agamemnon
(9.748). Though he rejects his arguments, Achilles invites Phoenix to spend the night with him and
discern leaving for home in the morning (9.755).
49. What is the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus?
Homer presents Patroclus as the “great friend” of Achilles (9.246). Similar to Phoenix, Patroclus was a
runaway who found refuge in the house of King Peleus, Achilles’ father. 83 Peleus assigned Patroclus as
the personal attendant to the slightly younger Achilles,84 and this subservient relation between the “great
friends” is notable in book nine (9.242, 246, 263, et al.). Homer does not at any point, however, present
82
Fagles, 628.
83
Companion, 426.
84
Companion, 426.

Achilles and Patroclus as homosexual lovers. 85 It is a popular modern read of the text, but such a read
cannot be reduced to simply a modern ideological rewrite—the idea that Achilles and Patroclus are
homosexuals is an ancient one. Though completely absent from Homer, the idea that Achilles and
Patroclus were lovers was popular over four hundred years after Homer in the classical Greek era. In
that time, homosexuality and pederasty had become popular amongst the aristocratic class in Greece.
The playwright Aeschylus (c. 525 B.C.) wrote a play, now lost, that presented the two Achaeans as
homosexual lovers.86 The playwright is referenced by Phaedrus in Plato’s Symposium, and Phaedrus also
presents Achilles and Patroclus as lovers. 87 What happened in Greek culture between Homer and Plato
to popularize homosexuality (including pederasty) in Greek culture is a matter of some debate, but it
may align with the advent of the reworked cult of Dionysus.88
It is also noteworthy that the classical Greek scholar on Homer and first librarian of the famous library
at Alexandria, Zenodotus (c. 330 B.C.), held that presenting Achilles and Patroclus as lovers was a
classical interjection into the Homeric text. 89
50. What effect does the embassy have on Achilles?
Odysseus, Phoenix, and Ajax all present arguments as to why Achilles should rejoin the war. One may
argue that the embassy was effective, as Achilles’ answer to each shows him moving closer to rejoining
the war. For example, to Odysseus he states he is sailing home in the morning (and everyone else should
as well) (9.437, 507); to Phoenix he states he will decide whether to leave in the morning (9.755); and
to Ajax he states he will not fight again until Argives are being slaughtered and their ships are on fire
(9.795). As such, one may argue that the embassy was effective in moving Achilles closer to rejoining
the war.
Another perspective, however, would be that Achilles has no intention of sailing home. One may
question why, if Achilles was on the cusp of sailing home the next morning, he had not done so already.
Therefore, the threat of sailing home is a pretense, and one that is dropped by the end of his dialogue
with the Achaean delegates. The rage of Achilles will not be sated until his Achaean brothers are being
slaughtered and almost all hope has gone. It is less that the embassy moved him to this position but more
their arguments removed any veneer to Achilles’ rage and desire for glory.
51. What else should be noted in the embassy to Achilles?
There are a few other noteworthy aspects of the embassy to Achilles. Agamemnon’s offer of one of his
daughters to Achilles (9.170) recalls the horrific fate of Iphigeneia who was offered as a human sacrifice
to Artemis after being tricked into thinking she was to marry Achilles (Question 9). Notice that
Odysseus, as a messenger of Agamemnon, does not repeat the high chieftain’s statement that Achilles
must a submit to him, the “greater man” (9.188, cf. 362). Achilles’ rage and its temptations seems to
have been well-known to Achilles’ father, Peleus (9.307). Despite Achilles’ statement of loving Briseis
85
Fagles, 53; see also, Plato, The Symposium, trans. R.E. Allen (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1991), 18, fn. 29.
86
Companion, 5.
87
179E, 180A.
88
Another change between these eras is how women are treated, see Allen, 18, fn. 29; also, fn. 60 of this guide concerning
the maenads.
89
Fagles, 53.

with his whole heart (9.415), his vulgar offering of her to Agamemnon makes it difficult to see her as
anything more than a proxy for Achilles’ sense of honor (9.407). Furthermore, it is notable that Hector
and Achilles have fought before, and Hector “barely escaped” (9.430).
One of the most important aspects is the narrative of Thetis presenting the two fates to Achilles (9.498).
In short, if he remains in Troy and fights, then he’ll die—but his glory will never end. If he sails home,
his pride and glory die, but he’ll have a long life. The choice of the two fates informs why Achilles is
more interested in glory and honor than Agamemnon’s treasure—as even if he was enticed by it, he
knows he will not live long enough to enjoy it. Achilles seeks the immortality of fame.
52. What else should be observed in book nine?
Agamemnon lamenting the “brutal treachery” of Zeus and telling his men to sail home (9.24, 31) is
reminiscent of him testing his men with similar language in book two (Question 15)—except this time
it is not a rouse. Nestor will continue to play the role of the wise counselor, and it should be noted that
he represents the ancestral assumption that age equals wisdom (9.70). 90 One may observe that
Agamemnon intuits that Zeus’ plan to glorify Achilles through a slaughter of the Argives (9.142).
Finally, book nine is bookended by Diomedes speaking up when others are stunned or dumbfounded.
The book opens with him rejecting Agamemnon’s call to abandon the siege of Troy and closes with him
encouraging the Achaeans after Achilles’ refusal to fight (9.850).
Book Ten
Marauding Through the Night
Agamemnon marveled in horror at those fires,

a thousand fires blazing against the walls of Troy.
10.14
53. What happens in book ten?
Agamemnon cannot sleep (9.04). He is tormented by the thousand fires of the Trojans camped around
his black ships (10.14), and he tears “his hair out by the roots” (10.18). He dresses for war and leaves
his tent—only to run into his brother, Menelaus, who is also unsettled (10.30). Menelaus gives
Agamemnon the idea of sending out spies against the Trojans (10.45). After waking the other Achaean
warlords, Agamemnon holds a war council in which Nestor proposes someone should infiltrate the
Trojans (10.241). Diomedes volunteers and selects Odysseus to go with him (10.284). Meanwhile,
amongst the Trojans, Hector also calls for a spy, and the warrior Dolon, an ugly but fast fellow (10.369),
agrees to go (10.366).
In the black of night and out in the no man’s land between the armies, Odysseus sees Dolan running, and
Odysseus and Diomedes hide amongst the corpses as Dolan goes past at a “dead run” (10.409). The two
Achaeans capture Dolon who, in turn, blurts out every detail he knows about the Trojan encampment
(10.478, 493) under the assumption he will be taken captive (10.511). Diomedes then decapitates Dolon
and his “shrieking head went tumbling in the dust” (10.327). Odysseus and Diomedes elect to attack an
90
For another example of this assumption, see the role of Cephalus in book one of Plato’s Republic.

outpost described by Dolon, a group of Thracian warriors in league with Troy (10.501, 535). Athena
blesses Diomedes (10.557), and he slaughters thirteen Thracians in their sleep—including their king
(10.571). Apollo wakes a Thracian who sounds the alarm, and Odysseus and Diomedes ride the slain
king’s magnificent horses back to the Achaean camp (10.631). The book ends with Odysseus and
Diomedes, now bathed and seated for a meal, pouring out a libation to Athena, the goddess who watches
over them (10.670).
54. What else should be observed in book ten?
Agamemnon believes he and Menelaus should do the work of waking up the lesser warlords themselves
(10.80); and, similarly, Diomedes notes that it is Nestor, not some younger solider, that has awakened
him (10.195). One may interpret this to show the gravity of the situation and the ownership the higher
Achaean warlords are exhibiting in this moment. Notice that Nestor unfairly critiques Menelaus for
sleeping (10.134), and Agamemnon corrects Nestor but not without stating that Menelaus does tend
toward inaction (10.139). Agamemnon’s critique of his brother seems contrary to the pattern we have
observed of Menelaus being quick to volunteer for some danger and Agamemnon drawing him back.
Given the role of archers in the Iliad, it is notable that Homer reveals that Odysseus carries a bow
(10.304).
In book ten (and eleven), Homer will utilize a great deal of animal similes and imagery. One may note
that many of the characters in book ten bear an animal hide, e.g., Agamemnon’s lion hide (10.27),
Menelaus’ leopard hide (10.34), Diomedes’ lion hide (10.209), and Dolon’s wolf pelt and weasel cap
(10.390). One is left to discern what lesson, if any, Homer intends here.
Finally, book ten shows a certain comradery between Diomedes and Odysseus who are both cared for
by Athena. One could assert that the two Achaean reflect the two general traits of Athena: her military
tactics in Odysseus and her raw martial prowess in Diomedes. It should be noted, however, that Odysseus
will later show his military prowess, and Diomedes has already proven himself to be a counselor (i.e.,
his bookend speeches in book nine). We could debate the degrees of these traits in both men, but overall
they both seems to reflect the primary aspects of the goddess of wisdom.91
Book Eleven
Agamemnon’s Day of Glory
Achilles will listen to you—for his own good. So the old man told you.
You’ve forgotten.
Nestor to Patroclus (11.943)
55. What happens in book eleven?
Dawn has finally arisen from her bed (11.01). To welcome the new day, Zeus sends the goddess Strife
to the Achaean camp (11.03), and the goddess releases a “high-pitched cry, great and terrible” that drives
the Achaeans “mad for war and struggle” (11.14). Agamemnon rallies the Achaeans and Hector the
91
When he elects Odysseus, Diomedes states that he and Odysseus will go “through fire and make it back alive” (10.288).
His statement is possibly tethered to how the Italian poet, Dante Alighieri (AD 1265-1321), views the two Homeric characters.

Trojans, as Zeus rains blood from the sky (11.62) and Strife continues her “wild groans” (11.84).
Following Diomedes advice to fight on the front lines (9.865), Agamemnon leads the Argives on a
bloody warpath against the Trojans (11.107). Agamemnon slaughters his enemies—including one Trojan
who Agamemnon cuts off his head and arms and, as Homer says, sends him “rolling through the carnage
like a log” (11.170). Zeus sends Iris to tell Hector to stay off the front lines and command his men from
the back until Agamemnon is wounded—then Zeus will bless Hector to lead a counteroffensive all the
way back to the Achaean ships (11.217). After Agamemnon is wounded and retreats (11.310), Hector
pushes the Achaeans all the way back to their rampart (11.330). One by one the Achaean warlords—
Diomedes (11.443), Odysseus (11.515), and Machaon the healer (11.598)—are all injured and retreat.
Great Ajax desires to hold his ground but is forced to retreat by Zeus (11.638).
Still by his ship, Achilles watches the onslaught and tells Patroclus he thinks the Achaeans are ready to
“grovel at his knees” (11.719). Achilles sends Patroclus to Nestor for advice (11.722), and Nestor tells
Patroclus that Achilles should at least let Patroclus lead the Myrmidons into battle wearing Achilles’
armor (11.951). Patroclus leaves to return to Achilles but stops to assist an Achaean suffering from an
arrow wound (11.1001). The book ends with Patroclus caring for his fellow solider, and the foretold
“doom of Zeus” about the body of Patroclus inches closer (8.551).
56. What else should be noted about Patroclus?
Of important note is how Patroclus speaks of Achilles to Nestor (11.773). He states that Achilles is a
“great and terrible man” and would “leap to accuse a friend without fault” (11.774). It is not the language
one would expect from Patroclus, the “great friend” of Achilles (Question 49). We are told that Nestor
was part of the group of Achaeans who went to the house of Peleus seeking recruits for the Trojan war
(11.916). Peleus tells his son, Achilles, to “always be the best, my boy, the bravest, and hold your head
up high above the others,” which is the exact same advice given the Glacus by his father except it lacks
the exhortation to “never disgrace the generation of your fathers” (6.247). Whether Homer is inviting a
comparison here is a matter of some discussion.
We should note well Peleus’ command to Patroclus to counsel Achilles, and that Achilles will listen to
him (11.940). Amongst all the rage of Achilles, we have little evidence of Patroclus playing the role of
counselor or attempting to diffuse the situation. Nestor critiques Patroclus that he has forgotten his role
as counselor to Achilles (11.943). One may hold that Achilles sitting by his ships as the Achaeans are
slaughtered is evidence, at least in part, of the failed mission of Patroclus.
57. What else should be observed in book eleven?
One might expect that Hector would balk a bit at being told to stay off the from lines (11.237), but he
does not despite his habit of leading from the front. We could attribute this to his piety toward the gods,
especially Zeus, or more critical voices would recall that he’s slunk to the back before (5.540). It is most
notable that Homer invokes the Muses again (11.253). This fourth invocation seems to illuminate the
importance of Agamemnon leading the charge against the Trojans. We may observe that Hector is once
again saved by the gods, as Diomedes’ spear hits him in the head but does not penetrate his helmet
(11.414, 427). Paris stays true to his character, as he first gloats over shooting Diomedes in the foot—
after leaping out of his “hiding place” (11.446)—and then shoots the Achaean healer, Machaon (11.598).

