DEVELOPMENT OF AN ECO-FRIENDLY

HYBRID CAR
CAPSTONE PROJECT
Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the
Requirement for the award of the
Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
(Mechanical Engineering)

By

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582

Kushagr Shah 11103009
Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018
Vankayala Raja 11102877

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Manpreet Singh

(Assistant Professor)

(Lovely Faculty of Technology and Sciences)

Lovely Professional University
Punjab
April 2015

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Capstone project titled “Development of an Eco-friendly Hybrid
Car” that is being submitted by
Prashant Nautiyal 11104582
Kushagr shah 11103009
Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018
Vankayala Raja 11102877
Is in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY DEGREE, is a record of bonafide work done under my/our guidance. The
contents of this capstone project, in full or in part, have neither been taken from any other
source nor have been submitted to any other Institute or University for award of any degree or
diploma and the same is certified.

Project Supervisor

(Lovely Professional University)

(Organization stamp)

Objective of capstone project is satisfactory/unsatisfactory

Examiner I Examiner II

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we are thankful to our project guide Mr. Manpreet Singh who motivated us to
work on our project “Development of an Eco-Friendly Hybrid Car”.

We express our sincere thanks and gratitude to our university authority for allowing us to
undergo our project. We want to specially thanks Mr Lalli Singh without whom we would
never have been able to work on the undertaken project. He has been constantly guiding and
motivating us during the project development.

In the end we would again like to express our express sincere thanks to all the people who are
supporting us by various ways during our project development.

Prashant Nautiyal
Kushagr Shah
Raiyani Dipak Kumar
Vankayala Raja

3
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582

Kushagr Shah 11103009

Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018

Vankayala Raja 11102877

have completed objective formulation of Capstone project titled “Development of Eco-

Friendly Hybrid Car” under my guidance and supervision. To the best of my knowledge,
the present work is the result of their original investigation and study. No part of the capstone
has even been submitted for any other degree at any University.

The capstone project is fit for submission and the partial fulfilment of the conditions
for the award of B-Tech in Mechanical Engineering from Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara.

Signature and Name of the Research Supervisor

Designation:

School:

Lovely Professional University

Phagwara, Punjab

Date:

4
 DECLARATION
We,

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582

Kushagr Shah 11103009

Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018

Vankayala Raja 11102877

Students of Mechanical Engineering under Department of Lovely Faculty of Technology and

Sciences of Lovely Professional University, Punjab, hereby declare that all the information
furnished in this capstone project is based on our own intensive research and is genuine.

This capstone project dose not, to the best of our knowledge, contains part of work which has
been submitted for the award of our degree either of this university or any other university
without proper citation.

Date: (Prashant Nautiyal)

(Kushagr Shah)

(Raiyani Dipak Kumar)

(Vankayala Raja)

5
 ABSTRACT

The proposed project aims at developing and fabrication of an eco-friendly hybrid car which
aims to calculate the emission characteristic and designing of eco-friendly vehicle. Now
arising issue is that which can sustain the impact of increasing pollution in the environment
for better man machine relationship and built the vehicle using maximum cost efficiently?
The effectiveness and efficiency is also taken as consideration throughout the development.
This project report also include the manufacturing of chassis, brake and various parts required
to built an eco-friendly hybrid vehicle and assembling of the same. It also includes the
calculations of transmission, break and steering, which shows that we have turning radius of
approximately 70 inches, stopping distance of 3.85 meters and final drive ratio of 2.428:1.
This document is the live template which contains the design report of the hybrid
vehicle which includes introduction & design methodology and description of some
important components of the hybrid vehicle, scope of project, chassis, engine (selection
parameters), steering (type and calculations), transmission (Calculations), tires
(specifications & selection parameters), brake (Type and calculations) and performance
specifications (vehicle speed and acceleration calculations). The emissions features of hybrid
vehicle and a non hybrid vehicle of same engine specifications were also taken into
consideration and compared, which are 9700 ppm (parts per million) and 900 ppm of
measured CO (carbon-mono-oxide) level (prescribed standard level 35000) of non hybrid
vehicle and hybrid vehicle respectively and 301 ppm and 62 ppm of measured HC
(hydrocarbons) level (prescribed standard level 4500) of non hybrid vehicle and hybrid
vehicle respectively.

6
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES Page No.

Fig 1.1 Hybrid Car 11

Fig 3.1 Chassis 22

Fig 3.2 Car Tyres 23

Fig 3.3 Heat Engine 23

Fig 3.4 Disc Break 24

Fig 3.5 Fuel Tank 24

Fig 3.6 Solid Axel 25

Fig 3.7 Electric DC Motor 25

Fig 3.8 Electrical Controller 26

Fig 3.9 Batteries 26

Fig 3.8 Electrical Controller 28

Fig 3.9 Batteries 29

Fig 6.1 The Hybrid Car 36

7
 LISTOF TABLES

TABLES Page No.

Table 5.1 Steering data 29

Table 5.2 Ackerman condition 30

Table 5.3 Go kart dimension 32

Table 5.4 Engine specification 35

Table 5.5 Gear reduction chart 35

8
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page No.

Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Certificate 4

Declaration 5

Abstract 6

List of Figures 7

List of Table 8

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID CARS 11-14

1.1 Introduction 11

1.2 Principle of Working 13

1.3Identified Problems 14

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY 15-21

2.1 Literature review 15

CHAPTER 3: COMPONENTS OF HYBRID CAR 22-26

3.1 Chassis 22

3.2 Tyres 23

3.3 Engine 23

3.4 Breaks 24

3.5 Fuel Tank 24

3.6 Solid Axle 25

3.7 DC Motor 25

3.8 Controller 26

3.9 Batteries 26

9
CHAPTER 4: OVERALL METHODOLOGY 27
4.1 Project description 27

4.2 Design methodology 27

4.3 Flow chart 27

CHAPTER 5: SPECIFICATION AND CALCULATION 28-35

5.1 Steering 28

5.1.1 Steering mechanism 28

5.1.2 Ackerman Steering Geometry 28

5.1.3 Ackerman Steering Geometry Requirement 29

5.1.4 Dimension specification 29

5.1.5 Formula used 30

5.1.6 Calculation 30

5.2 Brake 30

5.2.1 Objective 30

5.2.2 Braking principle 30

5.2.3 Brake selection 31

5.2.4 Brake calliper selection 31

5.2.5 Brake Calculation 32

5.3 Engine Specification 34

5.3.1 Analysis on Transmission 35

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION 36

FUTURE SCOPE 37

REFRENCES 38

10
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID CARS

1.1 Introduction
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of vehicle which is the combination of a
conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion
system (hybrid vehicle drive train). Due to the presence of the electric propulsion system
better fuel economy can be achieved compared to a conventional vehicle and better
performance. There are a variety of hybrid electric vehicles, and the degree to which they
function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, few
hybrid electric trucks i.e. pickups, tractors and buses also exist.
Advanced hybrid electric vehicles make use of technology that improve the efficiency
of the vehicle such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into
electric energy that will charge the battery rather than wasting it as heat energy as in
conventional brakes system. Some types of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to
generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator and this combination is known as a
motor–generator, to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric motors.
These HEV helps in reducing the emissions which is usually emitted in staring of the engine
and this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric vehicle produces less emission
compared to ICE than a comparably sized gasoline car.

Fig 1.1 Hybrid Car

11
 Nowadays the main focus is on that how to put a full stop in rapid increasing pollution
rate in the atmosphere which is the main cause of ozone depletion. The rapid increase in
automobile production and their use have fully supported the pollution increment. The
burning of fossil fuels in an automobile causes the rapid increase of harmful toxic gases in air
and leads to the development of more efficient and eco-friendly hybrid electric system and
Plug in hybrid electric system. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle system indicates the direction
of vehicle development due to good fuel economy, environmental benefits of all electric drive
ability. They run with two main power sources Direct current (DC) motors and heat engine.
Compared with conventional hybrid electric system, Plug in hybrid eclectic vehicle is having
a good energy storage system, which can provide power to the vehicle by using only the
stored energy, charged from the power grid.
There are mainly two types of PHEVs which are classified into series and parallel.
Modern work has been done on the vehicle electrification which controls the energy waste
and fuel usage. In parallel to rapid urbanization, transportation services have become even
more important and immediately transportation sector took second rank in pursuit of the
power generation sector as emitting approximately one quarter of the total fossil fuel related
CO2 emissions. For the urgent need of fuel efficiency and fewer Carbon dioxide (CO 2)
emission rates in vehicles, hybridization notion which means combination of multiple power
sources to supply a common load has come into prominence. Consequently, it has been
focused to improve eco-friendly vehicle solutions. Thus, electrical and hybrid configured
vehicles with many different technologies have been adapted and improved for the
automobile industry recently.
By the advantageous structure of electric vehicles (EVs), CO 2 emission rate can be
reduced dramatically. For example, if we consider the vehicle powered by renewable sources,
powered by grid electricity and powered by electricity generated from coal, the emission rates
are 0 gkm-1, 70 g km_1 and 250 g km_1. EVs with battery packages are good options to reduce
exhaust emissions; but they also have some negative directions such that higher cost, limited
range, added weight of battery packages, recharging facilities, etc. Also, EV (Electric vehicle)
may increase the electricity consumption of a household up to 50% in case of plug-in
configuration. But even though the negative sides; EV share in car market is predicted to be
between 6% and 30% by 2030, which is the much more than the present marginal proportion.
Effective controls strategies are needed for the energy managing system of hybrid
electric system are classified into two categories [1]. These are rule built and optimization
based on control plans. The main rules are fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is the most useful
approach and widely used in many studies [2–5]. They are applicable in real time, easy to
understand, flexible and robust but highly dependent on the application as well as on the
selection of the control parameters and membership functions. Rules are extracted from
heuristic knowledge, experimental data and even from mathematical models. As it is not
based on the formal optimization techniques, cost functions are not defined explicitly and the
results are generally suboptimal. However, optimization based control strategies aim to
minimize or maximize a cost function which is a measure of some objectives such as
minimization of fuel consumption and exhaust emissions, improving of energy efficiency and
driving comfort, weight reduction, and cost-effectiveness. Among global optimization
methods, dynamic programming (DP) is the popular one. Bellman’s Principle of Optimality is
widely used in optimization problems of hybrid electric vehicles [6–9]. DP methods
guarantee a global solution as a priori by assuming the entire driving cycle. They are not
suitable for real time applications but rather for comparison of the performance of other
control techniques. There is also a study in [10] which aims to increase the efficiency of the
power train by lowering the losses from power of the ICE, generator and the battery pack

12
using genetic algorithm. The other global optimization algorithms used in hybrid vehicles can
be found in [11].
Main characteristic of hybrid electrical system is the effect of dropping temperatures
and reducing pollutant. Now-a-days selected manufacturing companies provide new hybrid
vehicle methods. There are some problems have to be solved thru alteration. Characteristics
of the vehicles have different compositions. By this method we can obtain more efficient
design.
Green technology having great demand in modern cities. Due to increase in the
population growth in the cities has led to an increased use of transport. Gases released by
vehicle must be reduced and useful steps have to taken to minimize the emissions .The
automotive industry has introduced hybrid cars [1]. Such technology has a positive effect on
the environment by reducing gas emission. Zero- emission powered vehicles has become
greatest challenge for research activities for developing [2]. FC is the potential renewable
energy device to power vehicles. Electrochemical method AFC that produces DC electrical
energy by chemical reaction [3]. Different materials include in this like anode, anode catalyst
layer, electrolyte, cathode and a cathode catalyst layer. To produce desired voltage and
current multiple FC is arranged in series or parallel [4]. FCs can be used for transport at ion
applications from scooters to tram ways, for joined heat and power systems for portable
power supplies. Hydrogen is the key source to produces the electricity needed to move an
electric vehicle which was used by FC technology. In comparing to heat engine (HE) that
emits harmful gases like NOx and CO2, FC releases water as by-product.

