CHAPTER 3 HOW TO ANALYZE A CASE As 4s 4 text that refses to exphsin jell. How do you construct a meaning for it? Start by recognizing some contextual factors that help limit and narrow ‘he analysis. Cases are usally studied in a course. A marketing case reuires you to think as a masketer, not a stregis. or manufacturing, manager Courses are often divided into different mosfales ar theines defined by cer- ‘ain types of situations and, offen, concepts, theories, and practices appro- Pinte for these situations, You can expect to encounter the theres in the cases thot are pact of the modules and opportunities to put co work the anae lytical cools and best practices you have learned, Past case discussions pro~ vide 3 foundation for chiaking about a new ease, ard saidy questions can call acention to important issues You should snake vse of all these contex~ tual factors but they don't amount o & method for analyzing a ese. STARTING POINT FOR UNDERSTANDING ‘The ease method is heursti—a term for self guided learning chat employs analysis o help draw conclusions about a situation, Analysis is derived from. a Greek word mesning, "2 dissolving” In English, analysis has two closely related definitions ro break something up into its constituent parts; and to study the relationships of the parts € the whole, To analyze a case, you therefore need ways of identifying and understanding important aspects of situation and what chey mean in relation co the overall situation Exch business dsciphne has its own theories, fameworks, proceses an practices, and quantitative tools. All of thems ate adapted 9 help understand specific types of situations. Michael Porter’ concep ate productive when javesiguing compeciive advantage—bye they aren't very help for de~ ciding whether to launch » product ata pantcalar price or chooring the best methed to finance the growth of a business Porte’ five forces can Aeseribe and explain the indusery context in which a firma operates! No one would expect Porters famewark to guide a product launch decision, Specialized methods are Evifal because they're talored to ft well-defined purposes, They'e often complex, though, and hard ¢o ap especially for people who axe jar eaeninng how to use thes 620 ANALYSIS This book teaches an epproach co cases that complements business com ‘ceptsand theories Is purpose isto provide s starting point for analysis that ids che wse of theories and fameworks and quantitative farmaias all of ‘which ae indigpensable for esching conclusions about a case and building an axgument for those conclasions. The case situation approach identifies a= tures of case thar ean be helpfl co ts analysis and eneourages active reading. THINKING, NOT READING, 1S KEY Students new to the cise method usually believe che most reliable way 20 understand a casei co rea i from start to finish ond then reread i ay many’ times as necessary. (Thats why many busines schoo} students think speed reading courses can help them) They rush into a case, highlighter in hand, reading 2s ifthe case were 2 textbook chapter. For case analysis you need to know when to zead fast and when to read slowly. You should alsa spend tore time thinking about 2 cae chan reading it. ‘When you begin work on a new case, you don't know what to Jook for. ‘That i the mujor dilemma that confions evesyone who reads a case I an active approach to 2 case, you sit thinking bye you read the ease, And as you start reading it, you ask questions about the content, Then you seek answers in the exseielf.As you find pattie or fll answers, you think about bhaw they relate to each other and co the big pieware of the case. You don't make knowledge by reading, Reading is never the primary resource of cae analysis, Reading is simply an inseroment directed by che thou process that makes meaning from ehe text. ‘TYPES OF CASE SITUATIONS Fur pes of situations occur repeatedly in cases + Problems + Decisions + Evaluations + Roles People sometines react indignantly to this clasetication, They insist that there are mulkitude of stvatious portrayed in cases, and ik misleading to say they're reducible to four.The four are mot che ony stations fowad int cases, but many case situations do belong in one of the four categories, and when they dean awareness of whick one cat help organize analysis This approach isthe only correct way—itt one way Try i and see ifit helpsHOWTO ANALYZE A case Feel fice to imegrate pieces of with your own way of dealing wich cass ‘The greatest value ofthe case situation approach may be that it causes you to think about how you think about case studies, Problems ‘The word proc kas many meanings. The meaning can be vague, refereing ‘a something that’ dffcuh or twoubling- The definsion of ple a8 a case