It should be noted that Odysseus, who has been criticized in the past for strategically holding back, is
left alone against the Trojans, and he holds his ground well like a “wild boar” against a circle of hunters
(11.473, 491). Hector, despite knowing he has the favor of Zeus, stays away from Giant Ajax (11.638)—
apparently still wary from their last duel (Question 41). Old man Nestor, who is the link to an older
more glorious age, is shown being able to lift a cup with “ease” that the average man would “strain to
lift off the table” (11.751). Nestor, who has a penchant for telling stories about himself, shares that
Heracles (or Hercules) killed all eleven of his brothers (11.820). Nestor ending his testimony with “so,
such was I in the ranks of men… or what it all a dream?” (11.908) is certainly worthy of some
consideration.
Book Twelve
The Trojans Storm the Rampart
Bird-signs! Fight for your country—that is the best, the only omen!
Hector (12.280)
58. What happens in book twelve?
As many of the Achaean warlords lay injured, Hector leads his onslaught against the Greek defenses
(12.05). The Achaean ships are surrounded by a rampart, a thick wood wall, with a wide trench in front
(12.05). The Trojan Polydamas advises Hector that the sharp stakes in the trench and narrowness of
openings in the rampart make chariot-warfare impossible (12.72). The Trojans dismount and break into
five battalions to assault the Achaean wall (12.105). Hector leads the charge against the rampart, as Zeus
whips up a dust storm to aid the Trojan siege (12.292). The Achaeans have blocked the rampart gates
with “ox-hide shields,” (12.305), they have gathered heavy stones to crush their enemies (12.438), and
they have the two Aeantes, i.e., Giant and Little Ajax, helping to defend the wall (12.307).
Sarpedon, driven by his father, Zeus, leads his Trojan battalion against the rampart (12.340). Homer
writes: “And Sarpedon clawing the rampart now with powerful hands, wrenched hard and the whole
wall came away, planks and all” (12.460). He “made a gaping breach for hundreds” (12.463). The
Achaean archer Teucer hits Sarpedon with an arrow, but Zeus ensures it is not a fatal hit (12.467). The
armies crash with neither gaining ground (12.485) until Zeus gives Hector the glory (12.507). Hector
lifts a boulder no two men could easily lift (12.519) and, amongst the chaos of the clashing forces, throws
the boulder at the Achaean gate (12.532). The gate shatters, and Hector “bursts through in glory”
(12.537). He cries, “the wall, storm the wall!” (12.544) The book ends as the Trojans swarm through the
wall and the Argives “scatter back in terror” (12.547).
59. What is the issue with the gods and the wall of the Achaeans?
The opening of the book returns to the fact the Achaeans did not give the deathless gods their due
sacrifice when they made their rampart (12.07). Recall that Poseidon and Apollo, who helped build the
Trojan walls (Question 42), are offended that the Achaean walls may receive more glory. Homer then
shifts into the future when Troy has fallen and tells us that Poseidon and Apollo (with some help from
Zeus) will destroy the Achaean wall and set everything right (12.41). The Achaeans forgetting to exercise

their proper piety toward the gods and thus omitting a due sacrifice is a poor habit that should be noted
for future reference.
60. What should we make of the story of Asius?
Homer gives us the curious narrative of Asius, a Trojan ally and leader, who refuses to leave his chariot
when all the other Trojans form into battalions to assault the Achaean wall (12.132). As Homer writes:
“Straight at the gates he lashed his team, hell-bent, his troops crowding behind him shouting war cries”
(12.146). The assault fails. Asius calls Zeus a liar—presumably because he knew that Zeus had given
the Trojans the glory but did not think that only two Achaeans—the “lionhearted of Lapith”—could hold
the gate (12.153). The error of Asius seems twofold: first, breaking ranks with Hector, favored by Zeus;
and two, presuming that the glory of being the first to breach the wall was attainable and not one reserved
by Zeus for Hector (12.507). His tactical error is, at heart, a theological one: an inability to read the gods
well.
61. What should we make of Hector disregarding the bird-sign?
After the folly of Asius but before the Trojan battalions assault the wall, the Trojans see another bird-
sign, an omen (12.231). The Trojan Polydamas warns the omen is a sign from Zeus not to engage the
Argives at their ships—and if they do, the Argives will slaughter the Trojans all the way back to the
walls of Troy (12.249). Hector provides a somewhat famous response: “Bird-signs! Fight for your
country—that is the best, the only omen!” (12.280) One may compare his response to his earlier
unquestioning obedience to the bird-sign that recalled him to Troy to arrange a sacrifice to Athena
(Question 35).
Any perspective here that attempts to present Hector as trusting in the power of men over the gods (i.e.,
human capacity over superstition) seems unsupported by the text. Note that Hector disregards the bird-
sign as an omen from Zeus, because he believes he knows the will of Zeus (12.272). No doubt this is a
reference to the message from Iris in book eleven (11.217). In sum, Hector tells Polydamas to not be a
coward and trust “in the will of might Zeus” (12.278). The issue here is not trusting in human ability
over the divine, but rather how to interpret the divine will.
62. What else should be observed in book twelve?
The speech of Sarpedon to Glaucus prior to storming the wall provides a quick insight into the ancient
concept of duty (12.359). Sarpedon lists how he and Glaucus enjoy grand estates and other kingly
benefits from their people; thus, it is now their duty to throw themselves into the “blaze of war” (12.367).
In sum, they have a duty to win glory that justifies their kingly lives (12.372). In contrast to the
perspective of the ruler, we see the perspective of the ruled in Polydamas’ comment to Hector: “Never
right, is it, for a common man to speak against you, King… our part is always to magnify your power”
(12.247). As such, book twelve provides some material to discern the mindset of the ruler and ruled in
ancient Greek culture.
Also, if we recall the question of how strong is the Trojan army without divine intervention (Question
44), note that not even Hector and his Trojans could have breached the wall unless Zeus first sent in his
son, Sarpedon, to breach it (12.337). Finally, recall too the theme of how the Iliad depicts warfare

(Question 27), and note that Homer mentions the Trojans forming a phalanx to storm the Achaean wall
(12.514).
63. Halfway through the Iliad, what the major themes or motifs we should be tracking?
The major themes and motifs that we should be observing throughout the Iliad are as follows:
• The rage of Achilles and how the request of Thetis to Zeus structures the narrative;
• The invocation to the Muses and why they are invoked;
• The role of the “nameless fate” and whether it is distinguishable from Father Zeus;
• The freedom of man, if any, in relation to the will of the gods and/or fate;
• The importance of burying the dead with proper rituals (and what denying that means);
• The comparison between Achilles and Hector and Homer’s intent in doing so (arete);
• The importance of guest-friendship (xenia) amongst the ancient Greeks;
• The character of Odysseus and what we are to make of the famous tactician; and
• The subtle theme of shields and what it means to bear the shield of another in battle.
We continue to turn toward Homer the teacher to unfurl these themes and provide us insights not just
into his characters but into human nature as a whole.
Book Thirteen
Battling for the Ships
Zeus, Father Zeus, they say you excel all others…

all men and gods, in wisdom clear and calm—
but all this brutal carnage comes from you.
King Menelaus (13.727)
64. What happens in book thirteen?
Father Zeus, believing that the deathless gods will not violate his strict decree to not interfere with the
Trojan war, turns his attention “a world away to the land of the Thracian horsemen” (13.06). Poseidon
seizes this opportunity to help the Achaeans. He blesses the Aeantes (13.74) and whips up the fighting
strength of the whole Argive army (13.112). Battalions are formed around the Aeantes, and they war
against Hector and his Trojans (13.149). Meanwhile, the two Achaeans, Idomeneus and Meriones, rush
to the left flank where the Argives are suffering the most (13.363, 80). Poseidon continues to secretly
war against the will of Zeus by spurring on the Achaeans against the Trojans (13.408). Idomeneus, the
Achaean, crushes the Trojan Asius (13.452) and Alcathous (13.512) on the left flank. In return, Aeneas,
the son of Aphrodite, arrives to bolster the Trojans and both sides clash around the corpse of the Trojan
Alcathous (13.575). Menelaus, the Spartan King, squares off with Helenus, the Trojan prophet (13.672).
Helenus’ arrow bounces off the Achaean war-lord’s breastplate (13.679), but Menelaus’ spear goes
through Helenus’ first (13.686)—and his Trojan campions drag him away from the battlefield for care
(13.687).

While the Argives hold the left flank, Hector, favored by Zeus, continues to collide against the Achaeans,
blessed by Poseidon, back where Hector smashed the gate (13.785). Polydamas advises Hector to
regroup, warning Hector that he has been blessed to fighting power but not necessarily in tactics
(13.841). Hector listens, and he goes to recall his warlords (13.873). Hector finds Paris and the carnage
that the Trojans suffered on the left flank (13.884). The two princes rejoin the main force at the broken
gate, but the Achaeans are immovable under the leadership of giant Ajax (13.935). Ajax taunts Hector
that the Trojans will be forced to retreat soon, and a bird-omen appears to confirm his words (13.948).
Hector returns the taunt, and both sides prepare for another Trojan charge (13.951).
65. How does the story of Asius end?
We met Asius charging his chariot into the Achaean wall and—as the attempt fails—calling Zeus a liar
(Question 60). In book thirteen, Idomeneus spears Asius in the throat with the tip “ripping” through the
nape of his neck (13.450). Later, Asius’ son, Adamas, is speared by Meriones “between the genitals and
the naval—[a] hideous wound, the worst the god of battles deals to wretched men” (13.657). Homer
describes him as “hugging the shaft he writhed, gasping, shuddering (13.660). Given the manner of their
deaths, one is left inclined that Asius has brought the doom of Zeus upon himself by his own words.
66. What else should be noted in book thirteen?
Despite his prowess on the battlefield, it is notable that giant Ajax does not immediately recognize
Poseidon in the guise of Calchas (13.85). Poseidon calls Achilles a “worthless coward.” (13.139). Homer
presents another good description of the phalanx (13.154). Teucer, an archer thus far, is shown to
successfully use a spear (13.211). One may question whether the brutality of the war is increasing, as we
see little Ajax toss the head of a dead Trojan at the feet of Hector (13.242). We see another practical
import of stripping the bodies of their loot, as Meriones is able to replace his broken spear with one of
the many Trojan spears stored by Idomeneus (13.309). One recalls the marriage offer of Agamemnon’s
daughter to Achilles, as Idomeneus offers Agamemnon’s “loveliest daughter” in sarcasm to the dead
Othryoneus (13.422).
Homer presents a comparison between Ares who is aloof and unaware his son has even died (13.602)
with Poseidon who actively aids the Achaeans, like Antilochus (13.642). Menelaus, like his brother
(9.142), understands that the present “brutal carnage” comes from Zeus, and that Zeus is favoring the
Trojans (13.729). We are introduced to the Achaean Euchenor who, like Achilles, was able to choose
his fate: die fighting at Troy or die of a plague at home (13.764). Finally, it is not unremarkable that
Homer uses the imagery of storm pounding the seas to describe the Trojans—backed by the storm god,
Zeus—clashing against the Achaeans—backed by the sea god, Poseidon (13.920).

Book Fourteen
Hera Outflanks Zeus
And so, deep in peace, the Father slept on Gargaron peak,

Conquered by Sleep and the strong assault of Love.
Homer (14.419)
64. What happens in book fourteen?
Nestor, who was still tending to the injured Machaon, leaves his tent and, upon seeing the ruined wall of
the Achaeans, goes to find Agamemnon (14.27). Nestor finds the wounded Agamemnon alongside the
also wounded Odysseus and Diomedes (14.34). Agamemnon again despairs and orders the Achaean to
prepare to sail home (14.90), and he is chastised by Odysseus who calls him a “disaster” (14.102).
Diomedes counsels the wounded kings to return to battle but inspire the soldiers from behind the front
lines (14.158). Poseidon inspires Agamemnon and the sea god lets out a cry as loud as “nine, ten thousand
combat soldiers” to strengthen the Achaeans (14.182). Meanwhile, Hera, wanting to run interference for
Poseidon, plots “to make immortal love” with Zeus and lure him into a deep sleep (14.199). She lies to
Aphrodite about her motives, and receives from the goddess of love a band with the power to “make the
sanest man go mad” (14.261). Hera next enlists the god Sleep to help her overpower Zeus (14.279) by
promising him one of the younger Graces to marry (14.323). Hera seduces Zeus, and the father of gods
and men is conquered by love and sleep (14.420).
Sleep tells Poseidon of Zeus’ slumber, and the sea god leads the Achaeans against the Trojans (14.430,
456). Ajax and Hector clash on the front lines, and Ajax lifts a “holding-stone”—a large stone used to
anchor a ship—and strikes Hector (14.486). Hector “plunged in the dust” (14.494) and was taken back
to Troy by his comrades (14.509). The retreat of Hector rises the Achaean battle-lust (14.520), and they
push back against the Trojans until “the knees of every Trojan shook with fear” (14.592). Homer ends
the book with an invocation to the Muses—the 5th invocation—as Poseidon shifts the favor of war to the
Achaeans (14.596).
65. What are we to make of Love and Sleep conquering Zeus?
To overcome Zeus, the father of gods and men, Hera must employ two powers: Love and Sleep. Hera
avers that Love may “overwhelm all gods and mortal men” (14.242). Moreover, in the band of Love that
Aphrodite gives Hera, it is said “the world lies in its weaving” (14.265). Similarly, Hera calls Sleep, the
“twin brother of Death,” the “master of all gods and all mortal men” (14.279). She makes a similar
statement about Night, stating: “old Night that can overpower all gods and mortal men” (14.312). Homer
explicitly tells us that Zeus was “conquered by Sleep and the strong assaults of Love” (14.420).
The conquering of Zeus raises questions as to the power and role of these more primordial gods. Homer
does not present his reader with a clear relation or history between these personifications of primal power
and the Olympian gods; however, the Greek poet Hesiod, who lived after Homer in the 700s BC,
composed a genealogy of the gods called Theogony. Though he lived after Homer, Hesiod, like Homer,
is weaving together longstanding traditions in Greek mythology into one coherent whole. For Hesiod,
the world starts with the primordial gods of Chaos, then Earth (Gaia), then Abyss (Tartarus), and then

