10 Biology Textbook BM 2024-25

Biology
Smt. Kasula Rama Mani MSc, MEd.

Prof. in Biology, SCERT, AP
Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar

Faculty, SCERT-AP
70
250
Asst. Subject Co-Ordinator
Dr. Y. Giri Babu Yadav,
Professor, SCERT, AP
Smt. S. Bhanumathi
Lecturer, SCERT, AP
Smt. V. Sarada Devi

Lecturer, SCERT, AP
Sri Sk. Mohammad Gouse

Assessment Cell, SCERT, AP
Dr. T.V.S. Ramesh

School Assistant (BS), ZPHS, Nagula Vellaturu, Chejerla (M)
SPSR Nellore Dist.
Smt. S. Uma Maheswari

School Assistant (BS), ZPHS, IPPILI, Srikakulam (M), Srikakulam Dist.
Sri P. Satya Prakash

School Assistant (BS), ZPHS, Konda Gumpam, Nellimarla (M),
Vizianagaram Dist.
Sri. Y. Hemasundara Rao

H.M, Govt. High School,
Seethampeta, Seethampeta (M)
Parvathipuram Manyam Dist.
Sri Nusum Chinna Moula

School Assistant (BS), MVRR ZPPHS,
Narasapuram, Indukurpet (M) SPSR Nellore Dist.
Smt. S. Uma Maheswari

School Assistant (BS), ZPHS, IPPILI,
Srikakulam (M), Srikakulam Dist.
Sri P. Satya Prakash

School Assistant (BS), ZPHS,
Konda Gumpam, Nellimarla (M),
Vizianagaram Dist.
Sri. N. Kumaraswamy
H.M, ZPHS, Rompivalasa,
Pathapatnam (M), Srikakulam Dist.
Smt. K. Manjula
School Assistant, (BS) ZPHS
Palasamudram, Gorantla (M)
Sri Satya Sai Dist.
CHAIRMAN, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee Inter University Centre for
Astronomy & Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshbhind,
Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
Rupamanjari Ghosh, Professor, School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Anjni Koul, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics (DESM), NCERT, New
Delhi
Anupam Pachauri, 1317, Sector 37, Faridabad, Haryana
Anuradha Gulati, TGT, CRPF Public School, Rohini, Delhi
Asfa M. Yasin, Reader, Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education, NCERT,
Bhopal
Charu Maini, PGT, DAV School, Sector 14, Gurgaon, Haryana
Dinesh Kumar, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.L. Satheesh, TGT , DM School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore
Madhuri Mahapatra, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneswar, Orissa
Puran Chand, Joint Director, Central Institute of Educational Technology, NCERT, New Delhi
S.C. Jain, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Sujatha G.D., Assistant Mistress, V.V.S. Sardar Patel High School, Rajaji Nagar, Bangalore
S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Seshu Lavania, Reader, Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow
Satyajit Rath, Scientist, National Institute of Immunology, JNU Campus, New Delhi
Sukhvir Singh, Reader, DESM, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer, Rajasthan
Uma Sudhir, Eklavya, Indore
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Brahm Parkash, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that children’s life at
school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the
legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between
the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF
signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote
learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We
hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system
of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will
take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative
activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children
generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why
other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is
possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar
so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods
used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for
making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by
restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this
endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and
wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the
hard work done by the textbook development team responsible for this book. We wish to
thank the Chairman of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar
and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor Rupamanjari Ghosh, School of Physical
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, for guiding the work of this committee.
Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to them
and their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and
organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee,
appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development under the Chairmanship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to
systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes
comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training
This textbook of Science for Class X is a continuation of our attempt in the Class IX
Science textbook to comply with the guidelines of the National Curriculum Framework-
2005. We had to work within a limited time frame and also had our own constraints coming
in the way of this radical change. The revised and re-structured syllabus for Class X covers
selected topics in the broad themes of — Materials, The World of the Living, How Things
Work, Natural Phenomena and Natural Resources. We have interpreted the syllabus to
present a coherent coverage of scientific concepts related to our daily life on the select
topics. It is an integrated approach to science at this level, with no sharp divisions into
disciplines such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Environmental Science.
There has been a conscious attempt to address the relevant social concerns in this
science textbook wherever possible — the concerns for people with special needs, the
issues of gender discrimination, energy and environment have found their natural place in
this book. Students have been encouraged to get into the debates on some of the
management concerns (for sustainable development, for example) so that they can
arrive at their own decisions after a scientific analysis of all the facts.
This book has some features which are meant to enhance its effectiveness. The
theme of each chapter has been introduced with examples from daily life, and if possible,
by a relevant activity that the students have to perform. The entire approach of the book
is, in fact, activity-based, i.e., the students are required to construct knowledge
themselves from these activities. The emphasis is not on definitions and technical terms,
but on the concepts involved. Special care has been taken so that the rigour of science is
not lost while simplifying the language. Difficult and challenging ideas, which are not to be
covered at this stage, have often been placed as extra material in the boxes in light
orange. The excitement of doing science comes from pursuing the unknown — the
students would have the opportunity to think and explore somewhat beyond the syllabus
and may feel the urge to continue their scientific expedition at higher levels. All such box
items, including brief biography of scientists, are, of course, non-evaluative.
Solved examples are provided, wherever felt necessary, to clarify a concept. The
in-text questions after a main section are for the students to check their understanding of
the topic. At the end of each chapter, there is a quick review of the important points
covered in the chapter. We have introduced some multiple choice questions in the
exercises. There are problems of different difficulty levels answers to the multiple-choice
questions and numericals, and hints for the difficult questions are included at the end of
the book.
This book has been made possible because of the active participation of many
people. I wish to thank Professor Krishna Kumar, Director, NCERT, Prof. G. Ravindra, Joint
Director, NCERT, and Professor Hukum Singh, Head, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, specially for their keen interest in the development of the book
and for all the administrative support. I wish to put on record my sincere appreciation for Dr
Anjni Koul, the member-coordinator of the textbook development committee, for her
extraordinary commitment and efficiency. It has been a real pleasure working with my
textbook development team and the review committee. The chosen editorial team
worked extremely hard, on tight deadlines, to bring the book close to the shape that we
dreamt of. Fruitful discussions with some members of the MHRD Monitoring Committee
helped in providing the final touches to the book. I do not have the words to acknowledge
the professional and personal inputs I received from some of my close friends during the
preparation of this book. We warmly welcome comments and suggestions for
improvement from our readers.
RUPAMANJARI GHOSH
Professor of Physics
School of Physical Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), besides
expressing its gratefulness towards the members of the Textbook Development
Committee for their contribution in the development of the Science Textbook for Class X,
also acknowledges the contribution of the following members for reviewing, editing,
refining, and finalisation of the manuscript of the book. Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.),
Directorate of Education, NCT, Delhi; Ranveer Singh, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Bal Vidyalaya,
Timarpur, Delhi; Bharat Poorey, Professor (Retd.), Govt. Post Graduate College, Indore;
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, S.P.M. College, Delhi University, Delhi; Ravinder Kaur, TGT,
Kendriya Vidyalaya, Rohini, Delhi; Renu Puri, TGT, N.C. Jindal Public School, New Delhi;
Sarita Kumar, Reader, Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi University, Delhi; Shashi
Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Delhi; Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, NERIE, Shillong; Sushma
Jaireth, Reader, DWS, NCERT, New Delhi; Y.P. Purang, Addl. Director of Education (Retd.),
NCT, Delhi; Neeta Agarwal, TGT, D.L.D.A.V. Model School, Pitampura, Delhi; Roma Anand,
TGT, D.L.D.A.V., Pitampura, Delhi; Veer Pal Singh, Reader, DEME, NCERT, New Delhi and
S.L. Varte, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
The Council also acknowledges the valuable contribution of Sunita Farkya
(Professor, DESM), Pushplata Verma (Assistant Professor, DESM), K.C. Tripathi (Professor, DEL)
and Jatindra Mohan Misra (Professor, DEL) in updating Chapter 16 titled "Sustainable
Management of Natural Resources", and also in the review of this textbook.
The contribution of R.S. Sindhu, Professor (Retd.), DESM; V.P. Srivastava, Professor
(Retd.), DESM; R.K. Parashar, Rachna Garg (Professors, DESM); V.V. Anand, Professor
(Retd.), RIE Mysore; S.V. Sharma (Professor, RIE Mysore); V.P. Singh (Professor, RIE Ajmer); R.
Joshi, Associate Professor (Retd.), DESM; C.V. Shimray, Ruchi Verma (Associate Professors,
DESM); Ram Babu Pareek (Associate Professor, RIE Ajmer); A.K. Srivastava, Rejaul Karim
Barbhuiya, Pramila Tanwar (Assistant Professors, DESM); R.R. Koireng (Assistant Professor,
DCS); V. Tangpu (Assistant Professor, RIE Mysore) and Akhileshwar Mishra (Head Master,
DMS, RIE Bhubaneswar), in the review of this textbook in 2017-18 are acknowledged.
Special thanks are due to Hukum Singh, Professor and Former Head, DESM, NCERT,
New Delhi, for providing all academic and administrative support.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the support provided by the APC Office
of DESM, administrative staff of DESM; Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station,
DESM; Saima and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators and Rajesh Handa, Illustrator; Mohd.
Qamar Tabrez and Musarrat Parveen, Copy Editors; Seema Yadav, Proof Reader.
The efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT are also highly appreciated.
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students.
The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and
providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background,
the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes.
Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken
into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
Ÿ Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same class
Ÿ Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
Ÿ Difficulty level
Ÿ Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from
teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
Ÿ Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes given above.
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CONTENTS
Chapter 5
Life Processes.................................................2
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Chapter 6
Control and Coordination.............................40
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Chapter 7
How do Organisms Reproduce?..................62
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Chapter 8
Heredity.........................................................88
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Chapter 13
Our Environment........................................102
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Teacher Corner Student Corner
* Note: Chapters-9, 10, 11, 12 are related to