situation, however, is quite specific. esa situation in which (1) thece is a signifieant outcome or performance ad (2) there is ao explicit explanation ‘of the outcome ot performance. To per itsimply.a problem isa situstion i ‘hich something importane has happened, but we don’t kuovr why ie di Casts provide many examples of problems defined chis way: In one, » wwel-rained, well-ineentioned manager has wied co inode a worthwhile change in the sles strategy of an organization —a change suppated by 2 derailed, data-driven analysis everyone admits isa bresktiarough—and has failed to get any of the sles staff co go along. In another, an accounting anager of a manufactuternorices that two good retail custome suddenly hhave accounts parable that are large and ovetiue enough ta be worrisome, Hie has no idea why the ovo firms would fill far behind in their payments, Both of these cases describe sitmations chat iewelve negative outcomes. ‘The causes of these sorts of outcomes ate insportant to know for 2 practical reason: the Knowledge ca help improve the situation, The change effort may be tel-destractive because it has weakneses that ae noc apparent, or the manager may be good 2t many things but ia poor change agent. The manufaceure’s real curtoiners may have lange accounts payable because they have soppy internal canttals—or they may both be wa the vetge of Dankrupecy: These posites illustrate why accurate causal analyse vie Acconceptually flawed change i addresed very ffereatly from an individ- ual who iste well sued to Tes change, If bath situations exis the corres= tive aetion is that much more complex. Retail operations that need ta clean up their accounting processes mighe require the manufacrazer to engage i negotiations overa petiod of ime, bur to firms with bal debts hae might Bo bankrupe require the supplier’ immediate attention, Soceess can ako be a problem in the special mening wed het, Take the cue of a company that specializes ix outdoor averting. It operates in three different market segments, but the case doesn’t tell you which isthe ‘ost profile, anh fos why. Another ease deseribes the developmen: of 2 counery overa period of thisty years or s;afier severe political and social up- heal, che councry slowly recovers and exceeds the performance of most ‘countries in the segion. Bus the ease doesn't sate haw nnich more succes a22 ANALYSIS the country has been celasve to its neighbors, and while it provides a great eal of data, both economic and demogrephic, ie doesn't enumerate the rea- sons for the country’ revival Problem analysis begins with a definition of the problems, That seems obvious, yet many cases don't sate a problem, So fst, you need to realize 2 problem exist and then define it for yourself Next, yous work out an expla nation of che problem by linking the outcome or performance ta is root ‘causesthis is che main work of problem analysis. To carry it out, you'll need relevant tools, the specialized methods of business disciphnes such as ‘organizational behavior or opetations management Decisions Many cas are organized sround an explicit decison, The second paca- graph of “General Motors: Packard Electie Division” (eproduced in this book) begins with this sentence: “The Product, Process, and Reliability (PPR) commie, which lad che final responsiblity for the new product development process, had asked [David] Schrerams for his analysis and te ‘orimendation as ro whether Packard Electric should commit to the RIM grommet for a 1992 model yea car" Like many cases, this one complicates ‘hat decision immediately: Schramm mast make up his mind within a week, andthe product development people and mansfictaring dsgree over which ‘way to ga ‘The existence of an explicit decision isan importane distinction, because nearly all business cass involve decisions. In many ofthese cites, however, the decisions are implicit and dependent on anatheesieuation, Lec take a «case described eatice that invelves a problem:the outdoor advertising eom- ‘pany. The case implies a decision: What is the best strategy the company should pars in che future? This decision can only he made afer the com- pany’ current strategy and how well it works are analyzed. ‘The decisions featured in cases vary greatly in scope, consequence, and silable dats, An executive ust decide whether to lauach a product, move a plant, pursue a merger, or provide financing for a planned expansion —or the president ofa country muse decide whether to signa controversial rade agroemeni. Regardles ofthe dimensions of decison, analyzing it requires the fllawing: + Decision opsions + Decision criteria + Relevant evidence[dentifying decision options s often easy because the case tals you what they aze.As soon as you encounter