1.2 Principle of working

Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is supplied to
the drive train:-

 In parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the
mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels,
usually through a conventional transmission. The internal combustion engine of many
parallel hybrids can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel
hybrids are more efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during
urban conditions.
 In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drive train, and a smaller ICE
works as a generator to power the electric motor and to recharge the batteries. They
also usually have a larger battery pack than parallel hybrids, making them more
expensive. Once the batteries are low, the small combustion engine can generate
power at its optimum settings at all times, making them more efficient in extensive
city driving.
 Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel
characteristics. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because series hybrids tend
to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel tend to be more efficient at high
speeds; however, the cost of power-split the hybrid is higher than a pure parallel.

13
1.3 Identified problems
 Rising Gas Prices Equals Rising Hybrid Prices, which will make hybrid car affordable
for the rich people and the common man can only desire for it but could not afford to
buy it.
 Lower Highway Mileage, in the highways and express ways where driver need more
speed and the vehicle will run on gasoline engine making the engine to lower its
mileage because it will be impossible to drive from motor.
 Not All Hybrids Are Equal, making it impossible for AC to work when gasoline
engine is not working and it won’t ever live up to the promise of a true hybrid.
 Few Third Row Hybrids, many hybrid vehicles are made two seater and third person
cannot sit in it.
 Weak 12 Volt Battery, due to which more 12 volts batteries had to be installed so that
it will meet the requirement of the motor. The weight of the vehicle is also increased
because of the number of batteries in the same vehicle. Vehicle has to carry the heavy
batteries and also the weight of the driver and the passenger which will lower the
efficiency of the hybrid vehicle.

CHAPTER 2
14
 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.4 Literature review

In this literature Weihua Wang [1] discussed power-split system of hybrid vehicles, it was
observed different characteristics of compound split system, and the analysis on this system
was explaining it with power flow of Toyota Prius car model and it was explained by
different graphs and by different mathematical expressions. The final results were explained
by different graphs.

Frank A.Bender [2] discussed fuel saving by Hybrid vehicles. It was explained by driving
cycle acquisition was the 1st step for the possible fuel savings of hybrid hydraulic refuse
trucks, vehicle measurements, driving cycle was explained by supplementary hardware,
different vehicle model which was allow to get more fuel savings it was explained by
longitudinal dynamics differential equation. Conventional vehicle components, compactor
system were explained by different vehicles and with the help of graphs and bar graphs.

In this literature Mohd Azrin Mohd Zulkefli [3] studied several incorporate traffic
information of vehicle power train optimization. Different traffic and power train models
were explained by mathematical expressions based on Gipp’s car following model and
different powertrain energy management strategy was discussed with different simulation
were also done based on graphs and bar graphs.

In this literature Ye Li[4] discussed vehicle detection methods. Different experiments were
done in this urban traffic conditions. The main methods was And or graphs which were
represented method for recognition from images. The three nodes were And nodes, OR nodes
and terminal nodes. Another method was hybrid image template work on detecting an image
object. Different experiments were done like quantitative, contrast experiment.

In this literature Nien-Che Yang [5] discussed adaptive 3-Phase power flow methods for
smart grids with PHEV’s. Several other methods were also proposed to mixed integer linear
programming,3-phase ac power flow methods. It was solved by Newton Raphson power flow
with two constant matrics, Jacobian matrix was solved by Bi-factorization different algorithm
were explained by i-th iteration method. The analysis of mathematical model of DER’s and
PHEV’s were also been discussed.

In this literature Cong Hou [6] discussed rule based on charge depleting-charge sustaining
(CDCS) strategy was simple Ems for PHEV. The trip length can be manifested when GPS is
used and driven daily routine the learned for unknown trips lengths (RADOC) strategy were
used. It was explained by plotting graphs between percentages of total distance Vs state of
charge. The utility factor weighted fuel consumption which were explained by mathematical
expression. Different driving patterns solutions were explained by plotting graphs torque Vs
speed, Acceleration pedal Vs vehicle Speed.

15
Y.Wang [7] discuss developing of HEV/EV by improving and optimizing automotive IGBT
modules. The cooling solution of direct liquid cooling was the solution with great efficiency,
integration, integrated liquid cooling modules for HEV/EV, thermal performance, life time
prediction were explained with the help of plotting graphs with Rth (Kw), Tf (degrees C) Vs
time.

In this literature Mohammed Abu Mallouh [8] done research different alternative energy
sources and for replacements for conventional fuels. The research on development and
validation of heat engine were done. PSAT software Package were used to develop this
method. Different experiments were done to test and validated. Engine speed responses for
ICE vehicle VS engine speed were plotted with graphs. Different researches were done on
development of hybrid fuel cell/battery vehicle model and were explained by plotting
different graphs.

In this literature Andrea Cordoba-Arenas[9]discussed different battery cell models. The

electrical sub-model were used to predict battery cell voltage and soc in response to current
and temperature. Thermal sub-model were used to predict the cell temperature, aging sub-
model to predict capacity and power fade in response to depleting, soc, temperature, charging
rate. Electrical sub model were explained with the help of mathematical expressions by 1 st
order Randle equivalent circuit model and with different mathematical expressions.

In this literature Zhe Liu [10]discussed interactive mechanism between system and Plug in
hybrid electric system, three levels are mandatory to signify this mechanism. Charging load
self-management model of different types were discussed. Risk analysis model considering
charging load self-management was discussed with the help of graphs. Different case studies
were explained by using graphs.

Ziyou Song[11] discussed energy storage system by dynamic programming. The hybrid
energy storage system by dynamic modelling (HESS) were explained how DC/AC convertor,
motor, controller works. Semi-active HESS tropology schematic and the general control were
explained with the help of flow chat. Final results were explained with the help of different
graphs.

Lars-Henrik Bjornsson [12] discussed GPS there were also assess the viability of plug in
hybrid electric vehicles. Different methods of PHEV modelling, battery utilization, PHEV
economics different techno economic conditions all this were explained with the help of
different graphs and mathematical expressions.Final results of battery sizing and viability,
battery cycling, were explained by different graphs.
In this literature Yavuz Eren [13] discussed reducing the imperfections of (HEVs).Load
sharing and sizing constraints of the system, fc modelling, battery modelling,itwasexplained
with the help of mathematical expressions. Study on optimum sizing of HEV components
using the given load profile of multi objective framework by minimization of operating
cost,weight and volume. The results were explained with different graphs.