Love (Eros). Pertinent to our passage in Homer, Chaos gives birth to Night, and then Night gives birth
to Doom, Fate, Death, Sleep, and Dreams.
The mythologies of Homer and Hesiod do not always agree. For example, Homer presents Aphrodite
with a mother, while Hesiod presents her as a spontaneous generation of Uranus’ genitals being tossed
into the sea by Cronos. Regardless, Hesiod provides a critical insight into the more primordial gods of
Love and Sleep in relation to gods of Mount Olympus. One may posit, however, that Zeus is not
conquered, as his will endures despite the efforts of Hera, Love, and Sleep. On the contrary, one may
suggest that the fall of Zeus to Love and Sleep reveals that Zeus is in a manner subject to the more
primordial gods and this would include Fate. We return to the question of whether Zeus is subject to a
nameless Fate or such a Fate is simply an alter ego of his (Question 46).
66. What else should be noted in book fourteen?
It is noteworthy that Nestor must use his son’s shield, as his “boy used his father’s” (14.12). Such familial
themes will become more prominent in Homer’s Odyssey. We should note Poseidon is now doing what
Hera tempted him to do previously (8.239). One may observe that Hera convinces Sleep to aid her by
offering him a love-interest while she wears Aphrodite’s band (14.323). Given the theme of corpses and
proper burials, Homer presents a corpse trade between the armies (14.552). We end with an invocation
to the Muses, as Homer praises the god of earthquakes, i.e., the sea god Poseidon, for “turning the tide”
(14.597).
Book Fifteen
The Achaean Armies at Bay
Zeus will come to batter us on Olympus, seize one after another—gods guilty
and innocent routed all together.
Athena (15.164)
67. What happens in book fifteen?
Zeus, the father of gods and men, awakes to find the Trojans in full retreat (15.05). Poseidon is leading
the Achaean charge, and Hector lays sprawled upon the ground (15.10). Zeus immediately blames Hera
(15.18), and Hera denies any involvement with Poseidon’s actions (15.45). Zeus explains to Hera his
plan in detail: Patroclus will fight, Hector will kill him, and Achilles will then kill Hector (15.80). The
Achaeans will then push the assault until Troy falls (15.88). And Sarpedon—Zeus’ own son—will be
sacrificed to bring about this fate (15.84). Zeus, via Hera, sends Iris to tell Poseidon to “quit the war and
slaughter” and return to the sea (14.210). Poseidon eventually obeys (15.251).
Zeus, via Hera, sends Apollo to rally the Trojans and gives Apollo his storm-shield (15.272). Apollo
heals Hector and the two lead a Trojan
assault against the Argives (15.302). The Achaeans panic (15.385) and “clambered back in a tangled
mess” (15.405). Meanwhile, Patroclus was still tending to the wounded Eurypylus when the new Trojan
assault spurs him to return to Achilles (15.470). Giant Ajax forms a phalanx, a “wall of bronze,” to stop
Hector from burning the Achaean ships (15.657). The defense fails, yet Giant Ajax carries on jumping

from ship to ship with an “enormous polished pike for fights at sea” (15.787). Hector calls for fire to
burn the ships (15.832), and the book ends with Ajax fighting off the hordes—having “impaled” twelve
Trojans thus far (15.866).
68. What is the relation between men and the will of the gods in book fifteen?
A predominant theme in Homer and a perennial question throughout many of the great books is the
relationship between the human will and the divine. In book fifteen, Thoas, an Achaean, is able to discern
Zeus is favoring Hector; thus, he counsels Giant Ajax to call a “withdraw to the ships” (15.349). We
receive yet another example of interpreting what should be done by reading the will of the gods in earthly
affairs. Homer provides us a unique example of interpreting the divine will when Zeus lets loose a crack
of thunder in response to Nestor’s prayer—but the Trojans interpret it in favor of them (15.445). In fact,
Hector tells us it is “easy to see what help Zeus lends to mortals” (15.570). Homer invites us to consider
what irony Hector’s statement bears by revealing later that as Zeus glorifies Hector, Athena is already
preparing his death (15.712). On the matter of burning the Achaean ships, Hector himself acknowledges
that at times Zeus “blinds” men to a certain purpose and then later “drives” them to it (15.840).
How men are supposed to know what the gods will for them—amongst such capricious gods or gods
that disagree with each other—is a question raised by Homer and later taken up by Plato. 92
69. What else should we observe in book fifteen?
The story of Zeus stringing up Hera with two anvils hanging from her legs (15.24) is the same story
referenced in the first book in which Zeus throws Hephaestus—who had tried to help his mother—off
Mount Olympus (Question 13).93 The details Zeus provides of his plan to orchestrate Achilles’ glory
and the fall of Troy is a more detailed version of the earlier “doom of Zeus” (8.551). Homer introduces
us to the goddess “Themis,” who represents “established law and custom” (15.117).94 As observed earlier
(Question 31), we are provided another example of Ares representing rage and impudence, while Athena
tempers him by wisdom and good counsel—and a bit of strength (15.140). Athena’s observation,
however, that Zeus’ rage would consume both guilty and innocent gods alike is reminiscent of Patroclus’
observation that Achilles’ rage would cause him to accuse a friend without fault (Question 56). One
may ponder in what ways Zeus and Achilles are similar.
One is left to wonder what change occurred in Poseidon, as he shifted from one who told Hera he would
not war against Zeus (8.239) to one who boasts to Iris he is a peer of Zeus (15.222)—though the sea god
does acquiesce to Zeus’ command (15.251). The importance of a shield is a theme for Homer, and here
we see clearly that bearing the shield of another makes you an emissary of the owner—as Apollo is for
Zeus (15.272). It is somewhat notable that Prince Paris actually uses a spear (15.401). Observe that
Apollo, who is quite eager to tear down what remains of the Achaean rampart (Question 59), uses the
opportunity of leading the Trojan charge to do a bit of just that (15.425). Once again, Hector would have
died save for Zeus’ intervention (15.539). It is interesting to compare our review of piety with Nestor’s
exhortation to the Achaeans to fight for the sake of your parents—even if they are dead (15.769).
92
Such Homeric examples enrich one’s later read of Plato’s dialogue the Euthyphro, for example.
93
Fagles, 622; Hamilton, 30.
94
Falges, 680, 622. According to Hesiod, she is a Titan and the mother of Seasons, Good Order, Justice, Peace, and sometimes
the Fates. See, Companion, 561.

Book Sixteen
Patroclus Fights and Dies
So [Patroclus] pleaded, lost in his own great innocence,

Condemned to beg for his own death and brutal doom.
Homer (16.53)
70. What happens in books sixteen?
Patroclus returns to Achilles and begs Achilles to send him out to fight in Achilles’ armor (16.43). Homer
writes: “So [Patroclus] pleaded, lost in his own great innocence, condemned to beg for his own death
and brutal doom” (16.53). Achilles comes to understand his rage cannot last forever, but he recalls his
promise not to fight until the “cries and carnage reached” his own ships (16.72). Thus, Achilles agrees
and sends Patroclus with his armor and the Myrmidons to fight (16.74). However, Achilles tells Patroclus
to only fight the Trojans off the Argive ships and not to pursue them back to Troy, because that may
diminish his glory, the fame of Achilles (16.105).
Homer notably invokes the Muses to help him sing about the burning of the Achaean ships (16.135).
Ajax is unable to stop Hector and his men from setting the ship ablaze, and Achilles sees the flames and
sends out Patroclus with the Myrmidons (16.151). The Trojan columns “buckle” upon seeing Patroclus
who they believe is Achilles (16.328), as Patroclus bears all of Achilles’ war gear save his spear (16.168);
thus, Patroclus and the Argives set upon the Trojans like “ravenous wolves” upon lambs (16.415).
Sarpedon, son of Zeus, is slain by Patroclus (16.570), and Glaucus, strengthened by Apollo, rallies his
fellow Trojans to secure Sarpedon’s body (16.631). Similarly, Patroclus rallies Ajax and the Argives to
the body of Sarpedon, the first to storm the Argive wall (16.653), to “mutilate him, shame him, [and]
tear his gear from his back” (16.653). Thus, the body of Sarpedon, son of Zeus, becomes lost under the
“mass of weapons, blood, and dust” (16.743).
Zeus makes Hector a coward, and the Trojan prince calls for a retreat (16.763). The Achaeans win the
body of Sarpedon, but Zeus sends Apollo to rescue the body before it can be mutilated (16.777).
Patroclus, not heeding the command of Achilles, pushes his assault onward toward Troy (16.803). Apollo
repels Patroclus’ assaults on Troy and warns the warrior that it is “not the will of fate” that Troy falls to
him (16.826). Though Apollo strengthens Hector (16.840), Patroclus still presses forward but Apollo
sneaks behind him and slams Patroclus to the ground with a slap across the back (16.920). Disoriented,
Patroclus is then stabbed in the back by Euphorbus, a Trojan (16.938), who then retreats. Hector then
runs forward and spears Patroclus in the gut—the “brazen point went jutting straight out through
Patroclus’ back” (16.967). Hector taunts the dying Patroclus (16.967), and Patroclus dies prophesying
that Hector will die soon (16.998). 95 The last word of Patroclus is “Achilles” (16.1000).
71. What do we observe about Zeus and the nameless fate in book sixteen?
95
Those who may be put off by Hector taunting the dying and then dead Patroclus may compare this Homeric text to the
taunting between David and Goliath (I Sam 17). Moreover, note that David strips Goliath of his gear and cuts off his head
and brings it to Jerusalem. There is also a parallel between how Hector threatens to treat Patroclus’ body, and Patroclus’
earlier threats against the body of Sarpedon.

We see Zeus lament his “cruel fate” in his son, Sarpedon, having to die to bring about the death of
Patroclus (16.514). Knox holds this shows the “will of Zeus is thwarted by fate.” 96 He writes that the
“will of Zeus” and this “nameless destiny” are “irreconcilables” held in “coexistence.” 97 He sees in this
the nascent discussion in the Western tradition to “embrace the logical contradiction of freedom and
order combined.”98 Many will note that both Zeus and Hera seem to assume that Zeus could change
Sarpedon’s “doom sealed long ago” but that doing so would introduce chaos (16.524). The scene is
reminiscent of Zeus holding out the golden scales in book eight (Question 46). Is fate simply an alter
ego of Zeus, a manifestation of his will, or is Zeus truly subject in some way to the nameless fate? We
should also recall that Zeus already showed himself vulnerable to the more primordial forces of Sleep
and Love.
It should be remembered that once Zeus gives his assent, he cannot change his decision; thus, his own
will certainly manufactures a particular fate to which even he is bound. Note that just prior to Patroclus’
death we are told: “the Father’s spirit churning, thrashing out the ways, the numberless ways to cause
Patroclus’ slaughter” (16.752). As Knox observes, “the idea of destiny, of what is fixed, is flexible.” 99
The question is whether Zeus is bound by and even an agent of a more cosmic, nameless fate.
72. What observations may be made between fate and the will of men?
Hector, who is acted upon often by the gods, occasions several examples in book sixteen of the dynamics
between the will of man and the will of the gods. First, observe that upon the Achaean advance, Hector,
who knows the tide has turned, “still stood firm, defending die-hard comrades” (16.428). Then Zeus
sends cyclones to produce the foretold “dust storm” (16.442), and Hector’s horses speed him away as
his fellow Trojans die (16.433). For a more explicit example, Zeus begins the work of Patroclus’ death
by making Hector a coward (16.763). Hector, however, appears aware that Zeus is acting upon him
(16.766). Homer tells us that Patroclus “might have escaped his doom” if he had listened to Achilles,
but ultimately “the will of Zeus will always overpower the will of men” (16.803).
Similarly, as Patroclus attempts to assault Troy, Apollo repels him and says: “it is not the will of fate”
that Troy fall to him (16.826). As an aside, the reader should note that Apollo also says it is not the fate
of Troy to fall to Achilles either (16.828). As Patroclus lays dying, he is cognizant of what has happened
to him, as he tells Hector: “deadly fate in league with Apollo killed me” (16.993). Book sixteen continues
to present fate as deterministic over the actions of man though some men may be aware that fate (or the
gods as agents of fate) have acted upon them. Recall that Hector has confidence that no man can take
him before fate allows. Moreover, even Achilles or Euchenor who seemingly can choose their fate, can
only do so because fate gives them that choice.
73. Did Patroclus deserve his fate?
On whether Patroclus deserved his fate, many turn to the fact Patroclus disobeyed the advice of Achilles
to refrain from assaulting Troy (16.816); however, Homer couples that sentiment with the line that “the
will of Zeus will always overpower the will of man” (16.805). Others will turn to Patroclus following
96
Fagles, 40.
97
Fagles, 40.
98
Fagles, 40.
99
Fagles, 40.