a stated decision, you should look fora statement of the alternatives. IF they arent stated, then the ftst goal of analysis sro come up with plaosible decision options ‘The mos important part of a decision analysis is determining the crice- ria. rational decision can't be made without appropriate criteria, dect- sion ease in likely to state criveria—they have ta be derived through carefil sudy of the specifics of the case, withthe help of specialized methods The criteria are used 10 develop evidence o complete a decision analy. ‘The goal isto determine the decision cha erates the best fc between the avilable evidence and the criteria Th the General Mators cate, a posible decision criteria is value to che customer. The reader reed to find evidence indicating which option delivers the greatest value to the customer, (That doesn’ see the water, chough, because there are other criteria.) One other characteristic of decision analysis deserves mention here ‘There isno objectively correct decision he standard for a good decision is the one chat creates more benefits than the skernatives and has fewer or less severe downsides Evaluations Evaluations express 2 judgment sbout the worth, value,or effectiveness ofa performance, ct, or outcome. The unt of analysis of an evaluation can be 4 group, department, an entre organization, a country, of @ global region. An annual performance evaluation of an employee is a real- ‘world example. So isa new CEO evaluating the performance of the come pany she is now heading, An evaluation can aso involve the asesament of an act such ata decision that has aeady fen taken, Hees isan example: From the perspective of crvent EU sneer do yes age wih thee decision 10 enlarge the Union by ton naw member? Firally an outcome can be the subject ofan assesment The competitive position of a company, for instance, i the outcome of mumieous decisions and perfoomnances as well as contingencies such as macroeconomic conditions Like decision analysis, evsluation requires appropriate criteria. Without them, there are no standards for asessing wort, value, or effectiveness. Asin ecsion analysis, evaluntive criteria are infecred from the particulars of a st- vation with help from specialized methods. Fvaluasng a company’s fnart- ial performance over five-year period can be undertaken with along lit cof financial formulas, bur play as well Ths numbers may show thot a company has @steaity declining circumstances portrayed in the ease come into24 ANALYSIS perforrsance over the p tational economy is slumping and the company is actually daing better than its competitors An overal evaluation expresses the best fit between the evidence and the criteria, In the example just given, measuted against purely financial cite ria, the company is doing poor Ye, the evidence pertaining to macroeca- nomic aud comperitive criteria alters the evaluation: in a tough marker, the company is actually performing better than its peers Another requirement of evaluation is that it include botk positive and negative sides. A leader has srengths and weaknewes, and both are included in an accurate evaluation. Moreover, there may be aspect! of the leader's performance chat are ambiguous—he has delegated power widely, but itis 00 early to tell whether che managers below hima ean handle the powes ‘And this individuals performance 28 leader could be sbstantilly affected by factors outside bis contcol—corporate headquarters has intervened in his promotion decisions and insisted that certain favorites be elevated even though they arent the best-qualifed candidates. riod, bue ic sill may be doing well because the Rules Quantitative methods can provide critical information abou business sta ations For example, say there isa need to compare the value ofa company when a specific condition exiks—a partnensaip with another cempany— and when it doesn exis-The way co caleulate Fure cash values—one that experts and experience support as reasonably accurate—is net present value. An NPY calculation i done according to formula, Mathematically, there 8a right way to perform the calelation; amy ocher way provides an inaccurate reslt Fr rules analysis, you need to know + The ype of intoemation needed i tation +The appropiate rte to fish that infoemmion 1+ The corece way to apply the rule Rules analysis exist in viewlly every area of business. breakeven cal- culation isa role nsed im marketing. In manufacturing, quantitetive meth- ods ane used for process aualysis, and accounting and finance consist primatily of rles.The scope of cules is very narrow: For the most part they ae usefill only in specific sets of circumstances, but in those circumstances ae very productive, There isa correce way to execae or perform the