Physical Science
1
ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : Life Processes
Life Processes
2
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H ow do we tell the difference

between what is alive and what is
not alive? If we see a dog running, or a cow
5.1 WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?
The maintenance functions of living
organisms must go on even when they are not
chewing cud, or a man shouting loudly on the doing anything particular. Even when we are
street, we know that these are living beings. just sitting in class, even if we are just asleep,
What if the dog or the cow or the man were this maintenance job has to go on. The
asleep? We would still think that they were processes which together perform this
alive, but how did we know that? We see them maintenance job are life processes.
breathing, and we know that they are alive. Since these maintenance processes are
What about plants? How do we know that they needed to prevent damage and break-down,
are alive? We see them green, some of us will energy is needed for them. This energy comes
say. But what about plants that have leaves of from outside the body of the individual
colours other than green? They grow over time, organism. So there must be a process to transfer
so we know that they are alive, some will say. In a source of energy from outside the body of the
other words, we tend to think of some sort of organism, which we call food, to the inside, a
movement, either growth-related or not, as process we commonly call nutrition. If the body
common evidence for being alive. But a plant size of the organisms is to grow, additional raw
that is not visibly growing is still alive, and material will also be needed from outside.
some animals can breathe without visible Since life on earth depends on carbon-based
movement. So using visible movement as the molecules, most of these food sources are also
dening characteristic of life is not enough. carbon-based. Depending on the complexity of
Movements over very small scales will these carbon sources, different organisms can
be invisible to the naked eye – movements of then use different kinds of nutritional
molecules, for example. Is this invisible processes.
molecular movement necessary for life? If we The outside sources of energy could be
ask this question to professional biologists, quite varied, since the environment is not under
they will say yes. In fact, viruses do not show the control of the individual organism. These
any molecular movement in them (until they sources of energy, therefore, need to be broken
infect some cell), and that is partly why there is down or built up in the body, and must be nally
a controversy about whether they are truly alive converted to a uniform source of energy that
or not. can be used for the various molecular
Why are molecular movements needed movements needed for maintaining living
for life? We have seen in earlier classes that structures, as well as to the kind of molecules
living organisms are well-organised structures; the body needs to grow. For this, a series of
they can have tissues, tissues have cells, cells chemical reactions in the body are necessary.
have smaller components in them, and so on. Oxidising-reducing reactions are some of the
Because of the effects of the environment, this most common chemical means to break-down
organised, ordered nature of living structures is molecules. For this, many organisms use
very likely to keep breaking down over time. If oxygen sourced from outside the body. The
order breaks down, the organism will no longer process of acquiring oxygen from outside the
be alive. So living creatures must keep body, and to use it in the process of break-down
repairing and maintaining their structures. of food sources for cellular needs, is what we
Since all these structures are made up of call respiration.
molecules, they must move molecules around In the case of a single-celled organism,
all the time. no specic organs for taking in food, exchange
What are the maintenance processes in of gases or removal of wastes may be needed
living organisms?Let us explore. because the entire surface of the organism is in
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5
contact with the environment. But what 5.2 NUTRITION
happens when the body size of the organism When we walk or ride a bicycle, we are
increases and the body design becomes more using up energy. Even when we are not doing
complex? In multi-cellular organisms, all the any apparent activity, energy is needed to
cells may not be in direct contact with the maintain a state of order in our body. We also
surrounding environment. Thus, simple need materials from outside in order to grow,
diffusion will not meet the requirements of all develop, synthesise protein and other
the cells. substances needed in the body. This source of
We have seen previously how, in multi-
energy and materials is the food we eat.
cellular organisms, various body parts have
How do living things get their food?
specialised in the functions they perform. We
are familiar with the idea of these specialised The general requirement for energy and
tissues, and with their organisation in the body materials is common in all organisms, but it is
of the organism. It is therefore not surprising fullled in different ways. Some organisms use
that the uptake of food and of oxygen will also simple food material obtained from inorganic
be the function of specialised tissues. However, sources in the form of carbon dioxide and
this poses a problem, since the food and oxygen water. These organisms, the autotrophs, include
are now taken up at one place in the body of the green plants and some bacteria. Other
organisms, while all parts of the body need organisms utilise complex substances. These
them. This situation creates a need for a complex substances have to be broken down
transportation system for carrying food and into simpler ones before they can be used for
oxygen from one place to another in the body. the upkeep and growth of the body. To achieve
When chemical reactions use the carbon this, organisms use bio-catalysts called
source and the oxygen for energy generation, enzymes. Thus, the heterotrophs survival
they create by-products that are not only depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs.
useless for the cells of the body, but could even Heterotrophic organisms include animals and
be harmful. These waste by-products are fungi.
therefore needed to be removed from the body 5.2.1 Autotrophic Nutrition
and discarded outside by a process called Carbon and energy requirements of the
excretion. Again, if the basic rules for body autotrophic organism are fullled by
design in multi-cellular organisms are photosynthesis. It is the process by which
followed, a specialised tissue for excretion will autotrophs take in substances from the outside
be developed, which means that the and convert them into stored forms of energy.
transportation system will need to transport This material is taken in the form of carbon
waste away from cells to this excretory tissue. dioxide and water which is converted into
Let us consider these various processes, carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and
so essential to maintain life, one by one. chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilised for
providing energy to the plant. We will study
1.Why is diffusion insufcient to meet the how this takes place in the next section. The
carbohydrates which are not used immediately
oxygen requirements of multi-cellular are stored in the form of starch, which serves as
organisms like humans? the internal energy reserve to be used as and
2.What criteria do we use to decide whether when required by the plant. A somewhat similar
something is alive? situation is seen in us where some of the energy
3.What are outside raw materials used for by derived from the food we eat is stored in our
an organism? body in the form of glycogen.
4.What processes would you consider
essential for maintaining life?
6
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7
Let us now see what actually happens during

the process of photosynthesis. The following
events occur during this process –
(I) Absorption of light energy by
chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to
chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates.
These steps need not take place one after
the other immediately. For example, desert
plants take up carbon dioxide at night and (a) (b)
prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by
the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during
the day.
Let us see how each of the components Figure 5.1 Cross-section of a leaf
of the above reaction are necessary for
photosynthesis.
Activity 5.1
g Take a potted plant with variegated leaves
– for example, money plant or crotons.
g Keep the plant in a dark room for three
days so that all the starch gets used up.
g Now keep the plant in sunlight for about
six hours. Figure 5.2 Variegated leaf
g Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green (a) before and (b) after starch test
areas in it and trace them on a sheet of
paper. If you carefully observe a cross-section of
g Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few a leaf under the microscope (shown in Fig. 5.1),
minutes. you will notice that some cells contain green dots.
g After this, immerse it in a beaker These green dots are cell organelles called
containing alcohol. chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll. Let us do
g Carefully place the above beaker in a an activity which demonstrates that chlorophyll
water-bath and heat till the alcohol begins is essential for photosynthesis.
to boil. Now, let us study how the plant obtains carbon
g What happens to the colour of the leaf? dioxide. In Class IX, we had talked about stomata
What is the colour of the solution? (Fig. 5.3) which are tiny pores present on the
g Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of surface of the leaves. Massive amounts of
iodine for a few minutes. gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves
g Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine through these pores for the purpose of
solution. photosynthesis. But it is important to note here
g Observe the colour of the leaf and that exchange of gases occurs across the surface
compare this with the tracing of the leaf
of stems, roots and leaves as well. Since large
done in the beginning (Fig. 5.2).
g What can you conclude about the presence amounts of water can also be lost through these
of starch in various areas of the leaf? stomata, the plant closes these pores when it does
8
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g €Å£” jîTT¿£Ø $$<óŠ çbÍ+ÔýË¢ |¾+& |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ –“¿ì“ eTTK«+>± >·eT“+#á e\d¾q $wŸjáT+ @$T³+fñ yjáTT
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Å£L&† ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~. ‡ |ŸçÔá sÁ+ç<ó‘\ <‘Çs ™|<ŠÝ yîTTÔáï+ýË úsÁT
9
Activity 5.2
g Take two healthy potted plants which are
nearly the same size.
g Keep them in a dark room for three days.
g Now place each plant on separate glass
plates. Place a watch-glass containing
potassium hydroxide by the side of one
of the plants. The potassium hydroxide
is used to absorb carbon dioxide.
g Cover both plants with separate bell-jars
as shown in Fig. 5.4.
g Use vaseline to seal the bottom of the
jars to the glass plates so that the set-up is
air-tight.
g Keep the plants in sunlight for about two
hours.
g Pluck a leaf from each plant and check
not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The for the presence of starch as in the above
opening and closing of the pore is a function of activity.
g Do both the leaves show the presence of
the guard cells. The guard cells swell when water
the same amount of starch?
ows into them, causing the stomatal pore to
g What can you conclude from this
open. Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells activity?
shrink. 5.2.2 Heterotrophic Nutrition
Based on the two activities performed above, can Each organism is adapted to its environment.
we design an experiment to demonstrate that The form of nutrition differs depending on the
sunlight is essential for photosynthesis? type and availability of food material as well as
how it is obtained by the organism. For
So far, we have talked about how autotrophs
meet their energy requirements. But they also example, whether the food source is stationary
need other raw materials for building their body. (such as grass) or mobile (such as a deer),
Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the would allow for differences in how the food is
soil by the roots in terrestrial plants. Other accessed and what is the nutritive apparatus
materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and used by a cow and a lion. There is a range of
magnesium are taken up from the soil. Nitrogen strategies by which the food is taken in and
is an essential element used in the synthesis of used by the organism. Some organisms break-
proteins and other compounds. This is taken up down the food material outside the body and
in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is then absorb it. Examples are fungi like bread
taken up as organic compounds which have been moulds, yeast and mushrooms. Others take in
prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen. whole material and break it down inside their
10
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11
bodies. What can be taken in and broken down
Activity 5.3
depends on the body design and functioning.
Some other organisms derive nutrition from g Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test
plants or animals without killing them. This tubes (A and B).
parasitic nutritive strategy is used by a wide g Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and leave
variety of organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), both test tubes undisturbed for 20-30
ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms. minutes.
5.2.3 How do Organisms obtain their g Now add a few drops of dilute iodine
Nutrition? solution to the test tubes.
Since the food and the way it is obtained differ,
g In which test tube do you observe a colour
the digestive system is different in various
change?
organisms. In single-celled organisms, the food
g What does this indicate about the
may be taken in by the entire surface. But as the
complexity of the organism increases, different presence or absence of starch in the two
parts become specialised to perform different test tubes?
functions. For example, Amoeba takes in food g What does this tell us about the action of
using temporary nger-like extensions of the saliva on starch?
cell surface which fuse over the food particle
forming a food-vacuole (Fig. 5.5). Inside the
food-vacuole, complex substances are broken
down into simpler ones which then diffuse into
the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested
material is moved to the surface of the cell and
thrown out. In Paramoecium, which is also a
unicellular organism, the cell has a denite
shape and food is taken in at a specic spot.
Food is moved to this spot by the movement of
cilia which cover the entire surface of the cell.
5.2.4 Nutrition in Human Beings