the advice of Nestor and construe him donning Achilles’ armor as an act of pride and folly. Most
convincing, however, is that Patroclus deserved his fate, because he failed in his mission—he was sent
to Troy temper the rage of Achilles and provide him counsel. The intimacy of Patroclus to the narrative
is arguably shown by Homer shifting into second person, e.g., “Patroclus, O my rider.” 100 Achilles’ rage,
however, animates the events of the Iliad, and the fact it consumed Patroclus bears a certain fittingness
and irony.
First time readers to the Iliad often find Patroclus’ death unsatisfying. Expecting some magnificent duel
between Patroclus and Hector, they are presented a fatalistic and ignoble death (Question 70). The
ignominious nature of it seems worse when coupled with Hector gloating over a dying Patroclus—a
Patroclus already struck down by a god and stabbed by Euphorbus (16.938). Though Patroclus’ death
seems fitting given his role, the manner of his death seems illuminative to the tension between the will
of man and fate. On one hand, Zeus pushes him to assault Troy (16.805), and on the other he is chastised
by Apollo that it is not his fate to take Troy (16.826). It is noteworthy that Patroclus assaults Troy three
times and then a “superhuman” fourth assault all repelled by Apollo (16.821), which is then mirrored at
the death of Patroclus—he has three assaults and then on his fourth assault Apollo strikes him down
(16.913). The explicit pattern links the two texts as commentaries on man and fate. Apollo simply
slapping Patroclus to the ground from behind belittles Patroclus and shows the human frailty before the
gods (16.920). It emphasizes the deterministic fatalism that haunts much of Homer’s work within the
Iliad. Moreover, on a more granular level, the manner of Patroclus’ death seems to exhibit the frustration
of Apollo who is defending a city he knows is doomed.
74. What else should be observed in book sixteen?
It is difficult not to note the manner in which Achilles receives the weeping Patroclus, as he states: “O
weeping over the Argives, are you? Seeing them die against their hollow ships, repaid for their offenses?”
(16.18). We once again see the indefatigable defense of Ajax retreat seemingly only at the will of Zeus
(16.121), and that he knows this to a degree “deep in his heart” (16.143). We may observe that Achilles
not only has a special cup from which to offer a libation to Zeus but also that he does so outside any
feast or drink for himself (16.299). The advent of Patroclus to the battlefield crying “Slaughter Trojans!”
brings about the foretold “dust storm” of Trojans retreating back to Troy (16.440). Similarly, the
bloodshed confirms the prophecy of Polydamas to Hector on the dangers of lingering by the Achaean
ships (16.472). Once again, we are told that the Achaeans could have most likely taken Troy even without
Achilles (16.816). Patroclus chastises Meriones for taunting his enemies, saying: “No time for speeches
now, it’s time to fight” (16.732) and then taunts Cebriones, the deceased chariot driver of Hector
(16.867). Finally, we should observe that Hector calls the dying Patroclus a “maniac” for obeying the
orders of Achilles when in fact Patroclus disobeyed (16.984).
100
See examples at 16.22, 867, 878, 915, 944, 985.

Book Seventeen
Menelaus’ Finest Hour
But grief bore down on Hector, packing his dark heart.
Homer (17.92)
75. What happens in books seventeen?
The body of Patroclus still lays on the plains outside of Troy. Menelaus, the Spartan king, slays
Euphorbus, the Trojan who had speared Patroclus (17.51). Apollo spurs Hector to fight for the body of
Patroclus (17.84), and Hector is able to remove Patroclus’ gear—but Ajax returns and stops him from
decapitating the corpse (17.146). Glaucus, friend of the dead Sarpedon, chastises Hector for retreating
from Ajax and implies that if Hector was more like Ajax, they could have saved the body of their
comrade, Sarpedon (17.172). Hector retorts he is no coward, but the will of Zeus forces cowardice upon
him (17.201). Hector then puts on the armor of Achilles, stripped from Patroclus, and Zeus, taking pity
on Hector, grants him power and makes the armor fit well—but also states Hector will never return home
again (17.230).
Hector leads the Trojans in battle for the body of Patroclus (17.263), and the Achaeans, led by giant Ajax
and Menelaus, mount a defense (17.290). The Achaeans take the advantage, and Apollo spurs Aeneas to
rally the Trojans (17.379), but Ajax and the Achaeans remains stalwart in their defense (17.420). Zeus
shifts his favor to the Achaeans and sends Athena to rouse their fighting spirits (17.623). Apollo chastises
Hector, and as Hector charges to the frontlines, Zeus releases a bolt of lightning to show he now favors
the Achaeans (17.670). Giant Ajax laments: “Dear god, enough! Any idiot boy could see how Father
Zeus himself supports these Trojans” (17.707). Zeus pities Ajax and thus removes his storm clouds from
the battlefield and “the whole war swung into view” (17.729). Menelaus, at the suggestion of Ajax, sends
Antilochus, son of Nestor and “a favorite of Achilles,” to go tell Achilles what has happened (17.776). 101
The Achaeans grab the body of Patroclus and bear him back to their ships, as the two great Aeantes hold
off the Trojans (17.823, 843); until Hector and Aeneas come leading the Trojans “like a crowd of
crows… screaming murder,” and the Achaeans break and flee for the ships (17.846).
76. What should we make of the “dark heart” of Hector?
In book seventeen, we are introduced to the “dark heart” of Hector (17.92). The “dark heart” is presented
within the juxtaposition of Apollo spurring Hector to fight (17.84), and Hector surveying the reality of
the battlefield (17.93).102 It is a moment of “grief” for the Trojan Prince (17.92). Hector does charge the
front line “loosing a savage cry, and flaring on like fire, like the god of fire” (17.96). Such a reaction to
the spurring of a god seems normative in the Iliad, but what seems abnormal is the moment of grief in
between. Moreover, the pattern occurs again later in which Apollo again spurs Hector, Hector bears a
“black cloud of grief,” and then charges the frontlines (17.660, 670).
101
Fagles, 644.
102
Lattimore translates the line: “But bitter sorrow closed over Hektor’s heart in its darkness,” (17.83). In Fagles, the phrase
“dark heart” is also notably used elsewhere in book seventeen to describe an Achaean (17.571).

The “dark heart” of Hector gives further credence to his role as the tragic, tortured hero of Troy. He is
or is becoming a broken vessel over spent by the gods. How many lives has Hector already given for
Troy? Yet over and over again, he is reanimated by the gods and tossed back into the fray of a war
already determined. He a ragdoll in a fatalistic dispute amongst the gods. In fact, right after the second
notion of this grief gripping Hector, he is speared in the chest but presumably saved by the divine
(17.684). One may consider what psychological toll the war is bearing on Hector and how much more
the Trojan prince has to give for his homeland.
78. How much does human agency affect fate?
The Iliad is often critiqued for being overly fatalistic: man lacks any true agency in the world and his
actions are simply determined by the divine. For example, when Glaucus sets forth the critique of
cowardice against Hector, the Trojan prince responds that he is never a coward unless Zeus makes him
one (17.201). On another occasion, an Achaean soldier states: “but all lies in the lap of the great gods,
I’ll fling a spear myself and leave the rest to the Zeus (17.587). The deterministic quality of the Iliad
usually opens it to criticisms of being flat and without a true human drama. For example, to what degree
may Hector be held culpable for his actions when he is acted upon so often by the gods? We raised a
similar question with Helen earlier in the epic.
Books seventeen, however, also reminds us that man bears a certain receptivity to the divine and an
arguable co-authorship over his own actions. We see that even though Zeus may favor the Trojans for
an advance, Achaean fortitude and Trojan fear may adjust the outcome (17.372). Again, we return to the
thesis that the fixed destiny is flexible. One may recall Athena rushing to stop Achilles from slaying
Agamemnon in book one, and how her actions upon him had to be coupled with his receptivity in order
to be truly efficacious. The Iliad is certainly fatalistic, but the human agency is not without
consequence—the degree to which the human may affect fate is a matter of much debate.
79. What should we note about the horses of Achilles?
The horses of Achilles are immortal. We see them being cognizant of the death of Patroclus (17.493)
and crying mournful tears upon the battlefield (17.505). Zeus explains that the gods gave the immortal
horses to King Peleus, Achilles’ father (17.511). Similarly to the body of Patroclus (17.310), Zeus will
not abide the horses falling into Trojan hands (17.516). It is notable that in the battle over the immortal
beasts, an Achaean prays to Zeus and throws his spear (17.587)—which happens to go right through the
shield of his Trojan advisory (17.590). The horses of Achilles are set for a larger role in the Iliad, but for
now, Zeus’ care for them is noteworthy.
80. What else should be observed in book seventeen?
Glaucus’ critique of Hector reveals that Glaucus does not know that Sarpedon’s body was rescued by
the gods (17.186). It is worth noting that Achilles’ armor, lost to Hector, was a gift from the gods to
Peleus, Achilles’ father (17.221). Whereas Hector has his “dark heart,” Zeus speaks to his own “deep
heart” and states that Hector neither earned Achilles’ armor nor will ever return home (17. 229). Zeus
“loathed” to see Patroclus “prey” to the Trojans (17.310). We see another example of filial piety in which
a dead soldier will never be able to “repay his loving parents now for the gift of rearing” (17.347). The
Achaean defense of Patroclus’ body occasions another example of an early phalanx (17.420). It is notable

that two sons of Nestor honorably hold the flank of the Achaean frontlines, while neither of them realize
that Patroclus is dead (17.437). When Athena comes to Menelaus as Phoenix, and Menelaus tells her:
“if only Pallas would give me power” (17.638). Pallas is “thrilled that the man prayed to her before all
other gods” (17.645). One wonders whether Menelaus knew it was Athena and said such a statement
with the intent to flatter her.
Book Eighteen
The Shield of Achilles
Dear gods, don’t bring to pass the grief that haunts my heart.
Achilles (18.05)
81. What happens in book eighteen?
Achilles stands by his ships “agonizing” over why Patroclus has not returned (18.05). Antilochus,
Nestor’s son, arrives and tell Achilles that “Patroclus has fallen” (18.21). Achilles falls, clawing the
ground, and covers himself with ash and soot (18.24). The women of his house surround him in
mourning, and he “suddenly loosed a terrible, wrenching cry” (18.39). His mother, the sea nymph Thetis,
hears him within the “salt green depths” and lets loose her own cry (18.42)—as she is then surrounded
by her sister-sea nymphs (18.48). Thetis goes to her son who tells her that Patroclus has died, and that
he’s lost the will to live—except to seek revenge on Hector (18.105). Thetis confirms that Achilles’
death will follow the death of Hector (18.112). Achilles sets aside his rage for Agamemnon in favor of
his new rage against Hector (18.133). The armor of Achilles, however, is held by Hector; thus, Thetis
leaves to ask Hephaestus, the god of fire, to make him a new set (18.161).
Meanwhile, Hector had overtaken the Aeantes and was battling again for the corpse of Patroclus
(18.178). Iris, the messenger goddess, goes to Achilles and encourages him to fight for the body of his
friend (18.199). Achilles, always sensitive to the politics of the gods, asks Iris who sent her, and Iris tells
him that Hera bids him to now fight (18.214). As Thetis told Achilles not to arm for battle until she
returns, a compromise is struck (18.227). Achilles presents himself to the Trojans, and Athena grants
him the storm-shield of Zeus (18.237). Athena sets Achilles ablaze with a flame that reaches the sky,
and Achilles and Athena let loose a war-cry that sends “unearthly panic through the Trojans” (18.253).
The Achaeans secure the body of Patroclus (18.268), and Achilles leads them in an all-night dirge
(18.366). The book ends with Thetis asking Hephaestus to make a new set of armor for her son, and
Hephaestus honoring her request (18.500).
82. What should we make of the heart of Achilles?
Homer seems to tether the grief of Hector in book seventeen to the grief of Achilles in book eighteen.
As “a black cloud of grief” overcomes Achilles (18.24), so too did a “black cloud of grief” overcome
Hector (17.670). Homer speaks of the “dark heart of Hector” (17.92) and then the broken heart of
Achilles (18.73). In fact, book eight opens with Achilles “probing his own great heart” (18.06). Notably,
the suffering heart of Thetis is mentioned as well (18.85, 103). Achilles finally relents on his rage against
Agamemnon, saying: “let bygones be bygones” (18.132). He couples this declaration with a new one:
before his own death, he will kill Hector (18.135). One may observe that Achilles’ rage against

Agamemnon ends somewhat lackluster without any real notion of forgiveness or repentance. It is less a
resolution between Achilles and Agamemnon and more a transference of Achilles’ rage from
Agamemnon to Hector. As the Iliad opens, we are still singing of the rage of Achilles, but now it is the
rage against Hector that will carry us into the end narrative. Achilles will now kill Hector, face his own
death, and “seize great glory” (18.144).
83. How should we interpret the shield of Achilles?
The shield of Achilles presents a commentary on the cosmos. It is a testament to the Greek belief that
the world is ordered and in balance. From the heavens to human civilization to the boundaries of the
known world, a certain order and intelligibility permeates reality. Reality is not chaotic. Man inhabits an
ordered whole.
Homer presents the scenes on the shield starting with the center and moving outward in concentric circles
toward the edge with certain circles having multiple parts. The scenes on the shield may be described as
follows:
1. The earth, sky, sea, sun, and moon (18.565)