rule,HOW TO ANALYZE A case ate dhe ouput sof one type. welded sot of ules is need to anae Iyze a company’ liquide Those les are the nos use inthe ston, because they are designed tobe. Each clelaton spec by rule has ¢ roche chat mast be flowed. i sn, che cele a meaningless nun ter Each cnelation yskds a precise omper ofa prescribed type (eg. pes centage ks than oF eq 9210) uaiive methods are cifere fem rele, There ae ofter many aker- ‘ative methods for oeaining the sine or snl information. To analyze dhe aly of leadership in a oegnaton ors competitive ates ere area large namber of methos to choose fon. Thee is no prescibed snethod that provides correct information about competive adage. In smarting evo dierent methods can be aplid tothe sme stuaion, can produce very dren esl, and cin bok be wefulmor useless. A second dlfeence beeen rles and quali methods is how they ae executed ‘Ther isa correct wayto cate eae such athe formal for nec present ‘alos there iso objectively correct way ea enecte quate metiods for analyzing competion Tha is orf ay that rales analy acs ances and ambigivis ‘ny cleulaton about the fore invokes uncertainty This uncertainty i bik into forewlasehwough asermption, and asmmpsions ‘evolve judge ‘ment, not objective truth, Setting om a growth ot inflation rate owe & cer- ‘ain period of time is speculative. The key is che rexsning behind the choice. Cential bankers can be song about infltion and growth, and so can the rest of ws. Assumptions need ta have a reatanable basis, bue reson able people can disagree about them, Bue note thatthe arguisent is about assumptions, not about the rules themselves, (Experts do argue about the fieness of rules and make changes to them, but alter they do, everyone wes the changed role and executes tthe same way) Sometimes, though, an idiosyncratic assurnption has no material effect fon the result of z calculztion. n the easier valuation example, you might asume a growth tate that is coo opsimistic, bu ifthe sate isthe sate forthe eakulation with and without the partecship. it should have no effect on the comparison of the end values ‘The resus of rules analysis fequently provoke shacp diferences of opin- fon, What two people infer from the same ruinerical rsuly can diverge Economists are famous for looking 2 the sime sot of numbers and corning to vaslly diferent conclusions about them, even though they all agiee om the formulas and data that have prodiaced the autnbers, The same it teue in companies. One executive can eead fnanclal naenbers as confirmation that a srategy i wotking, while ether can read them ata warning that dias- te looms, In short, numbers don't explain what they mean, and they don't make decisions for you. as26 ANALYSIS Hovseves, the interpretation of the ouper of rules is distinct from the vules chemelves. If the tight rule is applied and casreedy peeformed, and the rule doesnt itwolve a coatroversial assumption ike the predicted grow rate of GNP], everyone will come up with exactly che same resut [fa qualita tive method relevant soa sinution is applied to Hae me st offic ia a way consistent wich the genenlly underscood meaning af ts concepts, everyone will not necessarily come up with the seme result That is the fundamental dlfecence betvicen rules, 25 defined here, and qualitative methods, [Rates ateo't pursued further in this book, Learning ries analysis means learning a certain category of roler—valation, for instance—and when and how to use then, hat leaning i the province of accounting, finance, ‘ux, and other areas that are intensely rule governed, However, it may be |heipfil co remember that when rales depend upon assumptions, the vahis chosen for them requite an argument. Moreover, the information ries provide bas great imporcance for the analysis of problems, decisions, and evalua- sions Accounting rules ean diagnose the financial health ofan organization, Macroeconomics is invaluable in evaluating a nation’s development stat~ cgy. Financial rules ate indispensable to 2 decision aboue whether eo sella ‘company ata given time and price. Rules are a large and important subset of dhe specialized methods necessary to understand case situations. CASE ANALYSIS AS A PROCESS ‘The way you analyze a ease differs fiom the way anyone ele dors. Thetis « difference, hough, between personel study habits ad a process for ana- Iyaing a case The latter involves moze chan habits and practices, Ie conceens hhow you think about a ease. The intention of this section isto suggest a process that has helped case methed students become mone efficient aid prodvcrve. This proces is designed for ease discussion preparation, Buti is casly adapeed 10a process for writing a ease essay (However, the way a cae isanalyze for an esay