In this literature Hamid Khayyam [14] discussed energy management systems in PHEV. The
different models of management of wind condition creation algorithm using some air

16
conditioning system enhanced, environmental thermal data, ambient and humidity and solar
radiation were explained by different graphs and mathematical expressions by considerations
like modelling of road geometry, modelling of wind condition, environment model, thermal
environment model. Final result were explained with the help of different graphs.

Abdollah Kavousi-Fard [15] discussed new stochastic expert framework to investigate the
charging effect of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The different methods of PHEV smart
charging strategy, MG formulation, Cost of energy, Security limitations, Generation and
consumption balance was explained by graphs, 2m-PEM as the stochastic framework,
Optimization method based on q-MKH was explained by flow charts.The other results were
explained by bar graphs.

In this literature Somayeh Allahyari [16] discussed generalization of the multi-depot

capacitated vehicle routing problems. It was mainly discussed about multi-depot covering
tour vehicle routing problem(MDCTVRP).The main problems was explained by the flow
based formulation,node based formulation. Different solutions were explained by using
different search and construction,shaking procedure.Final result was given by analysis of
performance and exact metaheuristic methods over small size and large size.

In this literature Andreas Bortfeldt [17] discussed vehicle routing problem with clustered
backhauls (VRPCB) to an integrated routing and three – dimensional loading problem there
were also discussed on related works on Exact approaches for the VRPCB, Conventional
heuristic approaches for the VRPCB Meta heuristic approaches for the VRPCB.

In this literature Zheng Chen [18] discussed energy management method of power-split plug-
in hybrid electric vehicle. It was explained by Vehicle driveline analysis and simplification by
mathematical expression, PMP analysis and application were explained by graphs. Simulated
annealing method and its application, Simulation validation were explained by graphs.

In this literature Mehdi Ansarey [19] discussed Hybrid storage systems consisting of battery
and ultra-capacitor there were also discussed by Structure of the article, Literature survey, on
Energy management Energy sources, Vehicle arrangement, results were explained with
different graphs.

In this literature Jihun Han [20] discussed fuel cell hybrid electric system, driving conditions
at hilly roads,DP-based EF is figured, and the performance was related with Pontryagin's
minimum principle. The results shows EF adaptation increases fuel economy, battery states of
charge constraint. Some graphs were also obtained in this case study.

In this literature Brian Tarroja [21] discussed analyses of effectiveness of utilizing plug-in
vehicles therewere also discussed on Model description and approach on Summary of model
and scenario development,policy trajectory curve results were discussed with graphs.

Alexander Farmann [22] discussed board capacity estimation of lithium-ion batteries there
were also discussed on Voltage-based estimation methods, different battery capacity
definitions, and Basic idea and challenges of on-board capacity estimation, Methods based on
a measured or estimated EMF, Electrochemical model-based methods were discussed.

17
In this literature Graham Mills[23]discussed Future electric vehicle it was also explained with
Modelling methodology EV vehicle modelling parameters Modelling Tool, there were also
explained by Case study of Australian National Electricity Market load profile. Results were
explained by Un-managed charging, Time of Use tariff charging were also explained by bar
graphs.

In this literature Joseph S. Krupa [24] discussed reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
increasing fuel efficiency. The materials and methods which was used by AMT survey data,
Data quality control, Statistical methods. The results were explained by demography and
Factors influencing most recent and future vehicle purchases, Factors influencing potential
future PHEV purchase, Consumer discounting. It was also discussed on environment
benefits, Fuel/financial savings.

In this literature F. Payri [25] discussed optimal energy management in hybrid electric
vehicles were discussed by case study on new method to estimate future driving conditions
were allows applying the ECMS strategy to solve the EMP Problem formulation had been
explained with mathematical expression. Results had been explained by graphs.

François Martel [26] discussed degradation management strategy of economical dynamics for
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles was focused on lead-acid batteries, low cost optimization.
The optimal management algorithm explained by discrete dynamic programming theory and
designed for the purpose of PHEV battery degradation management; its operation relies on
simulation models using data obtained experimentally on a physical PHEV platform.

In this literature Tobias Nüesch [27] discussed optimal energy management systems to
balance fuel reducing raw particulate matter (PM) emissions, and raw nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions for a Diesel hybrid electric vehicle. Two methods for the derivation of the
strategies were compared by Methodology, Emission models,they also Comparison of
different methods on optimal energy management.

In this literature Winai Chanpenga [28] discussed design and development of an in-wheel
motor for electric vehicles. Motor connected in series generates a 350-watt power drive with
a power source of two 12V batteries. Based on the principle of a DC electric motor were
operate by vehicle wheels. The maximum efficiency obtained with speed of 468rpm was
82.56% at 2.5 N.m torque, with a 5.81A input current. The maximum torque acquired was
6.25 N.m with the input power of 348.76 watts and 13.72A, but the speed of the motor is
reduced to 395 rpm. Some graphs were also obtained with Input signal voltage of 131.1 Hz
and the experimental results of the in-wheel motor under various load condition.

In this literature Li Houyu [29] discusseddrive system of engine used in the hybrid electric
system it was also explained the advantages of (HEV), HEV major technique units, HEV
engine and motor's combination in this Series hybrid electric system, Parallel hybrid electric
system, Combined hybrid electric system and Hybrid electric vehicle's actuation pattern were
also explained.

Paul D. walker and Nong Zang [30] done investigation on the active damping of power trains
for the suspension gear shift of automobile it was related with transient vibrations. The dual

18
clutch transmission on equipped power train, conventional power train modelling, engine
torque model, clutch torque model, vehicle resistance torque model, hybrid configuration and
modelling were discussed. The vibration of engine resulting from piston firing was
stimulated. The modelling strategies were utilised to demonstrate the vibration in delay
between IC engines and electric motors.