The alimentary canal is basically a long tube
extending from the mouth to the anus. In Fig.
5.6, we can see that the tube has different parts.
Various regions are specialised to perform
different functions. What happens to the food
once it enters our body? We shall discuss this
Figure 5.5
process here. Nutrition in Amoeba
12
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13
We eat various types of food which has to pass
through the same digestive tract. Naturally the
food has to be processed to generate particles
which are small and of the same texture. This is
achieved by crushing the food with our teeth.
Since the lining of the canal is soft, the food is
also wetted to make its passage smooth. When
we eat something we like, our mouth ‘waters’.
This is actually not only water, but a uid called
saliva secreted by the salivary glands. Another
aspect of the food we ingest is its complex
nature. If it is to be absorbed from the
Figure 5.6 Human alimentary canal
alimentary canal, it has to be broken into
The digestion in stomach is taken care of
smaller molecules. This is done with the help of
by the gastric glands present in the wall of the
biological catalysts called enzymes. The saliva
stomach. These release hydrochloric acid, a
contains an enzyme called salivary amylase
protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and
that breaks down starch which is a complex
mucus. The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic
molecule to give simple sugar. The food is
medium which facilitates the action of the
mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved
enzyme pepsin. What other function do you
around the mouth while chewing by the
think is served by the acid? The mucus protects
muscular tongue.
the inner lining of the stomach from the action
It is necessary to move the food in a
of the acid under normal conditions. We have
regulated manner along the digestive tube so
often heard adults complaining about ‘acidity’.
that it can be processed properly in each part.
Can this be related to what has been discussed
The lining of canal has muscles that contract
above?
rhythmically in order to push the food forward. The exit of food from the stomach is
These peristaltic movements occur all along the regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases
gut. it in small amounts into the small intestine.
From the stomach, the food now enters the
From the mouth, the food is taken to the
small intestine. This is the longest part of the
stomach through the food-pipe or oesophagus. alimentary canal which is tted into a compact
The stomach is a large organ which expands space because of extensive coiling. The length
when food enters it. The muscular walls of the of the small intestine differs in various animals
stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly depending on the food they eat. Herbivores
with more digestive juices. eating grass need a longer small intestine to
14
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dŸ&ƒ*¿£\T e\q €VŸäsÁ+ eTT+<ŠTÅ£” Hî³¼‹&ƒTÔáT+~. JsÁ’HÞø+
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yîTTÔáï+ ‡ $<óŠyîT®q ÔásÁ+>±¿±sÁ(™|]kÍ¼*{ì¿ù) #á\H\T
dŸ+‹+<óŠ+ –+<‘?
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€VŸäsÁ+ ‹jáT³Å£” yîÞøß&†“• “jáT+çÜdŸÖï –+³T+~. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT
‚~ $dŸï]dŸTï+~. ¿£+&ƒsÁjáTTÔáyîT®q Js’XøjáT >Ã&ƒ\T €VŸäsÁ+
€VŸäsÁ+ Js’XøjáT+ qT+& ºq•ç|>·TýË“¿ì ç|Ÿyû¥dŸTï+~. ‚~
mÅ£”Øe JsÁ’sÁkÍ\ÔÃ u²>± ¿£*jáTuÉfñ¼+<ŠTÅ£”
#áT³¼\T #áT³T¼Å£”“ ÔáÅ£”Øe ç|Ÿ<ûXø+ýË neT] –+&û €VŸäsÁ HÞø+
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| >· T \ bõ&ƒ e Ú yû s Á T yû s Á T >± –+³T+~. >· & ¦ Ü+³Tq•
€eÖ¢“•, çbþ{¡q¢qT JsÁ’+ #ûd ™||¾àHŽ nHû m+CÉÕeTTqT eT]jáTT
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Xâ¢wŸˆ+qT $&ƒT<Š\ #ûkÍïsTT. ™VÕ²ç&Ã¿Ã¢]¿ù €eT¢+ €eT¢ eÖ<óŠ«eÖ“•
15
allow the cellulose to be digested. Meat is emulsied fats. The walls of the small intestine
easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers contain glands which secrete intestinal juice.
have a shorter small intestine. The enzymes present in it nally convert the
proteins to amino acids, complex
The small intestine is the site of the carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty
complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins acids and glycerol.
and fats. It receives the secretions of the liver Digested food is taken up by the walls of
and pancreas for this purpose. The food coming the intestine. The inner lining of the small
from the stomach is acidic and has to be made intestine has numerous nger-like projections
alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes to act. Bile called villi which increase the surface area for
juice from the liver accomplishes this in absorption. The villi are richly supplied with
addition to acting on fats. Fats are present in the blood vessels which take the absorbed food to
intestine in the form of large globules which each and every cell of the body, where it is
makes it difcult for enzymes to act on them. utilised for obtaining energy, building up new
Bile salts break them down into smaller tissues and the repair of old tissues.
globules increasing the efciency of enzyme The unabsorbed food is sent into the
action. This is similar to the emulsifying action large intestine where its wall absorb more water
of soaps on dirt that we have learnt about in from this material. The rest of the material is
Chapter 4. The pancreas secretes pancreatic removed from the body via the anus. The exit of
juice which contains enzymes like trypsin for this waste material is regulated by the anal
digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down sphincter.
More to Know!
Dental caries
Dental caries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine. It begins when
bacteria acting on sugars produce acids that softens or demineralises the enamel. Masses of
bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. Saliva cannot
reach the tooth surface to neutralise the acid as plaque covers the teeth. Brushing the teeth after
eating removes the plaque before the bacteria produce acids. If untreated, microorganisms may
invade the pulp, causing inammation and infection.
5.3 RESPIRATION
Activity 5.4
1. What are the differences between g Take some freshly prepared lime water in
autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic a test tube.
nutrition? g Blow air through this lime water.
2. Where do plants get each of the raw g Note how long it takes for the lime water
to turn milky.
materials required for photosynthesis? g Use a syringe or pichkari to pass air
3. What is the role of the acid in our through some fresh lime water taken in
stomach? another test tube (Fig. 5.7).
4. What is the function of digestive g Note how long it takes for this lime water
enzymes? to turn milky.
5. How is the small intestine designed to g What does this tell us about the amount of
absorb digested food? carbon dioxide in the air that we breathe
out?
16
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5.3 XæÇdŸç¿ìjáT
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17
Activity 5.5 converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This