is more prescriptive since an esiy must have certain elenients, Chapters 10 through 12 will explain these elements) The key tothe process is active reading Active reading ie intemgative and Propose. You ask questions about the case and seek answers, Questions give a purpose for reading: they direct and focus stady on important aspects ofa situation. The moment you sense that you ae reading without purpose, Stop and regroup. It may be a good time to step ava and sec, Go some yous, or walk, Active reading is aio itette, meaning yoo make multiple pases through a ease, With each iteration, che purpose of reading changes you are looking for new information or looking at eld information it a new way Three concepts contribute to active reading: « goal. a point of view.and « hypothesisOW TO ANALYZE ACASE 27 Goal of Analysis At first it may seem obvious. Whae other goal cat there be for analyzing a tise chan to understand it? The problem is that “understanding” i too ‘vague. Anocee way to think about the goa is, How da you know whee to conclude the study oF a case? This i an important question, If you don't have a concrete limit, you can dif along for havrs, mach ofc raken up by distsction and undirected effort, Here is a more concrete goal: you are familie with the information ic the ease, you have come to a conelusion about the main issue, you have evidence showing wly your conchsion it seavonable, and you have chonght abou: other posible conclusions and why ‘outs preferable to them. ‘This subsative goal can be combined with atime limit. Allocate a set mount of time —tvo hours, for example—for exch case. At the end af the ppetiod, stop and sete for whatever you knowy about the case. This is 2 very ood way to pat constructive pressure on yourself co anake the most ofthe sine, Point of View ‘To anchor analysis, cake advantage of whats already i the cae, Adopt the pitt of view of the protagonist—the main character Pat yourself in her shoes, Her dilemma should be your dlems. IP ic « decision, seta seeott- tended decision as your goal. When you adapt the persom of the main chatacter, don't asume that you'e dealing with a cardboncd cutout, a dea matic veneer. Consider the characters sens, responsibilities, and blind spots. By all means, oo, be sensitive tothe dilemmas characters find chem selves in, Often, a good question to ask yoursefis, Why isthe person in this lemma? Hypothesis ‘One ofthe most wstil constructs or resolving the protagonist lem sa ‘peer. bypoteris ss tentacneexplnaton tha accounts fo ase oF faes ste cn be tested by fcr invetgaion” Iris indispensable to sience atid ‘any far-baed analytic activity which mukiple conckasions are powsble A hypothesis offers the advantage af « concrete statement you ean test sess: case evidence. Say chac the protagonist of + exe must evaluate at intvidal she has hited — ising sar but alo a petion who alenaes many people inside the firm and cuts sere cornet in his relendess pusie oF ‘exe bases The hypotbess is tht the new hire shoudl receive a high ating Alespte some flows im his perfemance. Ts én youl} have to develop #26 ANALYSIS serong argument, based on relevant criteria, facts, and inferences, that backs 1 postive evaluation but alo recoguizes poor perfarmance on ot ‘Cases don't allow just ony hyposhesis,The avaible evidence in che case sets the rational limit on the range of hypotheses. hypothesis that can’t be argued ftom evidence in the case is simply an unsubstantiated opinion However, chere is a range of possible hypotheses about every case.A con ‘tarian’s position—one that opposes what seem ro be safer hypotheses and can be argued from evidence—-can have & galvanizing effect ina discussion, forcing everyone to Took st the evidence fiom an entirely new angle o consider evidence no one else has noticed DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS ‘The rest of tis chapter outlines a proces for working on cases.The process has five phases LL Sissation 2. Questions 3. Hypothesis 4, Proof and action Alera The proces is means to be Mexible and adaptable. Experiment with i, using the cases in this book. Many MBA students don’ give much chought to their case-study approach, not because itis unimportant but because they don’ see anything eangible to chink about. Ulkimately, che vale of the process described below depends on whether it prompts you to think about your own proces, 1. Situation (5 minutes) ‘The mose difficult part of a case analysis seems to be the beginaing, You have to bridge the gap between no knowledge about the case and knowl edge sufficient to form a hypothesis. That gap can Jook very wide as you Dpegin reading a cae thick with details it can seem to be all pats and no ‘whole, Earlier in the chaptes, I siessed