2. The constellations (18.567)
3. City at Peace: The wedding feast (18.573)
4. City at Peace: The court of justice (18.580)
5. City at War: A city under siege (18.593)
6. City at War: Raid by the besieged (18.598)
7. Ploughing the field (18.629)
8. Harvesting the field (18.639)
9. The vineyard festival (18.654)
10. The cattle under attack (18.670)
11. The flock in the meadow at peace (18.686)
12. The circle of dancing and courtship (18.690)
13. Ocean’s River (18.708)
On the shield itself, one may expect that Zeus would inhabit the center of shield rather than the heavenly
bodies. The absence of Zeus at the center raises the question of the role of the gods within the cosmos.
Notably, there is no ring dedicated to the Olympian gods, as one may think vital to a testament on the
order of the cosmos. Moreover, the only Olympian gods that are mentioned are in the City at War. One
may question whether there is a Homeric lesson embedded here on whether the gods are agents of order
or chaos within the cosmic whole.
The City at Peace is characterized by love and justice. The marriage is a witness to love and binding,
while the court scene is a witness to justice and resolution. Note that the City at Peace is not without
conflict; rather, the City at Peace is able to resolve the conflict through justice. The City at War is an
obvious contrast. The city under siege inevitably recalls the current plight of Troy. It is, as noted above,
the only section that includes the gods.
The ploughing and harvesting scenes are naturally coupled. The plowmen enjoy wine as they work, and
the harvesting depiction includes the presence of the king and terminates in a harvest feast (18.650). The

pastoral imagery is coupled with characteristics of civilization. The vineyard scene is one of wine, music,
innocence, and joviality. Though unnamed, it is all characteristic of Dionysus, the jovial wine-god. The
cattle scene, however, is one marked by duty, danger, death, and violence. There is also the coupling of
the domestic cattle and the wild lions. The herdsmen being unable to fend off the wild lions presents
parallels to the conflict in the earlier City at War, and both scenes raise an inclination that there are
analogues here to the present conflict in Troy. The conflict of the herdsmen and lions gives way to the
serene meadow at peace—a possible parallel to the City at Peace. We then receive the circle of dancing,
another festive scene, and one set within the courtship of young boys and girls (18.693). The human
depictions on the shield of Achilles appear to begin and end with love. The rim of the shield is the rim
of the known world, Ocean’s River.
There are many more questions about the shield. For example, what is Hephaestus’ intent is presenting
such a narrative on the shield? Moreover, what in the character of Achilles—whose rage is the animus
of the epic—corresponds to such a cosmic reflection on the order of civilization? One answer may lie in
the two fates of Achilles. The shield depicts the life of peace and marriage that Achilles rejected in favor
of a life of war and glory. Another question would be whether Achilles learns anything from the depiction
on his shield. Does the cosmic narrative of peace and war affect his character at all? One is tempted to
note that, when Achilles holds the shield, the narrative faces away from him—he is blind to it. What then
does it mean for others, especially the Trojans, who can look upon both Achilles and his shield? 103
84. What else should be observed in book eighteen?
It is notable that Antilochus, Nestor’s son, cries with Achilles over Patroclus but holds his hands so that
he may prevent Achilles from slaying him out of rage (18.38).104 On the discussion of Zeus and fate, one
may ponder the significance of Achilles commenting that Zeus’ own son, Hercules, was crushed by fate
(18.141). Hector dismissing Polydamas’ advice to retreat after the appearance of Achilles is often
presented as his most fatal mistake in the Trojan war (18.363); however, one may also note the
deterministic elements of his decision: first, he appears to believe Zeus still favors him (18.340), and
second Athena influences the Trojans to agree with Hector (18.362). Achilles tells the Argives he will
die in Troy (18.382). Quite notable is Achilles promising a human sacrifice of twelve Trojans at
Patroclus’ funeral pyre (18.393).
103
Another comparison is to the Iliad and the Odyssey; as the former is often called a book of war, while the latter is called a
book of peace. Each epic, to a degree, takes up the themes of their respective cities.
104
Some read this not as Antilochus preventing Achilles from killing Antilochus in his rage but rather Antilochus preventing
Achilles from killing himself in his despair.

Book Nineteen
The Champion Arms for Battle
“You talk of food?

I have no taste for food—what I really crave is slaughter and blood and the choking groans of men!”
Achilles (19.254)
85. What happens in book nineteen?
Thetis returns to Achilles with new armor crafted by Hephaestus (19.03). Achilles lets loose his war cry,
and the Achaean army gathers around him (19.47). Achilles promises to cease his rage against
Agamemnon and to rejoin the war (19.63). Agamemnon, in turn, blames the gods for his madness, as
they blinded him and “stole his wits” (19.162). He pledges to Achilles all the treasures Odysseus
promised him (19.168). Achilles accepts Agamemnon’s non-apology and calls the Achaeans to war
(19.176). Odysseus counsels to allow the men to eat and rest, and that Agamemnon do three things: give
the gifts to Achilles now, swear he’s never had sex with Briseis, and host Achilles at a feast (19.204).
Agamemnon agrees (19.220), and Achilles begrudgingly agrees—but swears he will neither eat nor drink
until he can wage war (19.249). He famously declares: “You talk of food? I have no taste for food—
what I really crave is slaughter and blood and the choking groans of men!” (19.254).
The Achaeans follow the advice of Odysseus (19.281). Achilles refuses to eat, and Zeus sends Athena
to place ambrosia “deep within his chest” to give him strength (19.412). With “unbearable grief” and
“bursting with rage,” Achilles prepares to fight the Trojans (19.434). The narrative ends with one of
Achilles’ horses, Roan Beauty, prophesying to Achilles about his death (19.483).
86. Why does Odysseus push for the gifts to be given prior to returning to war?
In the last book, Achilles said he would “beat his anger down” and fight for the Argives (18.133). The
thesis was presented, however, that it is more that Achilles shifts his rage to Hector than he truly forgives
Agamemnon (Question 82). In book nineteen, we see Achilles’ anger continue fester. The more he stared
at his new armor “the deeper his anger went” (19.19). To the Achaean army, Achilles largely repeats his
commitment to relent in book eighteen, stating additionally, in part, “Now, by god, I call a halt to all my
anger—it’s wrong to keep on raging, heart inflamed forever” (19.76). Here, he must only mean his rage
against Agamemnon, for his rage and bloodlust continue to boil, as evident in his famous line: “You talk
of food? I have no taste for food—what I really crave is slaughter and blood and the choking groans of
men!” (19.254). By the time he arms for battle, he is again “bursting with rage” (19.434).
Odyssey’s push to address the issues between Achilles and Agamemnon prior to returning to war may
be seen as a push toward true reconciliation (or, more realistically, a practical resolution). He knows, as
do all the Achaeans, that Achilles’ rage makes him capricious. As such, his push to give the treasure, to
give the oath about Briseis, and to feast all seemed aimed at capitalizing and securing this moment of
peace and reunion. Stability between the two heroes is vital for an Achaean success. Between Achilles’
shift in rage and Agamemnon’s fatalistic non-apology, Odysseus seeks to find a reliable truce.

87. What should we make of Briseis weeping over Patroclus?
After Briseis is released by Agamemnon, she comes upon the body of Patroclus (19.333). We learn,
amongst other things, that Achilles killed her husband, and that Patroclus comforted her (19.348). The
nature of his comfort, however, is notable, as Patroclus promised Briseis that she would become the wife
of Achilles (19.351). The revelation is notable for two primary reasons. First, one may tether this insight
to Patroclus’ mission in Troy to help Achilles quell his anger. In other words, Patroclus sees marriage as
a way to help his friend temper his emotions and mature. Secondly, this leads into Thetis presenting
Achilles with his two fates: to return to Troy, marry, and live a long life or fight and die in Troy to gain
immortal glory. The question becomes whether, in Achilles’ mind, returning home meant marrying
Briseis, and whether this revelation informs, in part, his rage against Agamemnon for taking her.
Moreover, the choice of Thetis becomes less a speculative consideration and more a concrete life with
Briseis he is forgoing for glory. One wonders whether her return to his tent will make him rethink his
decision or whether his rage over the death of Patroclus will continue to outweigh all else. Finally, we
should note the irony Homer presents in Patroclus, the one who had the mission of tempering Achilles’
rage, now serving as the source of that rage—a rage that is blinding him to his potential life with
Briseis.105
88. Who is Ruin?
Agamemnon blames the gods, especially Ruin, for the madness that came upon him (19.100).
Agamemnon says: “Ruin, eldest daughter of Zeus, she blinds us all, that fatal madness—she with those
delicate feet of hers, never touching the earth, gliding over the heads of men to trap us all (19.106). Ruin
is the goddess Ate—a personification of “infatuation,” “madness,” and “doom.” 106 Notably in Plato’s
Symposium, the classical Greek poet Agathon will quote this passage to compare the goddess Ate to the
god of Eros.107 Eros, like Ate, is a god of infatuation and mania, but unlike Ate, Agathon presents Eros
as a force for civilization not ruin—a god who arranges the affairs of gods and men harmoniously
according to beauty. Eros is the true “king of the gods.”108 While Homer does not mention the god Eros,
it is worthwhile to note, as Agathon did, some similarities between Eros and Ate. Moreover, one may
consider Agathon’s praise of Eros’ reign over the gods with the Homeric narrative of Zeus being
conquered by Love.
89. What else should be observed in book nineteen?
Thetis says the “will of the gods has crushed” Patroclus (19.11), which is reminiscent of Heracles being
“crushed” by fate (18.141). Achilles abiding concern for the body of his friend, Patroclus, stands in
contrast to the various narratives of corpse mutilation between enemies (19.30). We are introduced to
Prince Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, who will adopt a larger role later in the narrative (19.389). 109
Athena, at Zeus’ insistence, nourishing Achilles on ambrosia lends to the perspective that Achilles,
toward the end of the Iliad, is becoming more god-like (19.418). The spear of Achilles is further
commented upon, as we learn it was a gift from Chiron, the centaur and trainer of heroes, to Peleus to
105
The life of Briseis as a slave somewhat foreshadows the future of life of Andromache.
106
Fagles, 631, see also, 50, 54. Companion, 83.
107
See, Symposium 195D.
108
Symposium, 195C.
109
For a summary of his role in the Trojan war and afterward, see Companion, 393.

“be the death of heroes” (19.461). The book ends with the famous passage of Roan Beauty, one of the
horses of Achilles, prophesying the impending death of Achilles (19.483). Hera gives the horse the
capacity for speech, the horse tells Achilles that Patroclus’ death was not their fault but that of a “great
god” and “the strong force of fate” (19.486). It is notable that the Furies—ancient spirits that avenge
injustices—are the ones that silence Roan Beauty (19.495).110 One is left to consider why Hera thought
such an act was necessary and whether the presence of the Furies denotes its injustice.
Book Twenty
The Olympian Gods in Arms
“Aeneas will rule the men of Troy in power—his son’s sons and the sons born in future years.”
Poseidon (20.355).
90. What happens in book twenty?
Zeus calls the gods to council and tells them that they may now aide whatever side they wish—the strict
decree to not intervene is over (20.29). And why does Zeus do this? He states: “I fear [Achilles will]
raze the walls against the will of fate” (20.36). As such, Hera, Athena, Poseidon, and Hermes go to the
Achaeans, and Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Leto, Xanthus, and Aphrodite go to the Trojans (20.40).111 The
gods clash in an apocalyptic war (20.80). Achilles searches for Hector, but Apollo convinces Aeneas to
duel him (20.99). Poseidon convinces the gods of a truce, and the immortals line the battlefield to watch
the mortals wage war (20.160). After some taunting, Achilles and Aeneas meet on the battlefield
(20.299). Aeneas’ spear fails to penetrate the great shield of Achilles (20.310), and the ashen spear of
Achilles penetrates Aeneas’ shield but fails to hit him (20.319). Aeneas lifts a giant boulder, and we are
given a future glimpse at fate: Aeneas will hit Achilles, but Achilles’ counter will slay Aeneas (20.331).
Oddly, it is Poseidon, not Apollo, who takes pity on Aeneas, for Poseidon tells the gods Aeneas is
“destined to survive” (20.349). Hera refuses to pity a Trojan (20.357); so, Poseidon saves Aeneas and
tells him to stay away from Achilles, because “no other Achaean can bring you down in war” (20.386).
Unlike with Aeneas, Apollo advises Hector to not engage Achilles (20.428). Achilles slaughters several
Trojans including Polydorus, the brother of Hector (20.476). Hector, unable to bear watching Achilles
slaughter his countrymen, engages Achilles against Apollo’s command and throws his spear at him
(20.479). Athena makes Hector’s spear blow back to him and land at his feet (20.500), and Apollo whisks
Hector away before Achilles can kill him (20.502). More and more Trojans fall to Achilles until the
young Trojan Tros falls at Achilles knees, clutching him, and begs for mercy (20.524). Achilles slits
open is liver and watches his “dark blood” spill out (20.530). The book ends with Achilles raging like
an “inhuman fire,” like a “frenzied god” (20.558).
110
The Furies were created from the blood of Cronus castrating his father, Uranus, or rather out of an act of injustice by a son
against his father. Moreover, the Furies honor Zeus but are not subject to him. See Companion, 258.
111
Fagles notes that Hephaestus could functionally be seen to be on the Achaean side as well. “Leto and Artemis are mother
and sister of Apollo,” hence their allegiance to Troy. Xanthus is the principal river outside of Troy. Fagles, 631.