g Take some fruit juice or sugar solution process takes place in yeast during
and add some yeast to this. Take this fermentation. Since this process takes place in
mixture in a test tube tted with a one- the absence of air (oxygen), it is called
holed cork. anaerobic respiration. Break- down of pyruvate
g Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the
free end of the glass tube into a test tube using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria.
containing freshly prepared lime water. This process breaks up the three-carbon
g What change is observed in the lime pyruvate molecule to give three molecules of
water and how long does it take for this
change to occur? carbon dioxide. The other product is water.
g What does this tell us about the products Since this process takes place in the presence of
of fermentation? air (oxygen), it is called aerobic respiration.
The release of energy in this aerobic process is a
lot greater than in the anaerobic process.
Sometimes, when there is a lack of oxygen in
our muscle cells, another pathway for the
break-down of pyruvate is taken. Here the
pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which is
also a three-carbon molecule. This build-up of
lactic acid in our muscles during sudden
activity causes cramps.
Figure 5.7
(a) Air being passed into lime water with a pichkari/
syringe, (b) air being exhaled into lime water
We have discussed nutrition in
organisms in the last section. The food material
taken in during the process of nutrition is used
in cells to provide energy for various life
Figure 5.8
processes. Diverse organisms do this in Break-down of glucose by various pathways
different ways – some use oxygen to break-
The energy released during cellular
down glucose completely into carbon dioxide
respiration is immediately used to synthesise a
and water, some use other pathways that do not molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all
involve oxygen (Fig. 5.8). In all cases, the rst other activities in the cell. In these processes,
step is the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon ATP is broken down giving rise to a xed
molecule, into a three-carbon molecule called amount of energy which can drive the
pyruvate. This process takes place in the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.
cytoplasm. Further, the pyruvate may be
More to Know!
ATP : ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The energy released during the
process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
18
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n+~kÍïsTT. $$<óŠ JeÚ\T B““ $$<óŠ eÖsZýË¢ #ûkÍïsTT. ¿=“• yî+³Hû ATP nDTeÚ\ ÔájáÖ¯ýË –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~. ‚~
JeÚ\T €¿ìàÈHŽ –|ŸjîÖÐ+º >·Ö¢¿ÃCÙqT |ŸP]ïkÍœsTTýË ¿±sÁÒHŽ ¿£ D +ýË ÈsÁ T >· T Ôá T q• n“• ç ¿ ì j á T \Å£ ” ‚+<ó Š q +>±
&îÕ €Â¿Õà&Ž eT]jáTT úsÁT>± $ºÌÛq•+ #ûkÍïsTT. ¿=“• JeÚ\T (|Ÿ³+ –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~. ‡ ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTýË, ATP $ºÌÛq•+ #î+<Š&ƒ+
5.8) €¿ìàÈHŽ ç|ŸyûTjáT+ ýñ“ yû¹s eÖsZ“• nqTdŸ]kÍïsTT. n“• e\q $&ƒT<ŠýÉÕq d¾œsÁyîT®q Xø¿ìï yîTTÔáï+ ¿£D+ýË È]¹> –wŸ’
dŸ+<ŠsÒÛýË¢qÖ €sÁT ¿£sÁÒq |ŸsÁeÖDTeÚ\T ¿£*Ðq >·Ö¢¿ÃCÙ ç>±VŸ²¿£#ásÁ«\Å£” ÔÃ&ƒÎ&ƒTÔáT+~.
ATP :
nHû¿£ ¿£D ç|Ÿç¿ìjáT\Å£” ATP mq¯¨ ¿£Âsúà>± –+³T+~. XæÇdŸç¿ìjáT ÈsÁT>·TÔáTq•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT $&ƒT<ŠýÉÕq Xø¿ìï ADP eT]jáTT n¿£sÁÒq
b˜ÍdÎ{Ù qT+& ATP nDTeÚ\T ÔájáÖ¯¿ì –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
19
Endothermic processes in the cell then use this ATP to drive the reactions. When the terminal phosphate
linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol is released.
Think of how a battery can provide energy for many different kinds of uses. It can be used to obtain
mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy and so on. Similarly, ATP can be used in the cells for
the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities.
Since the aerobic respiration pathway
depends on oxygen, aerobic organisms need to g Count the number of times the sh opens
and closes its mouth in a minute.
ensure that there is sufcient intake of oxygen.
g Compare this to the number of times you
We have seen that plants exchange gases breathe in and out in a minute.
through stomata, and the large inter-cellular
spaces ensure that all cells are in contact with Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is
air. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in
by diffusion here. They can go into cells, or the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms
away from them and out into the air. The is much faster than that seen in terrestrial
direction of diffusion depends upon the organisms. Fishes take in water through their
environmental conditions and the requirements mouths and force it past the gills where the
of the plant. At night, when there is no dissolved oxygen is taken up by blood.
photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen in
the atmosphere for respiration. This oxygen is
the major exchange activity going on. During
absorbed by different organs in different
the day, CO2 generated during respiration is animals. All these organs have a structure that
used up for photosynthesis, hence there is no increases the surface area which is in contact
CO2 release. Instead, oxygen release is the with the oxygen-rich atmosphere. Since the
major event at this time. exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to
Animals have evolved different organs take place across this surface, this surface is
for the uptake of oxygen from the environment very ne and delicate. In order to protect this
and for getting rid of the carbon dioxide surface, it is usually placed within the body, so
produced. Terrestrial animals can breathe the there have to be passages that will take air to
oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live this area. In addition, there is a mechanism for
in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in moving the air in and out of this area where the
water. oxygen is absorbed.
Activity 5.6 In human beings (Fig. 5.9), air is taken
into the body through the nostrils. The air
g Observe sh in an aquarium. They open passing through the nostrils is ltered by ne
and close their mouths and the gill-slits hairs that line the passage. The passage is also
(or the operculum which covers the gill- lined with mucus which helps in this process.
slits) behind their eyes also open and From here, the air passes through the throat and
close. Are the timings of the opening and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in
closing of the mouth and gill-slits the throat. These ensure that the air-passage
coordinated in some manner? does not collapse.
More to Know!
g Using tobacco directly or any product of tobacco in the form of cigar, cigarettes, bidis,
hookah, gutkha, etc., is harmful. Use of tobacco most commonly affects the tongue, lungs,
heart and liver. Smokeless tobacco is also a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes,
pulmonary diseases and several forms of cancers. There is a high incidence of oral cancer in
India due to the chewing of tobacco in the form of gutkha. Stay healthy; just say NO to tobacco
and its products!
20
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dŸ e Tjá Ö \T @<î Õ H $<ó ‘ q+ýË dŸ e TqÇjá T +ÔÃ “sˆD²\T –+{²sTT, ‚$ >±* eÖsÁZ+ eTT&ƒT#áTÅ£”bþÅ£”+&†
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eT]jáTT <‘“ –ÔáÎÔáTï\T e<ŠTÝ n“ #î|ŸÎ+&.
21
Figure 5.9 Human respiratory system
Within the lungs, the passage divides is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain
into smaller and smaller tubes which nally a residual volume of air so that there is
terminate in balloon-like structures which are sufcient time for oxygen to be absorbed and
called alveoli (singular–alveolus). The alveoli for the carbon dioxide to be released.
provide a surface where the exchange of gases When the body size of animals is large,
can take place. The walls of the alveoli contain the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of
an extensive network of blood-vessels. As we oxygen delivery to all parts of the body. Instead,
have seen in earlier years, when we breathe in, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the
we lift our ribs and atten our diaphragm, and air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which are
the chest cavity becomes larger as a result. decient in oxygen before releasing it. In
Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and human beings, the respiratory pigment is
lls the expanded alveoli. The blood brings haemoglobin which has a very high afnity for
carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for oxygen. This pigment is present in the red
release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the blood corpuscles. Carbon dioxide is more
alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is
blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in mostly transported in the dissolved form in our
the body. During the breathing cycle, when air blood.
Do you Know!
Smoking is injurious to health.
Lung cancer is one of common causes of deaths in the world. The upper part of respiratory tract
is provided with small hair-like structures called cilia. These cilia help to remove germs, dust
and other harmful particles from inhaled air. Smoking destroys these hair due to which germs,
dust, smoke and other harmful chemicals enter lungs and cause infection, cough and even lung
cancer.
22
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23
g If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 m2. How much do you think
the surface area of your body is? Consider how efcient exchange of gases becomes because
of the large surface available for the exchange to take place.
g If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take 3 years for a
molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs. Aren’t you glad that we have
haemoglobin?
1. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to
obtaining oxygen for respiration?
2. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide energy in various
organisms?
3. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
4. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximise the area for exchange of gases?
5.4 TRANSPORTATION
5.4.1 Transportation in Human Beings
Activity 5.7
g Visit a health centre in your locality and
nd out what is the normal range of
haemoglobin content in human beings.
g Is it the same for children and adults?
g Is there any difference in the
haemoglobin levels for men and women?
g Visit a veterinary clinic in your locality.
Find out what is the normal range of
haemoglobin content in an animal like Figure 5.10
Schematic sectional view of the human heart
the buffaloor cow.
g Is this content different in calves, male damaged.
Our pump — the heart
and female animals?
The heart is a muscular organ which is as big as
g Compare the difference seen in male and
our st (Fig. 5.10). Because both oxygen and
female human beings and animals. carbon dioxide have to be transported by the
g How would the difference, if any, be blood, the heart has different chambers to
explained? prevent the oxygen-rich blood from mixing
We have seen in previous sections that with the blood containing carbon dioxide. The
blood transports food, oxygen and waste carbon dioxide-rich blood has to reach the
materials in our bodies. In Class IX, we learnt lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed, and
about blood being a uid connective tissue. the oxygenated blood from the lungs has to be
Blood consists of a uid medium called plasma brought back to the heart. This oxygen-rich
in which the cells are suspended. Plasma blood is then pumped to the rest of the body.
transports food, carbon dioxide and We can follow this process step by step
nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. Oxygen (Fig. 5.11). Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs
is carried by the red blood corpuscles. Many comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of the
other substances like salts, are also transported heart on the left, the left atrium. The left atrium
by the blood. We thus need a pumping organ to relaxes when it is collecting this blood. It then
push blood around the body, a network of tubes contracts, while the next chamber, the left
to reach all the tissues and a system in place to ventricle, relaxes, so that the blood is
ensure that this network can be repaired if transferred to it. When the muscular left
24
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5.4 sÁyD²
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25
ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated
pumped out to the body. De-oxygenated blood and de-oxygenated blood streams. Fishes, on
comes from the body to the upper chamber on the other hand, have only two chambers to their
the right, the right atrium, as it relaxes. As the hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills, is
right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest
chamber, the right ventricle, dilates. This of the body. Thus, blood goes only once
transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in through the heart in the sh during one cycle of
turn pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation. passage through the body. On the other hand, it
Since ventricles have to pump blood into goes through the heart twice during each cycle
various organs, they have thicker muscular in other vertebrates. This is known as double
walls than the atria do. Valves ensure that blood circulation.
does not ow backwards when the atria or
ventricles contract.
Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs
The separation of the right side and the left side
of the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and de-
oxygenated blood from mixing. Such
separation allows a highly efcient supply of
oxygen to the body. This is useful in animals
that have high energy needs, such as birds and
mammals, which constantly use energy to
maintain their body temperature. In animals
that do not use energy for this purpose, the body
temperature depends on the temperature in the
environment. Such animals, like amphibians or Figure 5.11
many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, Schematic representation of transport and
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
More to Know!
Blood pressure
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This pressure is
much greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular
systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole
(relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and
diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure
is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of arterioles, which results in
increased resistance to blood ow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.
26
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27
The tubes – blood vessels 5.4.2 Transportation in Plants

Arteries are the vessels which carry We have discussed earlier how plants take in
blood away from the heart to various organs of simple compounds such as CO2 and
the body. Since the blood emerges from the photosynthesise energy stored in their
heart under high pressure, the arteries have chlorophyll-containing organs, namely leaves.
thick, elastic walls. Veins collect the blood from The other kinds of raw materials needed for
different organs and bring it back to the heart. building plant bodies will also have to be taken
They do not need thick walls because the blood up separately. For plants, the soil is the nearest
is no longer under pressure, instead they have and richest source of raw materials like
valves that ensure that the blood ows only in nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals. The
one direction. absorption of these substances therefore occurs
On reaching an organ or tissue, the through the part in contact with the soil, namely
artery divides into smaller and smaller vessels roots. If the distances between soil-contacting
to bring the blood in contact with all the organs and chlorophyll-containing organs are
individual cells. The smallest vessels have small, energy and raw materials can easily
walls which are one-cell thick and are called diffuse to all parts of the plant body. But if these
capillaries. Exchange of material between the distances become large because of changes in
blood and surrounding cells takes place across plant body design, diffusion processes will not
this thin wall. The capillaries then join together be sufcient to provide raw material in leaves
to form veins that convey the blood away from and energy in roots. A proper system of
the organ or tissue. transportation is therefore essential in such
Maintenance by platelets situations.
What happens if this system of tubes develops a Energy needs differ between different
leak? Think about situations when we are body designs. Plants do not move, and plant
injured and start bleeding. Naturally the loss of bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in
blood from the system has to be minimised. In many tissues. As a result, plants have low
addition, leakage would lead to a loss of energy needs, and can use relatively slow
pressure which would reduce the efciency of transport systems. The distances over which
the pumping system. To avoid this, the blood transport systems have to operate, however, can
has platelet cells which circulate around the be very large in plants such as very tall trees.
body and plug these leaks by helping to clot the Plant transport systems will move
blood at these points of injury. energy stores from leaves and raw materials
Lymph from roots. These two pathways are
There is another type of uid also involved in constructed as independently organised
transportation. This is called lymph or tissue conducting tubes. One, the xylem moves water
uid. Through the pores present in the walls of and minerals obtained from the soil. The other,
capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins phloem transports products of photosynthesis
and blood cells escape into intercellular spaces from the leaves where they are synthesised to
in the tissues to form the tissue uid or lymph. It other parts of the plant. We have studied the
is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless structure of these tissues in detail in Class IX.
and contains less protein. Lymph drains into Transport of water
lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the
spaces, which join to form large lymph vessels roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to
that nally open into larger veins. Lymph form a continuous system of water-conducting
carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine channels reaching all parts of the plant. At the
and drains excess uid from extra cellular roots, cells in contact with the soil actively take
space back into the blood.
28
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29
up ions. This creates a difference in the Transport of food and other substances
concentration of these ions between the root So far we have discussed the transport of water
and the soil. Water, therefore,moves into the and minerals in plants. Now let us consider how
root from the soil to eliminate this difference. the products of metabolic processes,
This means that there is steady movement of particularly photosynthesis, are moved from
water into root xylem, creating a column of leaves, where they are formed, to other parts of
water that is steadily pushed upwards. the plant. This transport of soluble products of
However, this pressure by itself is photosynthesis is called translocation and it
unlikely to be enough to move water over the occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known
as phloem. Besides the products of
heights that we commonly see in plants. Plants
photosynthesis, the phloem transports amino
use another strategy to move water in the xylem
acids and other substances. These substances
upwards to the highest points of the plant body. are especially delivered to the storage organs of
¿£Ôá«+ 5.8
Activity 5.8 roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
The translocation of food and other substances
g Take two small pots of approximately takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of
the same size and having the same adjacent companion cells both in upward and
amount of soil. One should have a plant downward directions.
in it. Place a stick of the same height as Unlike transport in xylem which can be largely
the plant in the other pot. explained by simple physical forces, the
g Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising
sheet so that moisture cannot escape by
evaporation.
g Cover both sets, one with the plant and
the other with the stick, with plastic
sheets and place in bright sunlight for
half an hour.
g Do you observe any difference in the
two cases?
Provided that the plant has an adequate