chat itis hard to fina something when you don't know what you'e looking for.To get started, you can structure analysis with a series of questions The process [advocates under- standing the big picture fist and then filing i in with deals rat by ask~ ing this question: Wit i the station?HOWTOANALYZEA CASE 79 Usually reading che frst and lst sections ofthe cae is suficent to iden ‘ff the Sinsation, Decisions and evaluutions tend te be sared atthe begining, Problems are harder to recognize. and mare decils about identifying therm are provided in chapter 5.A characteristic of a problem case is the absence of any actionable statement mmde by or about the proragonist, Olen, che main character i reflecting on a situation and wondering what todo. Reading the fist and ls sections of the case can often provide far more information than jus the type of sieuation. In decision cases, these sections may specify the decision options. That is tue of the case “General Mocors Packard Electic Disision” If you don't find options at the beginning or end of a ease, you should scan other sections. The openinig or encing of problews case may peesent a partial or complete description of the problera. Ina types of cases the initial and final sections freqendy express tension (oF conflice important to che analysis. In “General Motors” the ftst section identifies the decision and a contlic between two functional gronps, The ‘avo sides of the conflict, withthe protagonise in the middle, cin be eite= ence poins for analysis. Why do the product development people s0 scrongly support an innovative component that theyre willing ro take a for imidable risk? And why ate che manuficraring people just as adamant that ‘the company should not go forward withthe component inthe short term? After reading the epenings and closing sections, you should put the case aside for a moment and consider what yeu have eared, Is che situation a problem, decision, oF evalustion? Do you have any ides about the casa fameworks or criteria that might fis the situation? Does it seem you'll have 1 cut throngh a Lange amoune of information in the ease or make macy inferences because the informatian i searce? Are there any hints in the wo sections aboat causes, criteria, or even a plausible decision or evaluation? Do the hints sem reliable or just a way to throw you off 2. Questions (15 mimutes) Knowing the sation allows you to ask questions pertinent roa problem, a decision, or an evaluation. The most important of thee questions i: What le Bcd ro know ane he situation? ‘Here are questions specific to cach situation: PROBLEM ‘Who or what isthe subject ofthe problem (e.g..2 manager.a company, 4 countey)? What is che problem? Am T crying to scout fora flare, success, or something more ambiguous? What’ the significance of the problem to che subject? Who is responsible for the problem {usually i is30. ANALYSIS the prosagonist) and whar might he need o know to do something about it DECISION What are the decision options? Do any seen pantcalaly strong ot weak? What’ ar stake in the decision? What ae the possible criteria? ‘Wha mnght the most important criteria befor this kind of deciion? Are any of the criteria explicitly discussed in the cate (ese headings can sometimes give good clues)? EVALUATION ‘Who or whet is being evaluated? Who's responsible forthe evaluation? ‘Whats at stake? What ae the possible erteris? What mighe the most Jmpottant criteria be for this sort of evaluation? Are any of the criteria explicitly discusod in the case (ease headings ean sometimes give you good clues? ‘You won't be able to answer these questions now That will ke farther stud) To make this fst pass through che text more txgetedsit useful to do 4 content inventory. Its purpose sc locate information that might be used to answer the questions about the situation, “To perfortn a fist inventory scan the headings in he text, Read litle of the sections, especially those thar seer to have valuable infortnation, Exam= ine che exhibits co get 2 sense of what they convey. You will earn some~ thing ahour the case—sorsetites a geoat deal move than you might expect ‘You'll aso build a map ofthe useful concent, Because cases often acer line ar in their organization, this map is veey impottan; pieces of information related to the same iste will be found in diferent secions ofthe case and sn the exibis, Use pencil or pen to mark up the case, Mae high-value sections and circle fics, nombers,and statements of possible importance. Be sute 10 cap ture any though's about the answers to your questions, and record new ‘questions that come to mind. Note what isves parcicalarexhibiss may illa- rine, and what calculations might be performed Later eo yield relevant inforation 