In this literature Nursel Ozturk [31] discussed hybrid meta-heuristic algorithm (HMA) to
resolve the vehicle routing problem with time window and backhaul. Mathematical formation
was done with different following algorithms. Simulated annealing algorithm, Fabu search
algorithm. Gelinus et all developed data was used to evaluate the performance of the
proposed algorithm.

In this literature Weihua Wang[32] discussed different power-split hybrid electric vehicle
characteristics,analysis of compound split configuration.Torque and speed of four powertrain
elements were explained by graphs.Different mathematical expressions were also
used.Electric power ratio,lever model splitting were explained by different graphs.Final
results of this configuration were explained by mode switching point and application in dual-
mode of HEV.

In this literature Kursad Gokce [33]discussed instantaneous optimization algorithm based up

on efficiency maps of the heat engine and the generator for the energy management system in
hybrid electric system.The analytical expression of the overall energy efficiency of the hybrid
energy source. Which were calculated based on the energy flow at the DC bus. The results
show the proposed method provides a competitive performance with a lower computational
burden compared to the alternative methods for different state of charge (SOC) ranges and
drive cycle conditions.

Joachim Baumeister [34] proposed “smart batt” project with a purpose to equate a 20KWH
battery pack which exhibits a 10-15% weight reduction. The project was accomplished by
using innovative sandwich materials made of aluminium face sheets and a core of aluminium
hybrid foam for battery housing. Resulted material AISI 10 material properties were
experimented, the foamed sphere were coated with two different thickness (100µm and
200µm). Stress-strain curves were obtained in the quasi-static and dynamic experiments.

In this literature Cong Hou [35]discussed optimal energy management strategy based on the
Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle algorithm for parallel plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs).After observing some regular patterns in numeric PMP results, author apply a novel
piecewise linear approximation strategy by specifying the turning point of the engine fuel rate
for the Hamiltonian optimization. As a result, the instantaneous Hamiltonian optimization
turns convex. Taking the engine state, five candidate solutions for the optimization were
obtained. The results show that the A-PMP strategy reduced fuel consumption by 6.96%
compared with the conventional all-Electric, Charge-Sustaining (AE–CS) strategy. Further,
the A-PMP shortened the simulation time from 6 h to only 4 min, when compared with the
numeric PMP method.

19
In this literature M.F. Shaaban [36] discussed coordination approach for plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles it was discussed on Problem description and Modelling on PHEV modelling,
Converter modelling, results were explained with different graphs.

Wladislaw Waag [37] discussed battery management system. The battery management
system consists of hardware and software for battery management including algorithms
determining battery states. The methods for monitoring of the battery state of charge,
capacity, impedance parameters, available power, state of health, and remaining useful life
are studied with the focus on elaboration of their strengths and weaknesses for the use in on-
line BMS applications.

Imdat Taymaz [38] discussed how vehicles play an important role in city transportation all
over the world. The vehicle which uses fossils fuels were polluting environment with effected
gases. In addition, to the cost of fossil fuel were also increasing due to shrinkingreserves,
these petroleum oils must be used very efficiently. In the result, it was seen that the mixed
hybrid vehicles were the same performance with low fuel consumption and CO 2emissions.
Some graphs were also obtained by shows the reduction in CO2 emissions.

In this literature Hassan Fathabadi [39] discussed Li-ion battery pack design including hybrid
active-passive thermal management system were studied. Distributed thin ducts, air flow and
natural convection as cooling media were the active parts while the passive parts was change
in material/expanded graphite composite (PCM/EG) as cooling/heating component to
optimize the thermal performance of the proposed battery pack. Simulation results obtained
in Mat lab environment and data were plotted.

In this literature M.A. Hannan [40] discussed Number of alternative energy resources being
studied for hybrid vehicles to replace the internal combustion engine worldwide. The rising
concern of the use of fossil fuel in vehicles were harmful environmental effects. Other
sources like battery, fuel cell (FC), super capacitors (SC) and photo voltaic cell i.e. solar are
studied to put in use for vehicles.Various techniques of HEV from energy management
system (EMS), power conditioning and propulsion system were studied. Relevant fields of
HEV such as DC machine and vehicle system were also included. A mathematical models of
HEV developed by researchers was successful simulated, which is the important tool in
investigating the hybrid vehicles performance.

Sarah G. Nurre [41] discussed integer programming model for operations of multiple plug-in
hybrid electric system (PHES) battery exchange stations over a time period. In this process
the number of batteries to charge, discharge, and exchange at each point in time over a set
time are considered. It include discharging of batteries back to the power grid, through
vehicle-to-grid technology. It include the exchange stations depending on power network,
transportation network, and other exchange stations.Further tests were conducted which
evaluate these policies while factoring wind energy into the power generation curve.

In this literature Jihun Han [42] discussed fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles were also
discussed on different methods of FCHEV system configuration, Fuel cell system, Battery
system, Vehicle model and Dynamic programming and Instantaneous optimization approach

20
with state constraints. Case studies on FCHEV control on hilly roads were also discussed and
results had been explained with different graphs.

François Martel [43] discussed optimized battery degradation management system intended
by plug-in hybrid electric system. Other methods were also discussed on electrochemical
battery modeling, Battery degradation modeling system, HEV power management, and were
also explain the PHEV models, battery electrical model were explained by graphs.

Elwood R. Horwinski [44] discussed gasoline engine and battery powered electric system
that start and running. The motor is driven my battery which is recharged by generator driven
by the internal combustion engine. Wheels of the vehicles were powered by heat engine
through differential and magnetic clutch.

21
 CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS OF HYBRID CAR

3.1 Chassis
The chassis are made of steel tubing. There is no suspension, therefore chassis have to be
flexible enough to work as a suspension and stiff enough not to break or give way on a turn.
The stiffness of the chassis enables different handling characteristics for different
circumstances. Typically, for dry conditions a stiffer chassis is preferable, while in wet or
other poor traction conditions, a more flexible chassis may work better. The best chassis
allow for stiffening bars at the rear, front and side to be added or removed according to race
conditions. Braking is achieved by a disc brake mounted on the rear axle. Front disc brakes
are used in most shifter kart classes and are increasingly popular in other classes; however,
certain classes do not allow them. Shifter karts have dual master cylinders, one for the front
and one for the rear and are adjustable to allow for front/ rear bias changes.