supply of water, the water which is lost through
the stomata is replaced by water from the xylem
vessels in the leaf. In fact, evaporation of water
molecules from the cells of a leaf creates a
suction which pulls water from the xylem cells Figure 5.12
Movement of water during
of roots. The loss of water in the form of vapour transpiration in a tree
from the aerial parts of the plant is known as
transpiration. energy. Material like sucrose is transferred into
Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This
upward movement of water and minerals increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue
causing water to move into it. This pressure
dissolved in it from roots to the leaves. It also
moves the material in the phloem to tissues
helps in temperature regulation. The effect of which have less pressure. This allows the
root pressure in transport of water is more phloem to move material according to the
important at night. During the day when the plant’s needs. For example, in the spring, sugar
stomata are open, the transpiration pull stored in root or stem tissue would be
becomes the major driving force in the transported to the buds which need energy to
movement of water in the xylem. grow.
30
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31
5.5.1 Excretion in Human Beings
The excretory system of human beings (Fig.
1. What are the components of the transport 5.13) includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of
system in human beings? What are the ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
functions of these components? Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on
2. Why is it necessary to separate either side of the backbone. Urine produced in
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the
mammals and birds? urinary bladder where it is stored until it is
3. What are the components of the transport released through the urethra.
system in highly organised plants? How is urine produced? The purpose of making
4. How are water and minerals transported in urine is to lter out waste products from the
plants?
blood. Just as CO2 is removed from the blood in
5. How is food transported in plants?
the lungs, nitrogenous waste such as urea or
5.5 EXCRETION uric acid are removed from blood in the
kidneys. It is then no surprise that the basic
ltration unit in the kidneys,
Figure 5.13
Excretory system in human beings Figure 5.14
We have already discussed how organisms get Structure of a nephron
rid of gaseous wastes generated during like in the lungs, is a cluster of very thin-walled
photosynthesis or respiration. Other metabolic blood capillaries. Each capillary cluster in the
activities generate nitrogenous materials which kidney is associated with the cup-shaped end of
need to be removed. The biological process a coiled tube called Bowman’s capsule that
involved in the removal of these harmful collects the ltrate (Fig. 5.14). Each kidney has
metabolic wastes from the body is called large numbers of these ltration units called
excretion. Different organisms use varied nephrons packed close together. Some
strategies to do this. Many unicellular substances in the initial ltrate, such as glucose,
organisms remove these wastes by simple amino acids, salts and a major amount of water,
diffusion from the body surface into the are selectively re-absorbed as the urine ows
surrounding water. As we have seen in other along the tube. The amount of water re-
processes, complex multi-cellular organisms absorbed depends on how much excess water
use specialised organs to perform the same there is in the body, and on how much of
function. dissolved waste there is to be excreted. The
urine forming in each kidney eventually enters
32
ç|Ÿ Xø• \T 5.5.1 eÖqeÚ\ýË $dŸsÁ¨q
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33
a long tube, the ureter, which connects the pass it out through the urethra. The bladder is
kidneys with the urinary bladder. Urine is muscular, so it is under nervous control, as we
stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure have discussed elsewhere. As a result, we can
of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to usually control the urge to urinate.
More to Know!
Articial kidney (Hemodialysis)
Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors
like infections, injury or restricted blood ow to kidneys
reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to
accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which
can even lead to death. In case of kidney failure, an
articial kidney can be used. An articial kidney is a
device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the
blood through dialysis.
Articial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-
permeable lining, suspended in a tank lled with
dialysing uid. This uid has the same osmotic pressure
as blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes.
The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes.
During this passage, the waste products from the blood pass into dialysing uid by diffusion. The
puried blood is pumped back into the patient. This is similar to the function of the kidney, but it is
different since there is no re-absorption involved. Normally, in a healthy adult, the initial ltrate
in the kidneys is about 180 L daily. However, the volume actually excreted is only a litre or two a
day, because the remaining ltrate is re-absorbed in the kidney tubules.
Think it over! died or when the doctor declares a person
Organ donation brain dead. But some organs such as kidney,
Organ donation is a generous act of donating part of a liver, lung, etc., and tissues can be
an organ to a person who suffers from non- donated while the donor is alive.
function of organ(s). Donation of an organ 5.5.2 Excretion in Plants
may be done by the consent of the donor and Plants use completely different strategies for
his/her family. Anyone regardless of age or excretion than those of animals. Oxygen itself
gender can become an organ and tissue donor. can be thought of as a waste product generated
Organ transplants can save or transform the during photosynthesis! We have discussed
life of a person. Transplantation is required earlier how plants deal with oxygen as well as
because recipient’s organ has been damaged CO2. They can get rid of excess water by
or has failed by disease or injury. In organ transpiration. For other wastes, plants use the
transplantation the organ is surgically fact that many of their tissues consist of dead
removed from one person (organ donor) and cells, and that they can even lose some parts
transplanted to another person (the recipient). such as leaves. Many plant waste products are
stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may
Common transplantations include corneas,
be stored in leaves that fall off. Other waste
kidneys, heart, liver, pancreas, lungs,
products are stored as resins and gums,
intestines and bone marrow. Most organ and especially in old xylem. Plants also excrete
tissue donations occur just after the donor has some waste substances into the soil around
them.
34
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35
1. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.

2. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of
excretory products?
3. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
What you have learnt

g Movement of various types can be taken as an indication of life.
g Maintenance of life requires processes like nutrition, respiration, transport of materials
within the body and excretion of waste products.
g Autotrophic nutrition involves the intake of simple inorganic materials from the
environment and using an external energy source like the Sun to synthesise complex high-
energy organic material.
g Heterotrophic nutrition involves the intake of complex material prepared by other
organisms.
g In human beings, the food eaten is broken down by various steps along the alimentary canal
and the digested food is absorbed in the small intestine to be sent to all cells in the body.
g During the process of respiration, organic compounds such as glucose are broken down to
provide energy in the form of ATP. ATP is used to provide energy for other reactions in the
cell.
g Respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic respiration makes more energy available
to the organism.
g In human beings, the transport of materials such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, food and
excretory products is a function of the circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of
the heart, blood and blood vessels.
g In highly differentiated plants, transport of water, minerals, food and other materials is a
function of the vascular tissue which consists of xylem and phloem.
g In human beings, excretory products in the form of soluble nitrogen compounds are
removed by the nephrons in the kidneys.
g Plants use a variety of techniques to get rid of waste material. For example, waste material
may be stored in the cell-vacuoles or as gum and resin, removed in the falling leaves, or
excreted into the surrounding soil.
EXERCISES
1. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for

(a) nutrition. (c) excretion.
(b) respiration. (d) transportation.
2. The xylem in plants are responsible for
(a) transport of water. (c) transport of amino acids.
(b) transport of food. (d) transport of oxygen.
3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) carbon dioxide and water. (c) sunlight.
(b) chlorophyll. (d) all of the above.
36
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MTsÁT @$T HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT

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37
4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm. (c) chloroplast.
(b) mitochondria. (d) nucleus.
5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
6. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
7. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
8. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms
that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
9. How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
10. What would be the consequences of a deciency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
11. Describe double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?
12. What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to
their structure and functioning.
38
4. ™|ÕsÁÖ$¿ù €eT¢ $ºÌÛq•+ e\¢ ¿±sÁÒHŽ &îÕ€Â¿Õà&Ž, úsÁT eT]jáTT Xø¿ìï @sÁÎ&û ç|Ÿç¿ìjáT B“ýË ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~.
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bþ\Ì+&.
39
ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : Control and Coordination
Control and
Coordination
40
€+ç<óŠç|Ÿ<ûXÙ | JeXæçdŸï+ : “jáT+çÔáD eT]jáTT dŸeTqÇjáT+
n<ó‘«jáT+ 6
“jáT+çÔáD eT]jáTT
dŸeTqÇjáT+
41
I n the previous chapter, we looked at