3, Hypothesis (45 minutes) Armed sith a tit of things you wane ta know about the situation and a snap ofthe content, you ate ready for this question: 17hat my hypothesis? This is the most importane phase of work on the case. Through close sondy of high value sections and exhibits, you narrow the possiblities to shefone that seems most plausible to you. If there are three alternatives for a decison, test them, starting with the one you suspect bas te most provnise Here are some other suggestions for stvetaring your work a tsp PROBLEM + Make sure you know the problem that needs to be diagnosed, Con- sider whether the characteristics ofthe problem gest causes. ‘Think aboue the frameworks chat seem most appropriate co the st ation. Quickly review the specifies ofthe frameworks if you aten’= sure of them, *+ Pursue the diagnosis by looking at eae information through the Tens of the cause you are mos certain boss, * For each cause, male a separate pass through the case looking for evidence of it, + lfthe case has a Jot of quantitative evidence, to what cause isi most relevant? Ifyou don’t have a cause relevant to the quantitative evi- dence, formulate one. Work up 28 mach relevant, high-value quanti lative evidence as you ean, + Tina case with 2 protagonist, consider whether she is potential «cause. If you chink she i work ous how she contributes to the robles. DECISION *+ Review the crzeri you have come up with so far. Which do you dhave the most confidence in? + Review the decision options. Do any seer especially sttong ar weak? + Apply the criterion that seems to identify the most evidence in the eae * Investigate the strongest decision option with the eriterion you have the most confidence in. Or, if you're reasonably certain about which ' weakest see if you can dismiss that option quickly, * Ife case his a lor of quantitative evidence, which criterion is most relevant coi Ifyou don’t have a criterion relevant ro the quancita- ive evidence, formulate one. Work up at much relevant, high-value quantitative evidence as you can.32. ANALYSIS ‘+ Tethere ae conflicts abou the decision between individuals or groups, ink about why thats. Look at the decision fom the point of view af exch of the parties to the confit. + Ifthe protagonist isin a dificult postion in telaton tothe decision, consider why thats. EVALUATION + Review the criteria you have come up with so far Which do you naw the most confidence in? ‘+ What are she ceems ofthe evaluation going co be (eg, strengths! weaknesses? Do any stand out inthe ease (eg.,an obvious strength of an individual)? + Do you already have a sense of the borrom-line evaluation you {avor? Ifyou do, what mre the reasons forthe preference? Paste shose reasons. + Start by applying the criterion tha seems to identify dhe most evi dence in the case, + avesigae the most postive rating or the most negative with the criterion you have dg moxe confidence in. + tf the coe has Loe of quantitative evidence, which criterion is most, selevint cit? Iryou don't have 2 criterion relevant co the quantita tive evidence, fortasite one, Work up a8 mic zelocan, high-value quanstative evidence 2 you ca. “Taking notes helps you onganize and remember information, bari senves the equally important perpose of recording your thought process Without ‘nove (aking, you can too easly stay from active reading. OF course, taking can degenerate inco tansfereing information in the case 10.3 ‘paper or computer screen, Notes on a case dont simply recond facts. They ‘apeure anything chat might lead eo answers co che questions you've asked. Tt may sound eeivial, but I recommend that seudents try to contain the “highlighter labie’"This seady aid is well adapted to the lecture model of | learning but it can be a detriment to cae study. Highlighting sentences is sadifying because it makes you feel yoke doing something. In realty, what ‘you're doing is marking sentences to chink abou: later, and that a secup for ‘pase reading, You should be thinking about statements the fist tine you encounter thems That sid, highlighters can be usefl a a tool to differenti- ate selated content: facts about one aspect af the case, for example, or text and numbers thar belong to one category of evidence.HOW TO ANALYZE 4 CASE ‘A pencil or pen is more conducive to active reading—to write down questions and make notes When you begin to gravitate toward a conc sion, top work and write i down. The function of a hypothesis i 1 give you a position to uy out, not final conclusion, so ksten carefully to your you have time, pu the case away after this iteration. Even a shott break can be wsefil, There is scientific evidence that onr subeanseious minds are reuch beter at dealing with complexity than our conscious minds. Turning