Fig 3.1 Chassis

22
3.2 Tyres
Wheels and tires are much smaller than those used on a normal car. Rims are made of
magnesium alloy, aluminium, or composite materials. Tires can support cornering forces in
excess of 2 g (20 m/s²), depending on chassis, engine, and motor setup. Some car tire
manufacturers, such as Bridgestone, Dunlop or Maxxis, make tires for karts. There are also
specific kart tire manufacturers, which include MG, MOJO, and Vega.

Fig 3.2 Car Tyres

3.3 Engine
Go-karts can be powered by 4-stroke engines or electric motors, while racing karts use small
2-stroke or 4-stroke engines. We have used LML Freedom engine of capacity 109.15cc.

Fig 3.3 Heat Engine

 4-stroke engines can be standard air-cooled industrial based engines, sometimes with
small modifications, developing from about 5 to 20 hp. Briggs & Stratton, Tecumseh,
Kohler, Robin, and Honda are manufacturers of such engines. They are adequate for
racing and fun kart applications. There are also more powerful four-stroke engines

23
 available from manufacturers like Yamaha, TKM, Swissauto or Aixro (Wankel
engine) offering from 15 hp up to 48 hp. They run to and around 11,000 rpm, and are
manufactured specifically for karting.
 2-stroke kart engines are developed and built by dedicated manufacturers. WTP,
Comer, IAME (Parilla, Komet), TM, Vortex, Titan, REFO, TKM, PRD, Yamaha and
Rotax are manufacturers of such engines. These can develop from about 8 HP for a
single-cylinder 60 cc unit to over 90 hp for a twin 250 cc. Today, the most popular
categories worldwide are those using the TaG 125 cc units.

3.4 Breaks
Braking system is one of the most important part of any vehicle. In our hybrid go-kart we
make use of hydraulic brakes. These brakes are usually used in motorcycles and cars. These
brakes are much effective in use and then require less maintenance. Disk of the brakes is
generally mounted on the rear solid axle on which the sprocket is mounted. Transmission is
also provided on the rear axle which makes the braking system very efficient.

Fig 3.4 Disc Break

3.5 Fuel tank

Fuel tank is also one of the important part of the vehicle. It provide the necessary fuel to the
internal combustion engine through gravity so that the engine keep on running.

Fig 3.5 Fuel Tank

24
In our hybrid go-kart the fuel tank is placed above the engine so that fuel can some down into
the engine due to gravitational pull. Catch can is also provided so that if there is a leakage in
the fuel tank, fuel dose not drop onto the engine. This is some of the safety measures while
installing the fuel tank

3.6 Solid axle

An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be
fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating
around the axle.

Fig 3.6 Solid Axel

In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle
is supported. In hybrid go-kart brake disk is mounted on the solid axle. Transmission is also
provided on the solid axle by fixing a sprocket and chain.

3.7 DC Motor
In our vehicle we have used 48 volts and 40 ampere DC motor to accelerate the vehicle
initially. This is operated with the help of 4 batteries of 12 volts and 40 ampere each.

Fig 3.7 Electric DC Motor

25
3.8 Controller
A controller is used in the vehicle with the DC motor to operate the motor, it is used to
connect the motor with the battery, it is the key component to the electric system of the
vehicle. The throttle is also operated with the help of this electric controller.

Fig 3.8 Electrical Controller

3.9 Batteries
To operate the vehicle with the DC motor, high voltage dc supply is needed which is fulfilled
with the help of 4 batteries of 12 volts and 40 ampere each, the motor is of 48 volts so the
batteries of 12 volts each are so arranged and connected to fulfil the requirement of the motor.

Fig 3.9 Batteries

26
 CHAPTER 4

OVERALL METHODOLOGY
4.1 Project description

The project primarily aims to manufacture and fabrication of “Hybrid Car”, The model under
development aim to meet following expectations:

 To appear good.
 To be able to work properly.
 To evaluate the efficiency of the system.
 To combine the two different energy sources.
 To be drive efficiently, and ergonomically.

4.2 Design methodology

 First we prepared a rough sketch of the model as per our requirement and available
resources.
 Then we choose the building material to be used in our project and cut out structural
element out of commercial grade steel for building the chassis.
 Then we bought and collect the various parts of the car as per our capability and
availability.
 The next step is to calculate the steering, braking and transmission value
 Further we analyse the efficiency of the system.

4.3 Flow chart

• Start
• Literature Survey

▼ • manufacturing of the project

• Assembling

▼ • pollution analysis

▼
Fig 4.1 Process Flow Chart

27
 CHAPTER 5:

SPECIFICATION AND CALCULATION

5.1 Steering

To guide/steer a vehicle we need a steering mechanism. The perfect steering is achieved when
all the four wheels are rolling perfectly under all the condition of running. In vehicle it is seen
that inside wheel is required to turn through a greater angle than outer wheel. The larger the
steering angle, the smaller is the turning radius. The steering angle can have a maximum
value of about 44 degree. There are two types of steering mechanism:-
-Davis steering mechanism.
-Ackermann steering mechanism [45]

5.1.1 Steering mechanism:

Out of these two steering mechanism Ackermann mechanism is almost universally used
because of its simplicity.
Ackerman mechanism
When the vehicle is moving very slowly, there is a kinematic condition between the inner and
outer wheels that allows them to turn slip-free. The condition is called the Ackerman
condition.