life processes involved in the
maintenance functions in living organisms.
multicellular organisms, specialised tissues are
used to provide these control and coordination
activities.
There, we had started with a notion we all have, 6.1 ANIMALS – NERVOUS SYSTEM
that if we see something moving, it is alive. In animals, such control and
Some of these movements are in fact the result coordination are provided by nervous and
of growth, as in plants. A seed germinates and muscular tissues, which we have studied in
grows, and we can see that the seedling moves Class IX. Touching a hot object is an urgent and
over the course of a few days, it pushes soil dangerous situation for us. We need to detect it,
aside and comes out. But if its growth were to and respond to it. How do we detect that we are
be stopped, these movements would not touching a hot object? All information from our
happen. Some movements, as in many animals environment is detected by the specialised tips
and some plants, are not connected with of some nerve cells. These receptors are usually
growth. A cat running, children playing on located in our sense organs, such as the inner
swings, buffaloes chewing cud – these are not ear, the nose, the tongue, and so on. So
movements caused by growth. gustatory receptors will detect taste while
Why do we associate such visible olfactory receptors will detect smell.
movements with life? A possible answer is that This information, acquired at the end of
we think of movement as a response to a change the dendritic tip of a nerve cell [Fig. 6.1 (a)],
in the environment of the organism. The cat sets off a chemical reaction that creates an
may be running because it has seen a mouse. electrical impulse. This impulse travels from
Not only that, we also think of movement as an the dendrite to the cell body, and then along the
attempt by living organisms to use changes in axon to its end. At the end of the axon, the
their environment to their advantage. Plants electrical impulse sets off the release of some
grow out into the sunshine. Children try to get chemicals. These chemicals cross the gap, or
pleasure and fun out of swinging. Buffaloes synapse, and start a similar electrical impulse in
chew cud to help break up tough food so as to be a dendrite of the next neuron. This is a general
able to digest it better. When bright light is
focussed on our eyes or when we touch a hot
object, we detect the change and respond to it
with movement in order to protect ourselves.
If we think a bit more about this, it
becomes apparent that all this movement, in
response to the environment, is carefully
controlled. Each kind of a change in the
environment evokes an appropriate movement
in response. When we want to talk to our friends
in class, we whisper, rather than shouting
loudly. Clearly, the movement to be made
depends on the event that is triggering it.
Therefore, such controlled movement must be
connected to the recognition of various events
in the environment, followed by only the
correct movement in response. In other words,
living organisms must use systems providing
control and coordination. In keeping with the Figure 6.1
general principles of body organisation in (a) Structure of neuron,
(b) Neuromuscular junction
42
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43
scheme of how nervous impulses travel in the Let us consider this further. Take one of
body. A similar synapse nally allows delivery our examples. Touching a ame is an urgent
of such impulses from neurons to other cells, and dangerous situation for us, or in fact, for
such as muscles cells or gland [Fig. 6.1 (b)]. any animal! How would we respond to this?
It is thus no surprise that nervous tissue One seemingly simple way is to think
is made up of an organised network of nerve consciously about the pain and the possibility
cells or neurons, and is specialised for of getting burnt, and therefore move our hand.
conducting information via electrical impulses An important question then is, how long will it
from one part of the body to another. take us to think all this? The answer depends on
Look at Fig. 6.1 (a) and identify the parts how we think. If nerve impulses are sent
of a neuron (i) where information is acquired, around the way we have talked about earlier,
(ii) through which information travels as an then thinking is also likely to involve the
electrical impulse, and (iii) where this impulse creation of such impulses. Thinking is a
must be converted into a chemical signal for complex activity, so it is bound to involve a
onward transmission. complicated interaction of many nerve
Activity 6.1 impulses from many neurons.
If this is the case, it is no surprise that the
g Put some sugar in your mouth. How does thinking tissue in our body consists of dense
it taste? networks of intricately arranged neurons. It sits
g Block your nose by pressing it between in the forward end of the skull, and receives
your thumb and index nger. Now eat signals from all over the body which it thinks
sugar again. Is there any difference in its about before responding to them. Obviously, in
taste? order to receive these signals, this thinking part
g While eating lunch, block your nose in of the brain in the skull must be connected to
the same way and notice if you can fully nerves coming from various parts of the body.
appreciate the taste of the food you are Similarly, if this part of the brain is to instruct
eating. muscles to move, nerves must carry this signal
Is there a difference in how sugar and back to different parts of the body. If all of this is
food taste if your nose is blocked? If so, why to be done when we touch a hot object, it may
might this be happening? Read and talk about take enough time for us to get burnt!
possible explanations for these kinds of How does the design of the body solve
differences. Do you come across a similar this problem? Rather than having to think about
situation when you have a cold? the sensation of heat, if the nerves that detect
6.1.1 What happens in Reex Actions? heat were to be connected to the nerves that
‘Reex’ is a word we use very commonly move muscles in a simpler way, the process of
when we talk about some sudden action in detecting the signal or the input and responding
response to something in the environment. We to it by an output action might be completed
say ‘I jumped out of the way of the bus quickly. Such a connection is commonly called
reexly’, or ‘I pulled my hand back from the a reex arc (Fig. 6.2). Where should such reex
ame reexly’, or ‘I was so hungry my mouth arc connections be made between the input
started watering reexly’. What exactly do we nerve and the output nerve? The best place, of
mean? A common idea in all such examples is course, would be at the point where they rst
that we do something without thinking about it, meet each other. Nerves from all over the body
or without feeling in control of our reactions. meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on their way
Yet these are situations where we are to the brain. Reex arcs are formed in this
responding with some action to changes in our spinal cord itself, although the information
environment. How is control and coordination input also goes on to reach the brain.
achieved in such situations?
44
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45
Figure 6.2 Reex arc
Of course, reex arcs have evolved in muscles. The communication between the
animals because the thinking process of the central nervous system and the other parts of
brain is not fast enough. In fact many animals the body is facilitated by the peripheral nervous
have very little or none of the complex neuron system consisting of cranial nerves arising
network needed for thinking. So it is quite from the brain and spinal nerves arising from
likely that reex arcs have evolved as efcient the spinal cord. The brain thus allows us to
ways of functioning in the absence of true think and take actions based on that thinking.
thought processes. However, even after As you will expect, this is accomplished
complex neuron networks have come into through a complex design, with different parts
existence, reex arcs continue to be more of the brain responsible for integrating different
efcient for quick responses. inputs and outputs. The brain has three such
Can you now trace the sequence of events major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain,
which occur when a bright light is focussed on
mid-brain and hind-brain.
your eyes?
The fore-brain is the main thinking part
6.1.2 Human Brain
Is reex action the only function of the of the brain. It has regions which receive
spinal cord? Obviously not, since we know that sensory impulses from various receptors.
we are thinking beings. Spinal cord is made up Separate areas of the fore-brain are specialised
of nerves which supply information to think for hearing, smell, sight and so on. There are
about. Thinking involves more complex separate areas of association where this sensory
mechanisms Pand neural connections. These information is interpreted by putting it together
are concentrated in the brain, which is the main with information from other receptors as well
coordinating centre of the body. The brain and as with information that is already stored in the
spinal cord constitute the central nervous brain. Based on all this, a decision is made
system (Fig. 6.3). They receive information about how to respond and the information is
from all parts of the body and integrate it. passed on to the motor areas which control the
We also think about our actions. Writing, movement of voluntary muscles, for example,
talking, moving a chair, clapping at the end of a our leg muscles. However, certain sensations
programme are examples of voluntary actions are distinct from seeing or hearing, for
which are based on deciding what to do next. example, how do we know that we have eaten
So, the brain also has to send messages to enough? The sensation of feeling full is because
muscles. This is the second way in which the of a centre associated with hunger, which is in a
nervous system communicates with the separate part of the fore-brain.
46
|Ÿ³+ 6.2 ç|Ÿr¿±sÁ #ás« #|Ÿ+

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sjáT&ƒ+, eÖ{²¢&ƒ³+, Å£”¯Ì“ ¿£~*+#á&ƒ+, ¿±sÁ«ç¿£eT eTT+<ŠT yîT<Š&ƒTýË“ yûs=¿£ uó²>·+ýË –q• €¿£*ÔÃ dŸ+‹+<óŠ+
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47
Figure 6.3 Human brain

Study the labelled diagram of the human 6.1.3 How are these Tissues protected?
brain. We have seen that the different parts have A delicate organ like the brain, which is so
specic functions. Can we nd out the function important for a variety of activities, needs to be
of each part? carefully protected. For this, the body is
Let us look at the other use of the word designed so that the brain sits inside a bony box.
‘reex’ that we have talked about in the Inside the box, the brain is contained in a uid-
introduction. Our mouth waters when we see lled balloon which provides further shock
food we like without our meaning to. Our hearts absorption. If you run your hand down the
beat without our thinking about it. In fact, we middle of your back, you will feel a hard,
cannot control these actions easily by thinking bumpy structure. This is the vertebral column
about them even if we wanted to. Do we have to or backbone which protects the spinal cord.
think about or remember to breathe or digest 6.1.4 How does the Nervous Tissue cause
food? So, in between the simple reex actions Action?
like change in the size of the pupil, and the So far, we have been talking about nervous
thought out actions such as moving a chair, tissue, and how it collects information, sends it
there is another set of muscle movements over around the body, processes information, makes
which we do not have any thinking control. decisions based on information, and conveys
Many of these involuntary actions are decisions to muscles for action. In other words,
controlled by the mid-brain and hind-brain. All when the action or movement is to be
these involuntary actions including blood performed, muscle tissue will do the nal job.
pressure, salivation and vomiting are How do animal muscles move? When a nerve
controlled by the medulla in the hind-brain. impulse reaches the muscle, the muscle bre
Think about activities like walking in a must move. How does a muscle cell move? The
straight line, riding a bicycle, picking up a simplest notion of movement at the cellular
pencil. These are possible due to a part of the level is that muscle cells will move by changing
hind-brain called the cerebellum. It is their shape so that they shorten. So the next
responsible for precision of voluntary actions question is, how do muscle cells change their
and maintaining the posture and balance of the shape? The answer must lie in the chemistry of
body. Imagine what would happen if each of cellular components. Muscle cells have special
these events failed to take place if we were not proteins that change both their shape and their
thinking about it. arrangement in the cell in response to nervous
48
uó²>±\T >·T]ï+ºq eÖqe yîT<Š&ƒT ¹sU²ºçÔ“• n<óŠ«jáTq+ 6.1.3 ‡ ¿£DC²ý²\T mý² sÁ¿ìŒ+#á‹&ƒÔsTT?
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49
electrical impulses. When this happens, new 6.2.1 Immediate Response to Stimulus
arrangements of these proteins give the muscle Let us think about the rst kind of movement,
cells a shorter form. Remember when we talked such as that of the sensitive plant. Since no
about muscle tissue in Class IX, there were growth is involved, the plant must actually
different kinds of muscles, such as voluntary move its leaves in response to touch. But there
muscles and involuntary muscles. Based on is no nervous tissue, nor any muscle tissue.
what we have discussed so far, what do you How does the plant detect the touch, and how
think the differences between these would be? do the leaves move in response?
Figure 6.4 The sensitive plant
If we think about where exactly the plant is
1. What is the difference between a reex touched, and what part of the plant actually
action and walking? moves, it is apparent that movement happens at
2. What happens at the synapse between two a point different from the point of touch. So,
neurons? information that a touch has occurred must be
3. Which part of the brain maintains posture communicated. The plants also use electrical-
and equilibrium of the body? chemical means to convey this information
4. How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti from cell to cell, but unlike in animals, there is
(incense stick)? no specialised tissue in plants for the
5. What is the role of the brain in reex conduction of information. Finally, again as in
action? animals, some cells must change shape in order
for movement to happen. Instead of the
6.2 COORDINATION IN PLANTS
specialised proteins found in animal muscle
Animals have a nervous system for controlling
cells, plant cells change shape by changing the
and coordinating the activities of the body. But
amount of water in them, resulting in swelling
plants have neither a nervous system nor
or shrinking, and therefore in changing shapes
muscles. So, how do they respond to stimuli?
(Fig. 6.4).
When we touch the leaves of a chhui-mui (the 6.2.2 Movement Due to Growth
‘sensitive’ or ‘touch-me-not’ plant of the Some plants like the pea plant climb up other
Mimosa family), they begin to fold up and plants or fences by means of tendrils. These
droop. When a seed germinates, the root goes tendrils are sensitive to touch. When they come
down, the stem comes up into the air. What in contact with any support, the part of the
happens? Firstly, the leaves of the sensitive tendril in contact with the object does not grow
plant move very quickly in response to touch. as rapidly as the part of the tendril away from
There is no growth involved in this movement. the object. This causes the tendril to circle
On the other hand, the directional movement of around the object and thus cling to it. More
a seedling is caused by growth. If it is prevented commonly, plants respond to stimuli slowly by
from growing, it will not show any movement. growing in a particular direction. Because this
So plants show two different types of growth is directional, it appears as if the plant is
movement – one dependent on growth and the moving. Let us understand this type of
other independent of growth. movement with the help of an example.
Figure 6.4 The sensitive plant