91. What is the destiny of Aeneas?
In his stance against Achilles, Aeneas presents his genealogy—presumably due to Apollo’s observation
that Aeneas’ patrimony is more impressive than Achilles’ (20.250, 125). We also see Poseidon tell the
gods that Aeneas is “destined to survive” (20.349). Most notable, Poseidon prophesies: “Aeneas will
rule the men of Troy in power—his son’s sons and the sons born in future years” (20.355). How will
Aeneas rule Troy, however, if Troy is already fated to be destroyed? Aeneas is destined to be the founder
of a new Troy. His genealogy shows he is from the “younger branch of the Trojan royal house (Priam,
king of Troy, was the older branch.”112 And, as Fagles notes, “Aeneas is to be the only survivor of the
royal house of Troy, and here his lineage is established.” 113 After the Homeric era, there is a lost poem,
the Iliupersis, that states Aeneas escaped Troy with his father and son.114 Other stories that Aeneas’
wanderings led him to Italy “may possibly have existed in the sixth or fifth centuries.” 115 By the fourth
century B.C., the legend of Aeneas as the founder of Rome matured “when it was synthesized with the
chronologically difficult legend of the city’s foundation by Romulus (a descendent of Aeneas through
his mother).”116
The narrative that Rome was the new Troy was so ingrained in the ancient peoples, that when a Greek
king launched a war against Rome in 281 B.C., “he saw himself as a descendent of Achilles making war
on a colony of Troy.”117 The definitive legend of Aeneas as the founder of Rome come from the Roman
poet Virgil who authored the Aeneid (19 B.C.). The story tells of Aeneas’ famous escape from Troy, his
wanderings, and his eventual founding of the eternal city of Rome. It has been observed that the Roman
Empire is the final revenge of Troy upon the Greeks.
92. What else happens in book twenty?
The opening of the text includes: “the Ocean stream that holds the earth in place,” which gives further
insight into the significance of Ocean’s river limning Achilles’ shield (20.09). It is notable that Zeus
believes he must tend to fate and be its caretaker at times, as he releases the Olympian gods to ensure
Achilles does not take Troy “against the will of fate” (20.36). As if fate, on some level, must be cared
for in order to properly mature. One should note that Hera gives a different reason for the gods
intervening: “so Achilles might not fall at Trojan hands today” (20.148). Homer uses the three principal
gods—Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades—to denote the severity of the gods warring with one another (20.68).
The Trojans know the gods favor Achilles, and that the fight is not fair (20.115).
It is interesting to see what Achilles thinks would motivate a man to stand against him in battle, as he
assumes Aeneas has been offered Priam’s throne or grand estates to fight him (20.207). Achilles’ shield
is shown to be five plies think (and not indestructible): two outer layers of bronze, then two of tin, and a
center one of gold (20.310). One is tempted to find allegorical meaning in these details. We see the return
of the pattern of three assaults and then a fourth, as Achilles attempts to kill Hector under Apollo’s care
112
Companion, 9.
113
Fagles, 632.
114
Companion, 9.
115
Companion, 9.
116
Companion, 10.
117
Companion, 10.

(20.504).118 The book ends lending itself to the perception that Achilles is begining a type of deification,
as he is like an “inhuman fire,” a “chaos of fire,” and “like a frenzied god” (20.558).
Book Twenty-one
Achilles Fights the River
“Come friend, you too must die. Why moan about it so? […] Even for me, I tell you, death and strong
force of fate are waiting.”
Achilles (21.119).
93. What happens in book twenty-one?
The Trojans are in full retreat. Achilles drives half the Trojan army back toward Troy over the plains,
but the other half is driven into the Xanthus river (21.09). Achilles, who leaps into the waters, slaughters
Trojans until his arm grows tired—at which point he captures twelve Trojans for Patroclus’ funeral
(21.30). Achilles, “insane to hack more flesh” (21.37), returns to the river and kills Lycaon, a Trojan
hugging his knees for mercy (21.131). Achilles kill Asteropaeus, son of the river god Axius, who was
ambidextrous and fought with two spears (21.185). The river Xanthus takes human shape, and the river-
god cries out to Achilles: “All my lovely rapids are crammed with corpses now… Leave me alone… I
am filled with horror!” (21.250)
Achilles agrees, but then overhears the river-god Xanthus asking Apollo to help the Trojans (21.258).
Achilles plunges into the “river’s heart” to war against him (21.264), and Xanthus beats and batters
Achilles down with roaring waves (21.281). Achilles cries out to Zeus to not let him die like some pig-
boy who failed to ford the river (21.319), and Poseidon and Athena save him (21.325). Xanthus tries to
attack Achilles again on the flooded corpse-ridden plains of Troy (21.370), but Hera sends Hephaestus
to save him (21.377). The god of fire scorches the plains consuming the water and corpses alike (21.396).
Xanthus cries out to Hera, and Hephaestus relents (21.418).
Zeus was “delighted” to see the gods in conflict (21.442). Athena once again defeats Ares (21.462) and
then batters down Aphrodite when she tries to help him (21.484). Poseidon challenges Apollo, but Apollo
refuses to fight (21.527). Artemis, his sister, mocks Apollo and, having caught the attention of Hera, is
subsequently beaten down by Zeus’ consort (21.545). Hermes tells Leto he will not fight her and allows
her to take her daughter, Artemis, up to Olympus (21.568). Apollo heads to Troy to help them not fall to
the Achaeans (21.592). The book ends with Apollo saving Agenor from Achilles, but then taking on the
appearance of the Trojan and leading Achilles on a chase away from Troy (21.657).
94. Is Achilles becoming more god-like?
The increasing rage of Achilles is presented as a sort of deification. We have already seen him reject
mortal food only to be fed by immortal ambrosia (19.412), and end of the last book linked his rage with
being like a god (20.558). Book twenty-one continues the theme of tethering Achilles’ increasing rage
with becoming more god-like.119 Notably, in his ascending rage, Achilles the mortal elects to take on a
118
Cf. Patroclus’ assault on Troy and his death (Question 73).
119
For example, 20.21; 358.

minor god, the river-god Xanthus (21.264). One is tempted here to present Achilles’ rage as something
unnatural, inhuman that is repulsive particularly to a god of nature. 120 Achilles’ ascendency to godhood
via his rage shows its limitations, as he is conquered by the river-god (21.308). We should note that for
him to die as a “pig-boy” would be an ignoble death in contradistinction to his elected fate to win
everlasting glory in Troy. Achilles is saved by Hephaestus at Hera’s command or rather the Olympian
gods save Achilles from the river-god (21.430). Achilles’ god-like rage is very much an Olympian-like
rage. Many of the metaphors for Achilles’ rage are thematic to fire, and here we see the god of fire ignite
and consume all around him (21.396). Zeus delights in the “chaos” between the gods (21.442). Athena
beats Ares (21.462), and then cruelly and somewhat thematically beats Aphrodite on her breasts
(21.484).121 Homer shows Hera flying “into a rage” (21.546) and cruelly beating Artemis (21.561). If
Achilles’ ascendency to godhood is one of rage, then Homer shows the divine rage in its maturity
amongst the gods.
95. What should we make of Achilles killing Lycaon?
Before Achilles kills Lycaon, a son of Priam, Knox submits that Achilles “formulates the creed of the
warrior devoted to death.”122 Achilles states, “Come friend, you too must die. Why moan about it so?
[…] Even for me, I tell you, death and strong force of fate are waiting” (21.119, 123). Knox avers: “that
macabre word ‘friend’ is sincerely meant; it is recognition of equality, the equality of men of war, all of
whom must face death.”123 Knox further highlights that Homer has Lycaon release Achilles’ knees and
spread his arms wide “in a resigned gesture of relaxation to take the blow of Achilles sword.” 124 It is an
embrace of death that will ultimately culminate in the death of Hector and the subsequent death of
Achilles.
96. What else should be observed in book twenty-one?
It is notable that Asteropaus, a son of the river-god Axius, dies because he cannot pull a spear out of the
river bank (21.197). His attempts are presented in the same three attempts and then on the fourth pattern
we see with Patroclus’ death (21.199). Note that when Achilles gives his own genealogy, he presents
himself within the lineage of Zeus (21.212), which runs contrary to advice Apollo gave Aeneas earlier.
Achilles reveals his mother told him he would die “beneath the walls of the armored Trojans, cut down
in blood by Apollo’s whipping arrows” (21.313). Part of the brutality of Achilles is to toss the bodies of
the Trojans in the river in order to deprive them of their funeral rites (21.136); which, in turn, is what the
river-god Xanthus threatens to do to Achilles (21.364). When Zeus released the gods in book twenty,
Zeus and Hera gave contradictory reasons the gods had to intervene, i.e., Zeus feared Achilles would
sack Troy against the will of fate (20.36), and Hera stated it was to save Achilles (20.148). Both are
proven right in book twenty-one. Hera has to send Hephaestus to save Achilles (21.430), and Apollo has
to defend Troy from Achilles (21.595). Poseidon gives more details about how he built the walls of Troy
120
Xanthus has his own rage, a rage of Achilles clogging up his waters with corpses (21.256).
121
The hatred for Aphrodite demonstrated by both Hera and Athena is at the heart of the entire Trojan war as explained in
book twenty-four.
122
Fagles, 36.
123
Fagles, 37.
124
Fagles, 37.

(21.497).125 Finally, it is notable that Artemis, who “kill[s] off mothers in the labor” (21.551), is
pummeled by Hera, who is the goddess overseeing childbirth.
Book Twenty-two
The Death of Hector
“There are no binding oaths between men and lions—wolves and lambs can enjoy no meeting of the
minds—they are all bent on hating each other to death.”
Achilles (22.310).
97. What happens in book twenty-two?
The Trojans scurry back into the city like “panicked fawns,” while Hector remains outside the walls
(22.05). Apollo, who had taken the form of a Trojan soldier to make Achilles chase him, reveals his
trickery to Achilles (22.09)—and Achilles turns back to the city (22.26). Despite the pleas of Priam
(22.31) and Hecuba (22.93), Hector remains outside the walls “nursing his quenchless fury” (22.115).
As Achilles approaches, Hector’s courage fails, and he begins to run around the walls of Troy with
Achilles in pursuit (22.163). Zeus’ “heart grieves for Hector,” (22.202), but he gives permission to
Athena to do as she wills (22.220). Hector tries to enter the city, but Achilles thwarts him (22.234).
Achilles also holds back the Achaean army, now observing the chase, from intervening (22.245). Zeus
once again holds out his golden scales, and fate elects that it is time for Hector to die (22.249).
Athena takes on the form of Deiphobus, brother of Hector, and convinces Hector to stand together and
fight Achilles (22.271). Hector faces Achilles and tries to make a pact that the victor will not mutilate
the corpse of the fallen but give it to his people for burial (22.301). Achilles rejects this offer, stating:
“There are no binding oaths between men and lions—wolves and lambs can enjoy no meeting of the
minds—they are all bent on hating each other to death” (22.310). Hector and Achilles clash in combat,
and Hector calls to his brother, Deiphobus, for help—but there is no answer (22.347). Hector realizes
the gods have tricked him and that his time has come (22.350). He elects to die in glory, and he charges
Achilles (22.359). Achilles strikes down Hector and tells him: “The dogs and birds will maul you”
(22.395). Hector pleads to be given to his people, but Achilles rejects him saying: “My fury would drive
me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw” (22.408). Hector prophesies that “Paris and Lord
Apollo” will strike down Achilles outside of Troy (22.423). Hector dies (22.425). The Achaeans all stab
his body (22.437), and Achilles drags it behind his chariot (22.466). Priam and Hecuba cry out for their
son (22.478), and Andromache “bursts out in grief” (22.560). The book ends with Andromache
lamenting the impending fate of her son, Astyanax, the little “Lord of the City” (22.569).
98. What structure does piety give the death of Hector?
Previously, Hector’s return to Troy provided an insight into the ancient threefold notion of piety:
gratitude toward the gods, the city, and the family. It is a gratitude that precipitates a sense of duty. The
threefold notion of piety—which is in a hierarchal order—appears to provide a certain infrastructure
(and tension) to the narrative around Hector’s death. For example, Hector disregards the appeals of his
125
See Question 33. Moreover, the myth Poseidon gives here is that while both gods were placed in service to the Trojan
king, Poseidon built the walls, and Apollo served as a shepherd.

parents, Priam (22.32) and Hecuba (22.93), to retreat to the walls of Troy presumably due to his duty to
defend Troy (22.129). Hector’s piety toward the gods is praised by Zeus in the same conversation in
which the son of Cronus orchestrates his death (22.129). It is notable the deception of Hector comes
through his comradery toward another soldier of Troy and a familial relation, his brother (22.270). It
further raises the question that for all Hector’s piety toward Troy, no one seems interested in helping
him. Hector, who is dying, attempts to plead with Achilles by appealing to his parents (22.399).
Ultimately, Hector dies prior to the fall of Troy, as he wished.
Whether Hector’s piety has afforded him anything with the gods, Troy, or his family will be a question
to watch throughout the end of the Iliad.
99. What else should be observed in book twenty-two?
Priam gives an insight into his own fate when Troy falls (22.73). Hector acknowledges his fatal error in
not listening to Polydamas to retreat to walls of Troy after seeing Achilles, but one may question what
culpability Hector bears for such a decision due to Athena’s influence (22.118). One is tempted to find
meaning in Scamander (Xanthus) bring fed by both a hot and cold spring (22.177). The pattern of “three
times and then on the fourth” occurs again with Hector running around the city (22.248). The golden
scales of Zeus return, and again raise the question of whether Zeus is adhering to a separate nameless
fate or this is simply a device to express his own will. The fatalistic quality of the Iliad is demonstrable
in Achilles state that “Athena” will kill Hector (22.319), and Athena giving Achilles his spear back after
he misses (22.325). One may question, as Aeneas did in a way, whether Achilles is even the best warrior
in the Trojan war naturally speaking.
In the clash of Achilles and Hector, both men wear armor made by the gods (22.380), and one may
imagine Hector’s view of the juxtaposition of Achilles’ rage with the imagery on his shield. Though it
arguably found a boundary in attempting a feud with Xanthus, Achilles’ arguably deification through
the medium of rage is displayed in his spiritual cruelty in denying Hector his last rites and in his comment
on eating Hector raw (22.407). There is a certain irony in Achilles blaming Hector for the agonies he
and the Achaeans had suffered (22.448). We find Andromache “working flowered braiding into a dark
red folding robe,” which recalls the dark red robe of Helen that served as an analogue to the war
(22.518).126 It is noteworthy to compare Andromache drawing a bath for Hector’s return (22.519) with
her earlier singing of his funeral dirges.
126
Question X.