Fig 5.1 Ackerman steering

5.1.2 Ackerman Steering Geometry:

The typical steering system, in a road or race car, has tie rod linkages and steering arms that
form an approximate parallelogram, which skews to one side as the wheels turn. If the
steering arms are parallel, then both wheels are steered to the same angle. If the steering arms
are angled, this is known as Ackerman geometry. The inside wheel is steered to a greater
angle then the outside wheel, allowing the inside wheel to steer a tighter radius. The steering
arm angles as drawn show 100% Ackerman. Different designs may use more or less
percentage pro-Ackerman, anti-Ackerman, or Ackerman may be adjustable.
(In fact adjustable Ackerman is rare. This could be the car designer saying to us, "Do not
mess with this.”) Full Ackerman geometry requires steering angles, inner wheel and outer
wheel.[46]

28
Ackerman geometry requires that:-

ᵟo = L/(R+T/2)
ᵟi = L/(R-T/2)
Here we are using mechanical steering system having steering ratio of 1:1.

Fig 5.2 steering geometry

The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed of the vehicle is too small, and slip angles
are zero. There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to balance each other. The
Ackerman steering condition is also called the kinematic steering condition, because it is a
static condition at zero velocity. A device that provides steering according to the Ackerman
condition is called Ackerman steering. Ackerman mechanism or Ackerman geometry. There
is no four-bar linkage steering mechanism that can provide the Ackerman condition perfectly.
However, we may design multi-bar linkages to work close to the condition and be exact at a
few angles. Figure on next page illustrates the Ackerman condition for different values of w/l.
The inner and outer steer angles get closer to each other by decreasing w/l ratio.

5.1.3 Ackerman Steering Geometry Requirement

Ackerman geometry requires that:-
ᵟo = L/(R+T/2)
ᵟi = L/(R-T/2)
Here we are using mechanical steering system having steering ratio of 1:1.

5.1.4 Dimension specification:

Wheel Base(L) 48 inches

Track width(W) 36 inches

Steering ratio 1:1

Table 5.1 Steering data

29
5.1.5 Formula used:
Ackerman condition Cot δₒ - cot δᵢ = W/l

Table 5.2 Ackerman condition

Where,
δₒ is the maximum outer wheel steer angle as shown in the figure
δᵢ is the maximum inner wheel steer angle as shown in the figure
δ is the average of maximum outer and inner steer angles
a is the distance from axle to the CG.[47]

5.1.6 Calculation:

1. Ackerman Steering angles

Cot δₒ - cot δᵢ = W/l = (36)/(48)

= 0.75
By the help of hit and trial method, we calculate δₒ and δᵢ,
δₒ = 29 and δᵢ = 43.5
Cot δₒ - cot δᵢ =1.8040-1.0537
= 0.75

2. Turning Radius

R² = a² + l² cot² δavg
δavg= (δi+δo)/2
Therefore,
δ avg=36.25, a= 24

R² = 242+48² cot² (36.25)

R = 69.724 inch
Therefore we have turning radius approximately 70inches.

5.2 Brake

5.2.1 Objective

Our main objective is to create a well-balanced, long lasting, reliable & cost efficient braking
system, while designing the brake system our full concern was to prepare a brake system
which is safe & secure and follow the rule guidelines.

5.2.2 Braking principle

Brakes are the most important control system in a vehicle and are required to stop the vehicle
at a smallest distance and at very less time safely. The principle of braking is to convert

30
kinetic energy which is produced when brakes are applied into the heat energy which is then
after dissipated into the atmosphere.
Friction between braking surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. In drum brakes, wheel
cylinders force brake linings against the inside of the drum. In disc brakes, pads are forced
against a brake disc.

5.2.3 Brake selection

Depending on the advantages which are as follows we are going to use “Disk Brake” over
normal “Drum Brake” Disc brakes are far more resistant to heat fades, as the larger surface
area of the disc allows for better heat dissipation, whereas in case of drum brake, the friction
occurs in internal surface.
 The friction pad in case of drum brake are more curved, whereas in case of disc brake
it is more flat, which gives uniform wear to friction pads.
 Disc brakes also works better after exposure to rain and puddles as they have vertical
brake pad, whereas in drum brake, if you go through some water, they are very
ineffective until the water has drained out of the drum; and they get less efficient as
they get hot.
 Unlike the conventional drum brake, the design of disc brake is such that there is no
loss of efficiency due to expansion.
 Disc brake weight less than their conventional drum type counterpart, a saving of
approximately 20% possible.
 The friction pads in case of Disk Brake are easy to replace, where as in case of Drum
Brake, the brake lining have either riveted or fixed with adhesive to the brake shoes.
 Generally disc brakes are more efficient than drum brakes and are easier to set up
because of its simple design.
Total frictional area of pads in disc brakes is very less as compared with drum type brake,
the approximately ratio being 1:4. This means that in disc brakes, the pressure intensity must
be considerably greater than in drum type.[48]

5.2.4 Brake calliper selection

Here we are using Floating type calliper over the Fixed type calliper because of the following
advantages-
 It requires less parts compare to fixed calliper.
 It is less expensive to manufacture.
 It is easier to bleed floating calliper compare to fixed calliper
 It is mostly made of cast iron or steel which in turns increases weight and heat
compare to aluminium fixed calliper. A heavy weight stops the disc faster than light
weight.
The other advantage is that floating calliper can better dissipate heat due to sliding nature and
therefore less chances of brake fade.

31
5.2.5 Brake Calculation

Mass of the kart

232 kg
Mass of the person
65kg
Weight of the kart
2273.6 N
Weight of the man
637.65 N
Total Weight of the car
2910.6 N
Coefficient of friction
0.4
Height of C.O.G
0.2032m
Distance of C.O.G from front axle
0.635m
Table 5.3 Go kart dimension

Kart Velocity, V = 60km/hr. = 16.67m/s

The fluid pressure that was caused by master cylinder can be calculated as follow:

P = (FP*R*η) / A
Where:
P = fluid pressure, MPa
FP= pedal force, N
R = pedal lever ratio
η = Pedal efficiency
A = cross section area of master cylinder
P = (400 x 3 x 0.8) / .0005
= 1.92 Mpa
The normal forces acting on calipers can be found by following formula-
N = P*A
Where:
N = Normal force,
A = caliper area
Rear:
NRC = A*P
= (0.0035 * 1.92* 1)
(Where ‘1’ stands for one caliper used in rear axle)
= 6720 N
Once we found the normal forces the frictional forces could be calculated:

32
 FRC =μP * NRC= (0.4 *6720) = 2688N
Now we can calculate the torque cause by these forces:
TRC = FRC * dRC = (5376 * 0.1) = 537.6 N
Note that “d” is the distance from each caliper to the centre of each moving axle.
Assuming the torque is constant over the entire length of the axle we can find the
Forces that are acting on each tire.