50
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51
Activity 6.2 Environmental triggers such as light, or

gravity will change the directions that plant parts
g Fill a conical ask with water. grow in. These directional, or tropic, movements
g Cover the neck of the ask with a wire can be either towards the stimulus, or away from
mesh. it. So, in two different kinds of phototropic
g Keep two or three freshly germinated movement, shoots respond by bending towards
bean seeds on the wire mesh. light while roots respond by bending away from
g Take a cardboard box which is open from it. How does this help the plant?
one side. Plants show tropism in response to other
g Keep the ask in the box in such a stimuli as well. The roots of a plant always
manner that the open side of the box grow downwards while the shoots usually grow
faces light coming from a window (Fig. upwards and away from the earth. This upward
6.5). and downward growth of shoots and roots,
respectively, in response to the pull of earth or
g After two or three days, you will notice
gravity is, obviously, geotropism (Fig. 6.6). If
that the shoots bend towards light and ‘hydro’ means water and ‘chemo’ refers to
roots away from light. chemicals, what would ‘hydrotropism’ and
g Now turn the ask so that the shoots are ‘chemotropism’ mean? Can we think of
away from light and the roots towards examples of these kinds of directional growth
light. Leave it undisturbed in this movements? One example of chemotropism is
condition for a few days. the growth of pollen tubes towards ovules,
g Have the old parts of the shoot and root about which we will learn more when we
changed direction? examine the reproductive processes of living
g Are there differences in the direction of organisms.
the new growth? Let us now once again think about how
g What can we conclude from this information is communicated in the bodies of
activity? multicellular organisms. The movement of the
sensitive plant in response to touch is very
quick. The movement of sunowers in
response to day or night, on the other hand, is
quite slow. Growth-related movement of plants
will be even slower.
Even in animal bodies, there are
carefully controlled directions to growth. Our
arms and ngers grow in certain directions, not
haphazardly. So controlled movements can be
either slow or fast. If fast responses to stimuli
Figure 6.5 are to be made, information transfer must
Response of the plant to the direction of light happen very quickly. For this, the medium of
transmission must be able to move rapidly.
Electrical impulses are an excellent
means for this. But there are limitations to the
use of electrical impulses. Firstly, they will
reach only those cells that are connected by
nervous tissue, not each and every cell in the
animal body. Secondly, once an electrical
impulse is generated in a cell and transmitted,
the cell will take some time to reset its
mechanisms before it can generate and transmit
Figure 6.6 Plant showing geotropism a new impulse. In other words, cells cannot
52
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53
continually create and transmit electrical

impulses. It is thus no wonder that most 1. What are plant hormones?
multicellular organisms use another means of 2. How is the movement of leaves of the
communication between cells, namely, sensitive plant different from the
chemical communication. movement of a shoot towards light?
If, instead of generating an electrical 3. Give an example of a plant hormone that
impulse, stimulated cells release a chemical promotes growth.
compound, this compound would diffuse all 4. How do auxins promote the growth of a
around the original cell. If other cells around tendril around a support?
have the means to detect this compound using 5. Design an experiment to demonstrate
special molecules on their surfaces, then they hydrotropism.
would be able to recognise information, and
even transmit it. This will be slower, of course, 6.3 HORMONES IN ANIMALS
but it can potentially reach all cells of the body, How are such chemical, or hormonal, means of
information transmission used in animals?
regardless of nervous connections, and it can be
What do some animals, for instance squirrels,
done steadily and persistently. These experience when they are in a scary situation?
compounds, or hormones used by multicellular Their bodies have to prepare for either ghting
organisms for control and coordination show a or running away. Both are very complicated
great deal of diversity, as we would expect. activities that will use a great deal of energy in
Different plant hormones help to coordinate controlled ways. Many different tissue types
growth, development and responses to the will be used and their activities integrated
environment. They are synthesised at places together in these actions. However, the two
away from where they act and simply diffuse to alternate activities, ghting or running, are also
the area of action. quite different! So here is a situation in which
some common preparations can be usefully
Let us take an example that we have
made in the body. These preparations should
worked with earlier [Activity 6.2]. When ideally make it easier to do either activity in the
growing plants detect light, a hormone called near future. How would this be achieved?
auxin, synthesised at the shoot tip, helps the If the body design in the squirrel relied
cells to grow longer. When light is coming from only on electrical impulses via nerve cells, the
one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the range of tissues instructed to prepare for the
shady side of the shoot. This concentration of coming activity would be limited. On the other
auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the hand, if a chemical signal were to be sent as
side of the shoot which is away from light. well, it would reach all cells of the body and
Thus, the plant appears to bend towards light. provide the wide-ranging changes needed. This
is done in many animals, including human
Another example of plant hormones are
beings, using a hormone called adrenaline that
gibberellins which, like auxins, help in the is secreted from the adrenal glands. Look at Fig.
growth of the stem. Cytokinins promote cell 6.7 to locate these glands.
division, and it is natural then that they are Adrenaline is secreted directly into the
present in greater concentration in areas of blood and carried to different parts of the body.
rapid cell division, such as in fruits and seeds. The target organs or the specic tissues on which
These are examples of plant hormones that help it acts include the heart. As a result, the heart
in promoting growth. But plants also need beats faster, resulting in supply of more oxygen
signals to stop growing. Abscisic acid is one to our muscles. The blood to the digestive system
example of a hormone which inhibits growth. and skin is reduced due to contraction of muscles
around small arteries in these organs. This diverts
Its effects include wilting of leaves.
the blood to our skeletal muscles. The breathing
54
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55
rate also increases because of the contractions of Do You Know?

the diaphragm and the rib muscles. All these
responses together enable the animal body to be Hypothalamus plays an important role in the
ready to deal with the situation. Such animal release of many hormones. For example,
hormones are part of the endocrine system which when the level of growth hormone is low, the
constitutes a second way of control and hypothalamus releases growth hormone
coordination in our body. releasing factor which stimulates the
Activity 6.3 pituitary gland to release growth hormone.
g Look at Fig. 6.7. Let us examine some examples to
g Identify the endocrine glands mentioned understand how hormones help in coordinated
in the gure. growth. We have all seen salt packets which say
g Some of these glands have been listed in ‘iodised salt’ or ‘enriched with iodine’. Why is
Table 6.1 and discussed in the text. it important for us to have iodised salt in our
Consult books in the library and discuss diet? Iodine is necessar for the thyroid gland to
with your teachers to nd out about other make thyroxin hormone. Thyroxin regulates
glands. carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the
body so as to provide the best balance for
Remember that plants have hormones
growth. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of
that control their directional growth. What
thyroxin. In case iodine is decient in our diet,
functions do animal hormones perform? On the
there is a possibility that we might suffer from
face of it, we cannot imagine their role in
goitre. One of the symptoms in this disease is a
directional growth. We have never seen an
swollen neck. Can you correlate this with the
animal growing more in one direction or the
position of the thyroid gland in Fig. 6.7?
other, depending on light or gravity! But if we
Sometimes we come across people who
think about it a bit more, it will become evident
are either very short (dwarfs) or extremely tall
that, even in animal bodies, growth happens in
(giants). Have you ever wondered how this
carefully controlled places. Plants will grow
happens? Growth hormone is one of the
leaves in many places on the plant body, for
hormones secreted by the pituitary. As its name
example. But we do not grow ngers on our
indicates, growth hormone regulates growth
faces. The design of the body is carefully
and development of the body. If there is a
maintained even during the growth of children.
deciency of this hormone in childhood, it
(a) (b)
Figure 6.7 Endocrine glands in human beings (a) male, (b) female
56
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57
leads to dwarsm. need a mechanism through which this is done.