Book Twenty-three
The Funeral Games for Patroclus
Sleeping, Achilles? You’ve forgotten me, my friend. You never neglected me in life, only now in death.
Bury me, quickly—let me pass the Gates of Hades.
Patroclus (23.81)
100. What happened in book twenty-three?
Now back at the Achaean camp, Achilles leads his Myrmidons in mourning around the body of Patroclus
(23.13). That night, as Achilles lay by the shoreline, the ghost of Patroclus appears to him (23.76).
Patroclus states: “Sleeping Achilles? You’ve forgotten me, my friend… bury me, quickly—let me pass
the gates of Hades” (23.81). For as Patroclus further explains, he is not permitted to cross the river Styx
until he has received his funeral rites (23.86).127 Finally, Patroclus requests that his bones and the bones
of Achilles be placed in a single urn and buried together (23.100). The next morning, Achilles has a pyre
built for Patroclus (23.188). Achilles slaughters sheep, cattle, stallions, and two of Patroclus’ dogs and
places them all on the pyre with Patroclus (23.190). He then slaughters a dozen young Trojans, as
sacrifices to lay alongside Patroclus on his pyre (23.200). The pyre is lit and, after praying to two of the
gods of the winds, it burns well (23.221). Meanwhile, Homer tells us that Apollo and Aphrodite are
protecting the body of Hector from harm and decay (23.212).
Achilles tends to the pyre all night until “sleep overwhelms him” (23.265). Achilles awakes and tells
the Achaeans to gather the bones of Patroclus and place them into a golden urn; then, the urn will be
placed in a small barrow until Achilles dies, then a large barrow will be built for the two of them (23.281).
Achilles then announces there will be “funeral games” (23.298), which will consist of a chariot race,
boxing, wrestling, a footrace, a duel in battle gear, shot put, archery, and spear throwing. The culture of
competition demonstrated in these funeral games would eventually give rise to the Olympics. 128
101. Who won the funeral games?
The winners of the chariot race were in order: Diomedes, Antilochus, Menelaus, Meriones, and Eumelus
(23.572). Eumelus received a consolation prize from Achilles (23.621). Menelaus accuses Antilochus of
a foul, Antilochus concedes to him; yet Menelaus’ anger relents, and the Spartan king gives the second
prize, the mare, back to Antilochus (23.680). Achilles gives the original fifth place prize to Nestor as a
reminder of Patroclus (23.689). Epeus defeats Euryalus in a boxing match (23.769). Giant Ajax and
Odysseus wrestle to a stalemate (23.818). Odysseus, with the help of Athena, wins the footrace (23.864).
In the duel in battle gear, Giant Ajax goes against Diomedes, but the friends of Giant Ajax call for it to
stop (23.913). Achilles then awards a sword to Diomedes as the winner (23.915). In shot put, Polypoetes
takes the prize (23.939). Meriones, with the blessing of Apollo, defeats Teucer in archery (23.977).
Lastly, Agamemnon wins the spear throwing contest by default due to his station as the high king
(23.989).
102. What else should we observe in book twenty-three?
127
Fagles, 632.
128
Fagles, 57.

The apparition of Patroclus reveals the religious understanding that a body denied its funeral rites
condemns the soul to wander in the afterlife unable to cross the river Styx (23.81). It further illuminates
the spiritual cruelty Achilles inflicts upon the Trojans in the river Xanthus in book twenty-two and his
present cruelty to Hector. We also see an Achilles who is now deferential to Agamemnon and his role
as high king (23.179, 986). The rage of Achilles—and arguably his inhuman arc toward deification—
culminates in human sacrifice (23.199). It also recalls the story of Agamemnon and his daughter. It is
almost comical how the gods must also interfere with the funeral games (23.432, 859, 965), but, on the
other hand, piety is rewarded even in the small things. Iron again makes an appearance in the Iliad this
time as a prize (23.917).
Book Twenty-four
Achilles and Priam
I have put to my lips the hands of the man who killed my son.
Priam to Achilles (24.591)
103. What happens in book twenty-four?
The funeral games have ended, and Achilles, who still mourns for Patroclus, drags Hector’s body behind
his chariot around Patroclus’ tomb (24.19). Twelve days after the death of Hector, Apollo pleads with
the gods to save the body of the Trojan prince (24.39). In response, Zeus declares that “Achilles must
receive a ransom from King Priam, Achilles must give Hector’s body back” (24.94). Zeus tells Thetis
his plan, and Thetis informs her son (24.127). Zeus sends Iris to Troy to tell King Priam, who she finds
smeared in dung and mourning his son, that the Father of gods and men commands him to ransom his
son from Achilles (24.204). Priam, despite the protests of his wife (24.238), obeys the goddess and
prepares to leave (24.259). Priam leaves Troy on his chariot alongside a wagon of treasure (24.382). On
the plains of Troy, Priam is met by Hermes, under the guise of a Myrmidon, who guides him into the
Achaean camp (24.526). Hermes reveals himself to Priam and tells the king of Troy to go into Achilles’
tent and hug his knees (24.546).
Priam does as he is told, and, hugging the knees of Achilles, kisses “his hands, those terrible man-killing
hands that slaughtered Priam’s many sons in battle” (24.562). Priam exhorts Achilles to remember his
own father, Peleus, and Achilles thinks of his father and weeps with Priam (24.595). Priam asks for the
body of Hector (24.650), and though Achilles warns Priam not to tempt his rage (24.667), Achilles has
the body of Hector washed and carries it to the wagon himself (24.691). Achilles promises King Priam
that the Achaeans will wait twelve days before restarting the war to allow Troy to bury Prince Hector
(24.787). Priam sleeps on the porch outside the lodge of Achilles, and Hermes wakes him up to send him
home before Agamemnon finds him (24.808). Priam returns home to Troy, and Troy is “plunged… into
uncontrollable grief” (24.831). For nine days, the Trojans “hauled in boundless stores of timber” for the
funeral pyre of Hector (24.921). On the tenth day, they set the body of Hector “aloft the pyre’s crest,
[and] flung a torch and set it all aflame” (24.924). The next day, the Trojans bury Hector’s bones in a
golden chest and end the rites with a “splendid funeral feast” (24.942). And thus, Homer ends the Iliad
with the burial of “Hector breaker of horses” (24.944).

104. What is the backstory of why Hera and Athena hate Troy?
In the final book of the Iliad, Homer makes reference to the narratives that led to the Trojan war. Hera
states that she “brought up” Thetis and gave her in marriage to a mortal, King Peleus (24.72). The story
goes that Zeus loved Thetis, but the Titan Prometheus told him that Thetis was destined to bear a son
greater than his father. 129 As such, Zeus gave Thetis to Peleus, a mortal, so the son would also be
mortal.130 Homer’s reference of Hera’s role in the Iliad implies she had some part in this scheme as well.
Peleus had to wrestle the immortal sea nymph, Thetis, as she changed shapes to win her heart. 131 He was
successful, and the gods threw a grand marriage for King Peleus and the immortal Thetis.
All the gods were invited to the wedding except for the goddess Discord or Eris. 132 Discord arrived at
the wedding and tossed in a golden apple for “the most beautiful” goddess. 133 Hera, Athena, and
Aphrodite all claimed the prize. As Hamilton notes, “They asked Zeus to judge between them, but very
wisely he refused to have anything to do with the matter.” 134 Instead, Zeus recommends the goddesses
present themselves to Paris, the Trojan prince, who is “an excellent judge of beauty.” 135 Paris, however,
was in exile from Troy, because Priam received a prophecy that Paris would “be the ruin of his
country.”136 The goddesses presented themselves to Paris and offered him gifts (or bribes): “Hera
promised to make him Lord of Europe and Asia; Athena, that he would lead the Trojans against the
Greeks and lay Greece in ruins; [and] Aphrodite, that the fairest woman in all the world should be his.”137
Paris awarded the golden apple to Aphrodite who, in turn, offered him Helen of Sparta—who already
happened to be married to the King of Sparta, Menelaus.
Moreover, it is notable that Paris was already living with the beautiful nymph Oenone by Mount Ida
outside of Troy.138 She loved him without knowing he was a prince of Troy. 139 He abandoned her, even
after she foretold to him what destruction awaited if he sailed to Sparta for Helen. 140 It is said she still
promised to heal him if he were to be wounded in the upcoming war, but when the time came for her to
help Paris, she refused—still upset about his betrayal.141 Paris succumbed to his injuries and died; and
Oenone, in her grief, hung herself. 142
129
Companion, 429.
130
Companion, 429.
131
Companion, 429.
132
Companion, 422; Hamilton, 198.
133
Companion, 422.
134
Hamilton, 198.
135
Hamilton, 198.
136
Hamilton, 198.
137
Hamilton, 198; Companion, 422.
138
Companion, 406.
139
Companion, 406.
140
Companion, 406.
141
Companion, 406.
142
Companion, 406.

105. What should we make of the scene of Achilles with King Priam?
Achilles weeping with Priam is a redemption scene. It redeems Achilles, even if temporarily, as
human.143 His deification arc through the medium of rage descends into a return to his humanity. 144
Though Zeus sends Priam and his gifts to “melt” the rage of Achilles (24.146), it is notable that Achilles’
rage still simmers (24.667).
Note well that Priam, as counseled by Hermes (24.547), appeals to Achilles to remember his father
(24.570). It is an appeal to piety. It is very similar to the unsuccessful appeal made by Hector to Achilles,
as the former lay dying (Question 98). It is an appeal to Achilles’ literal human side, his human father—
and not his immortal mother. Priam, a physical reminder of Peleus, kisses the hands of Achilles, and it
stirs in his heart memories of his father (24.593). It is this that “melts” Achilles’ rage and causes a “pity”
for King Priam (24.603). Notice as well that Priam appeals to the gods (24.588). It finds its parallel in
Achilles’ response to Priam in which he comments on the two jars of Zeus: one of blessings and one of
curses (24.613). Achilles ties his commentary on the gods back into his thoughts about his father, Peleus
(24.627), and notably somewhat presents himself as a curse: “only a single son he fathered, doomed at
birth… and I, I give the man no care as he grows old since here I sit in Troy, far from my fatherland…”
(24.630). Though Achilles may have given up Hector’s body due to his own obedience to the gods
(24.168), the manner in which he did it is very much predicated on the nature of Priam’s appeal.
There are other factors in Achilles’ re-humanization than the memory of his father. Notice Thetis
encourages Achilles “to make love with a woman” (24.158). It is a line that should be held in contrast
with Achilles collapsing outside and sleeping on the shore. After his conversation with Priam, Achilles
returns to his bed and sleeps alongside Briseis (24.794). In addition to presumably following his mother’s
advice, this act provides a book end to the opening rage of Achilles in book one. Being with Briseis back
within his lodge demonstrates a cooling of his rage and a re-humanization of the demi-god. Moreover,
not only does Achilles begin to eat again (24.738), but he also convinces King Priam to eat as well
(24.728). The weeping, the eating, the sleeping inside, and the company of Briseis all redeems Achilles
as human—at least in part.
106. How does Hector’s piety give structure to the final scenes of the Iliad?
Apollo chastises the gods for supporting Achilles, “a man without a shred of decency in his heart,” over
Hector, a man who made pious sacrifices to the gods (24.39). Hera responds that though Apollo’s
argument has merit, Hector is a mortal, and Achilles has an immortal mother (24.67). To wit, they differ
in kind. Zeus states he loved Hector and “never once did my altar lack its share of victims” (24.84).
Hector’s piety for the gods could not stop the destruction of Troy. It did, however, merit the gods tending
to his body (24.496), and Zeus decreeing that his body must be given over (24.94). King Priam makes
this observation: “Never once in his halls did he forget the gods who hold Olympus, never, so now they
remember him… if only after death” (24.503).
107. What else happens in book twenty-four?
143
Fagles, 63.
144
The scene is redemptive but not one of the repentance. Achilles does not repent of his rage or any particular actions thereof;
but rather, it is simply a cooling of his deification and a return to humanity. In other words, he’s redeemed as human but not
necessarily a good one.