your attention co something ete allows shat subconscious capacity to work ‘on the information you have colected, 4. Proof and Action (40 minutes) A hypothesis drives a different approach to the case. Yon watt to prove ing, not look for something to prove. Ask these questions: iter dence de Fhave shat suppor ehe hypothe? What additional evidence do need? Look at the information you've compiled and identify evidence sup Prsng the hypothesis Your first priority should be to add eo the evidence ‘you have, What isthe strongest evidence? Can you add mone to it? [Now asess where evidence i missing, Wheze will you find snore—or is ‘here any evidence in the case? Think about any facta you ray have over looked such asa cause, criterion, or evaluative category Go baci ina the case, with the single parpose of bringing out more evi dence that aligns with your hypothesis. You don't have to work fivin éhe firs page to the last, You can go directly to the sections and exhibits you think have what you need. OF course, you cat work fom begining to end if that makes you more comfortable. just be sure to stay focused on what you'e trying to prov. Let’ say that you're building an argument for a decision option and one of the criteria is cost savings. You've noted some staements tat imply your cision option will save mioney forthe firm and eicled rumbers that yx hough were relevant to savings. Collect those nambets new, and work out calculations to estimaze the tot savings You may then have one of those ratifying moments of ease study: fiom those scattered numbers cht looked s0 inconsequential when viewed individually, you've pulled together an estimate that indicates a very lage annual savings—and that just one part of your argument Abo give some though to the actionable content of yout position. How would you implement the decision you're recammencing? What actions dors your dingnasis or evaluation eal for? Think in practical, reel-world, not ideal-would, cerms. Don’ just sketch out in your mind a broad a34 ANALYSIS approsch to action. Think about tangible acdions andl write thems down, Finally, give a bi of though to the exder of the actions. An action plan isa program in which actions are taken at a certain time for a reason. Ie ist a to-do lis, 5. Alternatives (15 raimutes) Ie may seem paradoxical, but che last pha of analysis should be to question your ova hypothesis: Wa ithe grate weakness of the Fgpothens? What is the arongst ‘The intention isn't 10 endermine yous hard work bust t cake a step Ince and look evticaly a the hypothesis and the evidence. Bvery postion bas a ‘weakness, and you should be the one who recognizes i, not the profesor coc your peers, Here are some nays o think critically about your work! PROBLEM ‘Can the problem be defined diferenty? Would that make a difference to the diagnosis? Are dhere any holes inthe dizgnosis—coold there be causes missing? What’ the weakest pat of the diagnosis? Could an ectiely dfferenc disgnasis be made? What would ic look like? DECISION ‘What’ the biggest downside of the recommended decision? How ‘would you manage the dovenside? What's the stongest evidence aguinst the recommendation? How would sexs for the major akeracive look? EVALUATION Hiave you been objective and chorough about he evaluative findings that oppose your overill assessment? Think how a differen overall evaluation might be proved. Have you accounted for fctots thatthe subject ofthe evaluation couldn’ conto “BUT WHAT IF MY HYPOTHESIS IS WRONG?” Sderts have asked! me that question many times A hypothesis in wrong; a hypothesis fils when you can’ make a credible argument fori fom ease tvidence. If you find yourself in chat sitvation—and you will sooner or lacer—fist make sure the difficlty lies with the hypothesis and not wth your evidence gathering. You may have overlooked imporesn information ‘or nor used specialized toalseffecively. IFyoutte certain the evid ther, face up to it but velie cha dhe work you've already done it wasted,HOW TO ANALYZE A.CASE 35 You now have a good grisp ofthe case and probably have «good sense of ‘what the evidence is and were i i Your work with a new hypothesis dherefore ely to mee along gic Another way of looking a che xr of being wrong i 1 as: yourslé ‘shat che slterative i. 1 have not head ofa micthod of ese analsis thot acver Heads to dubious conclusions. In fct, making analy mistakes is insimable, Through mistakes, we Team more about the chought proces called! case analysis And a shaky analysis can sometimes be a symptom of +k taking, which is also an invaluable euring experience Noves 1, Michie ose, Compete Sty Tanga ulin Fetes and Cnet fou (NewVoue The Fe Pres, 30, 2 The anor Having Celle Dison hind edton Bose Houston MiBin Cons 193,