FRT = (TRC/ RRT) = [537.6 / (0.127)] = 4233.07

(RRT =10/2=5”= 0.127m)
Where: “R” is the radius of tires.
The deceleration could be calculated as:
a = - (FRT) / m = - (4233.07) / (235) = - 18 m/s2

And
Stoping Distance
d = (V2) / (2a) = (16.67) / (2*18) = 7.72m
After failure either we have to reduce the mass of cart or, we have to mount more brake disc
Thus we mount more 1 more disc and two caliper.

New calculation

Kart Velocity, V = 60km/hr. = 16.67m/s

The fluid pressure that was caused by master cylinder can be calculated as follow:

P = (FP*R*η) / A

Where:
P = fluid pressure, MPa
FP= pedal force, N
R = pedal lever ratio
η = Pedal efficiency
A = cross section area of master cylinder

P = (400 x 3 x 0.8) / .0005

= 1.92 Mpa

The normal forces acting on calipers can be found by following formula-

N = P*A
Where:
N = Normal force,
A = caliper area
Rear:

33
 NRC = A*P
= (0.0035 * 1.92* 2)
(Where ‘2’ stands for two caliper used in rear axle)
= 13440 N
Once we found the normal forces the frictional forces could be calculated:

FRC =μP * NRC= (0.4 *13440) = 5376N

Now we can calculate the torque cause by these forces:
TRC = FRC * dRC = (10752 * 0.1) = 1075.2N
Note that “d” is the distance from each caliper to the centre of each moving axle.

Assuming the torque is constant over the entire length of the axle we can find the
Forces that are acting on each tire.

FRT = (TRC/ RRT) = [1075.2 / (0.127)] = 8466.14

(RRT =10/2=5”= 0.127m)
Where: “R” is the radius of tires.
The deceleration could be calculated as:
a = - (FRT) / m = - (8466.14) / (235) = - 36.026 m/s2
And,
Stoping Distance
d = (V2) / (2a) = (16.67) / (2*36.026) = 3.85m

5.3 Engine Specification

Max Power: 10KW @ 8500 RPM

Max Torque: 11Nm @ 6500 RPM

0-100 km/h (0-60 mph): 23 seconds

Max RPM: 8500

Bore x stroke: 52x 58mm

Valves per cylinder: 2

Ignition: Digital CDI

Lubrication system: Pressure/splash

34
Cooling system: Air Cooled

Gearbox: Manual

Transmission type: 4-speed rotary

Table 5.4 Engine specification

5.3.1 Analysis on Transmission:

Transmission details are given below:
Torque Given @ 8000 RPM @ 10 HP
Velocity Calculated @ 8000(Locked RPM)

 NO. of teeth on engine sprocket = 14

 No. of teeth on shaft sprocket = 34

Thus final drive ratio = No. of teeth on axle sprocket/ No. of teeth on engine sprocket
= 34/14
= 2.428:1

Gear No. Gear Ratio Final Ratio Drive Shaft Velocity @8000
Torque(Nm) (KMPH)
1st Gear 2.722:1 30.607 126.40 14.91
2nd Gear 1.722:1 19.363 78.52 27.33
3rdGear 1.272:1 14.303 58.00 44.72
4th Gear 1.000:1 11.240 45.6 60
Table 5.5 Gear reduction chart

TOP SPEED:
The top speed of vehicle will be calculated at max. rpm of the engine i.e. 8000 rpm, therefore
max. Speed will be 60kmph.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Based upon the desired outcomes of eco-friendly hybrid vehicle project and manufacturing
and fabrication of project using various techniques, following interpretations are concluded:

35
 The vehicle is eco friendly as hybrid system techniques used two power sources i.e.,
electric motor and single cylinder 4-stroke heat engine.

 Prototyping and fabricating of vehicle was done and pollution emissions of both non-
hybrid vehicle and hybrid vehicle were evaluated.

 For non-hybrid vehicle, carbon monoxide emissions were 9700 ppm and hydrocarbons
were 301 ppm.

 For eco-friendly hybrid vehicle, carbon monoxide emissions were 900 ppm and
hydrocarbons were 62 ppm.

 Different designing calculation pertaining steering mechanism, transmission system, gear

ratio were designed according to optimum range.

Fig 6.1 The Hybrid Car

FUTURE SCOPE
Some believe that hybrid cars are fast turning into the cars of future. Consumers are ready to
take chance with the advance technology which hybrid cars have on offer. Today, Honda and
Toyota are the two prominent companies producing hybrid cars.

36
 While Honda launched its Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota is ready with its Prius. With
brands such as Nissan, Mazda, Ford, Fiat, Peugeot, Audi, Mercury and even Porsche, all
these vehicles are licensed to use Toyota’s Hybrid technology in future. In spite of this much
hyped show, hybrid cars are somehow falling flat on consumer market.
Hybrid cars lack in mileage which is a great setback for all the hybrid car owners.
Currently a hybrid car gets up to a mileage of 31 mpg on city and 45 mpg on highway. Unless
manufacturers seriously look into this aspect, the car may fail to sustain the on-going hybrid
mania for long.The hybrid car designs of the future are including sports car models that have
been all-time favourites with the world in the past and are now being revived with the brand
new hybrid engine in mind.
With a mind-set of grasping and expanding the propulsion features that are somewhat
limited in today’s hybrid car designs, there are retro styling efforts that are focusing on
providing hybrid cars with optional V8 engine capacities. There are considerations in place to
use solar cells in the framework of hybrid automobiles. The future hybrid car will need to
focus more on greenhouse gases that negatively affect the environment as well as a hybrid car
that will be even more fuel efficient.

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[48 ] Finite element analysis by S.S.bhavikatti

PROJECT RELADED

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