One may note that Athena gives up her throne next to her father for Thetis (24.122). In response to the
gods wanting Zeus to steal the body of Hector, Zeus replies: “that is not my way” (24.134)—which raises
a contrast with his actions with Sarpedon. Notice that Hecuba, Hector’s mother, unknowingly repeats
Achilles’ line to Hector about eating him raw (24.252). Priam, like Hector, prays to die before he sees
Troy fall (24.290). Priam criticizes his remaining sons, including Paris, as “disgraces” (24.308), which
one may tether to the fact that none attempted to help Hector outside the walls. As Priam has already
seen the goddess face-to-face (24.266), his acquiescence to Hecuba to ask for a bird-sign (24.370) seems
more for his wife and his people than for him (24.381). Remember that before Priam met Hermes in
disguise on the road (24.428), Iris had already revealed to him that Hermes would be his guide (24.217).
One may read Priam’s words to Achilles as also trying to save Troy—not just Hector’s body (24.653).145
It may be said that Achilles observes this subtle push and thus responds: “No more, old man, don’t tempt
my wrath” (24.653). One must wonder whether the end of the Iliad will re-spark the dispute between
Achilles and Agamemnon, as Achilles promises, without consulting Agamemnon, the Achaeans will not
attack Troy for eleven days (24.786). Helen states this is the “twentieth year” since she sailed for Troy
(24.899). As this timeline is difficult to square with what else Homer offers, it has been suggested she is
being hyperbolic in her mourning. 146 It is notable, especially in remembrance of Patroclus’ funeral, that
no sacrifices are recorded at Hector’s funeral (24.924).
108. Why does the Iliad end with the death of Hector?
The Iliad ends with the burial of Hector. First time readers may be surprised to realize that the death of
Achilles, the Trojan Horse, and the fall of Troy are not recorded in the Iliad. A consideration of why
Homer ends his epic poem with the death of Hector is often incorporated into discussions on his purpose
in compiling the Iliad. If Homer is simply a flat reflection of his time, the ending of the Iliad is largely
devoid of any pedagogical purpose. If Homer is a teacher challenging the notion of virtue amongst the
aristocratic Greeks, then ending the Iliad with the end of Hector reveals something about the role Hector
plays in the epic. He is the foil or contrast to Achilles and challenges the notion of arete or the excellence
of man being reducible to prowess in combat. In other words, the contrast to Achilles’ rage has ended,
and so with it the primary pedagogical purpose of the Iliad.
AFTER THE ILIAD
There is a notable gap between the Iliad and the Odyssey. As the Odyssey picks up after the fall of Troy,
tradition turns to authors such as the Greek poet Sophocles, the Greek poet Euripides, and the Roman
poet Virgil to tell the story of how Troy fell. 147 The following questions, while tracking the fates of
specific individuals, tell the narrative that occurs between the Iliad and the Odyssey. One may make a
distinction between the Homeric tradition and the Greek tradition at large.
145
Similarly, see Priam’s “if fight we must” (24.785).
146
Fagles, 633.
147
For an excellent summary of this interim period, see “The Fall of Troy,” Hamilton, 212-220.

109. What happens to Achilles?
After the death of Hector, Troy is reinforced by an army led by an Ethiopian prince named Memnon,
and Nestor’s son, Antilochus, is killed in the fighting. Achilles, in his last battle, kills Prince Memnon is
“glorious combat,” and then he himself is killed by Paris, with Apollo’s help, who shoots him in the heel
with an arrow outside the walls of Troy.148 Thus, Prince Hector’s prophecy to Achilles is fulfilled.
Moreover, this narrative of Achilles’ death plays off the myth that Achilles is invincible everywhere but
his heel; because his mother, Thetis, dipped the infant Achilles into the River Styx to make him
invincible, but failed to include the heel she was holding. It is the obvious origin of the idiom “an
Achilles’ heel” and of the “Achilles tendon” that connects the calf muscles to the heel bone. Achilles
receives his burial rites and then is buried alongside Patroclus, as the shade of Patroclus desired.
110. What happens to Giant Ajax?
The Achaeans decided that either Odysseus or Ajax should have the armor of Achilles. After a secret
ballot, Odyssey was selected as the one who would be honored with Achilles’ armor. Ajax went into a
rage due to the dishonor he had received. Athena, however, caused Ajax to go mad. The giant warrior
began to slaughter sheep and goats that he perceived were his fellow Achaeans. He even “dragged to his
tent a huge ram which to his distracted mind was Odysseus, bound him to the tent-pole and beat him
savagely.”149 When he awoke from his madness, the dishonor of not receiving Achilles’ armor was now
coupled with the public disgrace and humiliation of slaughtering the animals. He knew the gods were
against him. Telemonian Ajax committed suicide. Notably, the Greeks would not give a suicide the full
rites of the funeral pyre, and instead they buried him.
111. What happens to Paris?
The Achaeans still cannot take Troy. Their own prophet, Calchas, tells them to capture Priam’s son,
Helenus, who is a seer. Odysseus does so, and Helenus tells them Troy cannot fall until the Achaeans
wield the famous bow and arrows of Hercules. Fortunately, the man who has the bow is part of the
Achaean army, Prince Philoctetes. Unfortunately, on their way to Troy, Philoctetes had been bitten by a
snake and, not wanting to wait for him to heal, the army had abandoned him on the island of Lemnos.
The Achaeans sent Odysseus to trick Philoctetes into handing over his bow, and Odysseus is successful
in that endeavor and convinces the prince to return with him to Troy.
Now, before the Trojan war, Paris was living with a beautiful nymph named Oenone by Mount Ida
outside of Troy.150 She loved him without knowing he was a prince of Troy.151 After Paris judges the
goddesses (Question 104), he abandons Oenone, even after she foretold to him what destruction awaited
if he sailed to Sparta for Helen.152 Despite her despair, the nymph promised to heal Paris if he were to
be wounded in the upcoming war. If we return to the narrative of Hercules’ bow, Prince Philoctetes is
treated by the Achaean healers and rejoins the war effort. The first person he wounds with the bow is
Paris, and it should be noted that the arrows of Hercules are poisoned with the blood of the hydra. Paris
148
Hamilton, 213.
149
Hamilton, 213.
150
Companion, 406.
151
Companion, 406.
152
Companion, 406.

is taken to Oenone to be healed—but she refuses to help him due to his betrayal. 153 Paris succumbed to
his injuries and dies; and Oenone, in her grief, hanged herself.154
112. What is the origin of the Trojan horse?
The Achaeans discover that Troy held a sacred image of Athena, the Palladium. Moreover, as long as
Troy possesses the image, Troy cannot fall. Therefore, Odysseus and Diomedes agree to try and steal
the image, and they scale the walls at night and are successful.
The Achaeans, however, come to understand they will never breach the walls of Troy by a direct assault.
As such, Odysseus devised a plan and had Epeus, the boxing champion (Question 101), craft a giant,
hollow wooden horse. Odysseus, Neoptolemus—Achilles’ son who had come and joined the war—and
others hid inside the wooden horse, while the Achaeans left it outside the gates of Troy. The Achaeans
the sailed away to a nearby island out of sight from the Trojans, and they left a single Achaean behind:
Sinon.
113. How does Sinon convince Troy to take in the Trojan horse?
Sinon is captured and tells King Priam the lie that Odysseus had spun. Athena was angry at the Achaeans
for stealing the Palladium, and the goddess of wisdom told the Greeks: “With blood and with a maiden
slain you calmed the winds when first you came to Troy. With blood must your return be sought. With
a Greek life make expiation.”155 Sinon had been selected to be sacrificed, but in the night he had
escaped—and the Achaeans had sailed away without him. Moreover, the wooden horse was an offering
to Athena, to appease her wrath. The reason for its giant size was to discourage the Trojans from bringing
it into the city, as if Troy honored the offering, Athena would honor them. In fact, the Achaeans were
hoping Troy would destroy it and bring down Athena’s wrath upon them.
Priam had pity on Sinon and believed his story. A priest of Poseidon, Laocoön, thought the wooden
horse should be destroyed, and he famously stated: “I fear the Greeks even when they bear gifts.” 156
Laocoön and his two sons were on the shore protesting the idea of bringing the wooden horse into the
city when Poseidon sent two serpents out of the sea. The snakes coiled around them and crushed them
to death, and then the snakes retreated into the temple of Athena. With this divine confirmation, the
Trojans brought the wooden horse into the city. The death of Laocoön is best depicted in the statue
Laocoön and His Sons housed in the Vatican.
114. How does Troy finally fall?
In the middle of the night, Odysseus, Menelaus, Neoptolemus, and others, crept out of the wooden horse
and opened the gates of Troy for the Achaean army. The Trojans awoke to Troy burning. What followed
“was not fighting, it was butchery.”157 In the palace, King Priam and several women gathered at the altar
in the courtyard. “Achilles had spared Priam, but Achilles’ son [Neoptolemus] struck him down before
153
Companion, 406.
154
Companion, 406.
155
Hamilton, 216.
156
Hamilton, 216.
157
Hamilton, 217.

the eyes of his wife and daughters.”158 The only Trojan of note to live was Aeneas who, with Aphrodite’s
help, escaped with his father and his son. As Hamilton observes, “Aphrodite was the only one of the
gods that day who helped a Trojan.”159 Aphrodite also helped Helen return to Menelaus who welcomed
her return.
115. What happens to Astyanax, the Lord of the City?
The women and children of Troy are separated from each other and are marked to be sold as slaves. As
Hamilton notes:
Our children are crying, call to us with tears,

‘Mother, I am all alone.
To the dark ships not they drive me.
And I cannot see you, Mother.’ 160
Andromache, however, still holds the infant Astyanax, the little Lord of the City. She tries to convince
herself the Achaeans will let her keep him, but alas, an Achaean herald comes to her with the truth:
Astyanax is to be thrown from walls of Troy. An act recommended to the Achaeans by Odysseus in fear
the young lord will later seek revenge. Andromache cries out:
Weeping, my little one? There, there.

You cannot know what waits for you.
How will it be? Falling down—down—all broken—
And none to pity.
Kiss me. Never again. Come closer, closer.
Your mother who bore you—put your arms around my neck.
Now kiss me, lips to lips.
The little Lord of the City is cast down from the walls of Troy and with him the war ends. The women
are marched to the ships as they lament: “Farewell, dear city. Farewell, my country, where my children
lived. There below, the Greek ships await.” 161 Andromache is given as a concubine to Neoptolemus, the
son of the man who killed her husband, father, and her brothers.
Congratulations on reading Homer’s Iliad!
Now it is time to read Homer’s Odyssey. Please visit thegreatbookspodcast.com for resources.
End of Guide
158
Hamilton, 218.
159
Hamilton, 218.
160
Hamilton, 219.
161
Hamilton, 220.

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ASCEND: THE GREAT BOOKS PODCAST

1 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... 2

2 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

Book Twenty ................................................................................................................................ 52

Copyright 2023 by Ascend: The Great Books Podcast, Inc.

3 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

115 QUESTIONS ON THE ILIAD BY HOMER

1. Who was Homer?

2. Did Homer write the Iliad?

4 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

3. Why should we read the Iliad by Homer?

4. What translation of the Iliad should I read?

5 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

5. How should I use this guide?

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MAIN CHARACTERS & TERMS

6 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

The Gods & Goddess

7 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

Select Working Definitions

COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT

Rage—Goddess, sing of Peleus’ son Achilles.

6. What happens in the first half of book one?

8 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

7. Why does Homer open in the middle of the narrative?

8. Who are the Muses?

9 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

9. What should we know about Agamemnon and his family?

And all her prayers—cries of Father, Father,

10 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

10. What is the role of the gods in the Iliad?

11. What happens in the second half of book one?

11 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

12. What is the importance of Achilles’ prayer to his mother?

13. Who are Hera & Hephaestus?

12 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

14. What happens in the second book of the Iliad?

16. Why is the dream repeated three times?

13 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

17. Who is Odysseus?

18. Who is Helen of Argos?

19. What is the significance of the roll call of Achaean warlords?

14 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

20. What can be observed in the sacrifice made to Zeus?

21. What happens in the third book of the Iliad?

22. What is the story of Helen and Paris?

15 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

23. What are Trojan politics concerning Helen and Paris?

24. What is guest-friendship?

16 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

25. What else should be noted in book three?

26. What happens in the four book of the Iliad?

17 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

27. Is the Iliad an accurate depiction of fighting in the Bronze Age?

28. Who is Cronus?

18 © Ascend: The Great Books Podcast

29. What else should be noted in book four?

Now take heart, Diomedes, fight it out with the Trojans!