You must have noticed many dramatic The timing and amount of hormone released
changes in your appearance as well as that of are regulated by feedback mechanisms. For
your friends as you approached 10–12 years of example, if the sugar levels in blood rise, they
age. These changes associated with puberty are are detected by the cells of the pancreas which
because of the secretion of testosterone in respond by producing more insulin. As the
males and oestrogen in females. blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is
Do you know anyone in your family or reduced.
friends who has been advised by the doctor to
take less sugar in their diet because they are
suffering from diabetes? As a treatment, they 1. How does chemical coordination take
might be taking injections of insulin. This is a place in animals?
hormone which is produced by the pancreas
2. Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
and helps in regulating blood sugar levels. If it
is not secreted in proper amounts, the sugar 3. How does our body respond when
level in the blood rises causing many harmful adrenaline is secreted into the blood?
effects. 4. Why are some patients of diabetes treated
If it is so important that hormones by giving injections of insulin?
should be secreted in precise quantities, we
Activity 6.4
g Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and have specic functions. Complete Table 6.1
based on the hormone, the endocrine gland or the functions provided.
Table 6.1 : Some important hormones and their functions
S.No. Hormone Endocrine Gland Functions
1. Growth hormone Pituitary gland Stimulates growth in all organs
2. Thyroxine Thyroid gland Regulates metabolism for body growth
3. Insulin Regulates blood sugar level
4. Testosterone Testes
5. Progesterone Ovaries Development of female sex organs,
Estrogen regulates menstrual cycle, etc.
6. Adrenaline Adrenal gland
7. Releasing Stimulates pituitary gland to release
hormones hormones

g Control and coordination are the functions of the nervous system and hormones in our bodies.
g The responses of the nervous system can be classied as reex action, voluntary action or
involuntary action.
g The nervous system uses electrical impulses to transmit messages.
g The nervous system gets information from our sense organs and acts through our muscles.
g Chemical coordination is seen in both plants and animals.
g Hormones produced in one part of an organism move to another part to achieve the desired
effect.
g A feedback mechanism regulates the action of the hormones.
58
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59
EXERCISES
1. Which of the following is a plant hormone?
(a) Insulin
(b) Thyroxin
(c) Oestrogen
(d) Cytokinin.
2. The gap between two neurons is called a
(a) dendrite.
(b) synapse.
(c) axon.
(d) impulse.
3. The brain is responsible for
(a) thinking.
(b) regulating the heart beat.
(c) balancing the body.
(d) all of the above.
4. What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors do not
work properly. What problems are likely to arise?
5. Draw the structure of a neuron and explain its function.
6. How does phototropism occur in plants?
7. Which signals will get disrupted in case of a spinal cord injury?
8. How does chemical coordination occur in plants?
9. What is the need for a system of control and coordination in an organism?
10. How are involuntary actions and reex actions different from each other?
11. Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control and coordination
in animals.
12. What is the difference between the manner in which movement takes place in a sensitive
plant and the movement in our legs?
60
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61
ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : How do Organisms Reproduce?
How do Organisms
Reproduce?
62
€+ç<óŠç|Ÿ<ûXÙ | JeXæçdŸï+ : JeÚ\T ç|ŸÔáT«ÔáÎÜï mý² ÈsÁT|ŸÚÔsTT ?
n<ó‘«jáT+ 7
JeÚ\T ç|ŸÔáT«ÔáÎÜï mý²
ÈsÁT|ŸÚÔsTT ?
63
B efore we discuss the mechanisms by

which organisms reproduce, let us ask a
more basic question – why do organisms
DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a
reproducing cell, and they will need to be
separated from each other. However, keeping
reproduce? After all, reproduction is not one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply
necessary to maintain the life of an individual pushing the other one out would not work,
organism, unlike the essential life processes because the copy pushed out would not have
such as nutrition, respiration, or excretion. On any organised cellular structure for maintaining
the other hand, if an individual organism is life processes. Therefore, DNA copying is
going to create more individuals, a lot of its accompanied by the creation of an additional
energy will be spent in the process. So why cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies
should an individual organism waste energy on separate, each with its own cellular apparatus.
a process it does not need to stay alive? It would Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two
be interesting to discuss the possible answers in cells.
the classroom! These two cells are of course similar, but
Whatever the answer to this question, it are they likely to be absolutely identical? The
is obvious that we notice organisms because answer to this question will depend on how
they reproduce. If there were to be only one, accurately the copying reactions involved
non-reproducing member of a particular kind, it occur. No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely
is doubtful that we would have noticed its reliable. Therefore, it is only to be expected that
existence. It is the large numbers of organisms the process of copying the DNA will have some
belonging to a single species that bring them to variations each time. As a result, the DNA
our notice. How do we know that two different copies generated will be similar, but may not be
individual organisms belong to the same identical to the original. Some of these
species? Usually, we say this because they look variations might be so drastic that the new DNA
similar to each other. Thus, reproducing copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it
organisms create new individuals that look inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die.
very much like themselves. On the other hand, there could still be many
7.1 DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT other variations in the DNA copies that would
COPIES OF THEMSELVES? not lead to such a drastic outcome. Thus, the
Organisms look similar because their body surviving cells are similar to, but subtly
designs are similar. If body designs are to be different from each other. This inbuilt tendency
similar, the blueprints for these designs should for variation during reproduction is the basis
be similar. Thus, reproduction at its most basic for evolution, as we will discuss in the next
level will involve making copies of the chapter.
blueprints of body design. In Class IX, we 7.1.1 The Importance of Variation
learnt that the chromosomes in the nucleus of a Populations of organisms ll well-
cell contain information for inheritance of dened places, or niches, in the ecosystem,
features from parents to next generation in the using their ability to reproduce. The
form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) consistency of DNA copying during
molecules. The DNA in the cell nucleus is the reproduction is important for the maintenance
information source for making proteins. If the of body design features that allow the organism
information is changed, different proteins will to use that particular niche. Reproduction is
be made. Different proteins will eventually lead therefore linked to the stability of populations
to altered body designs. of species.
Therefore, a basic event in reproduction However, niches can change because of
is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use reasons beyond the control of the organisms.
chemical reactions to build copies of their Temperatures on earth can go up or down,
64
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65
water levels can vary, or there could be Having discussed the context in which
meteorite hits, to think of a few examples. If a reproductive processes work, let us now
population of reproducing organisms were examine how different organisms actually
suited to a particular niche and if the niche were reproduce. The modes by which various
drastically altered, the population could be organisms reproduce depend on the body
wiped out. However, if some variations were to design of the organisms.
be present in a few individuals in these 7.2.1 Fission
populations, there would be some chance for For unicellular organisms, cell division, or
them to survive. Thus, if there were a ssion, leads to the creation of new individuals.
population of bacteria living in temperate Many different patterns of ssion have been
waters, and if the water temperature were to be observed. Many bacteria and protozoa simply
increased by global warming, most of these split into two equal halves during cell division.
bacteria would die, but the few variants In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of
resistant to heat would survive and grow the two cells during division can take place in
further. Variation is thus useful for the survival any plane.
of species over time.
Activity 7.3
g Observe a permanent slide of Amoeba
1. What is the importance of DNA copying in
under a microscope.
reproduction? g Similarly observe another permanent
2. Why is variation benecial to the species slide of Amoeba showing binary ssion.
but not necessarily for the individual? g Now, compare the observations of both
7.2 MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED the slides.
BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
Activity 7.1
g Dissolve about 10 gm of sugar in 100 mL
of water.
g Take 20 mL of this solution in a test tube Figure 7.1
(a) Binary ssion in Amoeba
and add a pinch of yeast granules to it.
g Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test
tube and keep it in a warm place.
g After 1 or 2 hours, put a small drop of
yeast culture from the test tube on a slide
and cover it with a coverslip.
g Observe the slide under a microscope. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Figure 7.1 (b) Binary ssion in Leishmania
Activity 7.2 However, some unicellular organisms show
somewhat more organisation of their bodies,
g Wet a slice of bread, and keep it in a cool, such as is seen in Leishmania (which cause
moist and dark place. kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at
g Observe the surface of the slice with a one end of the cell. In such organisms, binary
magnifying glass. ssion occurs in a denite orientation in
g Record your observations for a week. relation to these structures. Other single-celled
Compare and contrast the ways in which organisms, such as the malarial parasite,
yeast grows in the rst case, and how mould Plasmodium, divide into many daughter cells
grows in the second. simultaneously by multiple ssion.
66
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67
Yeast, on the other hand, can put out small buds is also the function of a specic cell type. How
that separate and grow further, as we saw in is reproduction to be achieved from a single cell
Activity 7.1. type, if the organism itself consists of many cell
types? The answer is that there must be a single
cell type in the organism that is capable of
growing, proliferating and making other cell
types under the right circumstances.
7.2.3 Regeneration
Many fully differentiated organisms have the
Figure 7.2 Multiple ssion in Plasmodium ability to give rise to new individual organisms
from their body parts. That is, if the individual
7.2.2 Fragmentation is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces,
Activity 7.4 many of these pieces grow into separate
individuals. For example, simple animals like
g Collect water from a lake or pond that Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number
appears dark green and contains of pieces and each piece grows into a complete
lamentous structures. organism. This is known as regeneration (see
g Put one or two laments on a slide. Fig.7.3). Regeneration is carried out by
g Put a drop of glycerine on these laments specialised cells. These cells proliferate and
and cover it with a cover slip. make large numbers of cells. From this mass of
g Observe the slide under a microscope. cells, different cells undergo changes to
g Can you identify different tissues in the become various cell types and tissues. These
Spirogyra laments? changes take place in an organised sequence
In multi-cellular organisms with referred to as development. However,
relatively simple body organisation, simple regeneration is not the same as reproduction,
reproductive methods can still work. since most organisms would not normally
Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.
smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces
or fragments grow into new individuals. Can
we work out the reason for this, based on what
we saw in Activity 7.4?
This is not true for all multi-cellular
organisms. They cannot simply divide cell-by-
cell. The reason is that many multi-cellular
organisms, as we have seen, are not simply a
random collection of cells. Specialised cells are
organised as tissues, and tissues are organised Figure 7.3
Regeneration in Planaria
into organs, which then have to be placed at
denite positions in the body. In such a 7.2.4 Budding
carefully organised situation, cell-by-cell Organisms such as Hydra use
division would be impractical. Multi-cellular regenerative cells for reproduction in the
organisms, therefore, need to use more process of budding. In Hydra, a bud develops
complex ways of reproduction. as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at
A basic strategy used in multi-cellular one specic site (Fig. 7.4). These buds develop
organisms is that different cell types perform into tiny individuals and when fully mature,
different specialised functions. Following this detach from the parent body and become new
general pattern, reproduction in such organisms independent individuals.
68
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69
g Observe changes taking place in these

potato pieces over the next few days.
Make sure that the cotton is kept
moistened.
g Which are the potato pieces that give rise
to fresh green shoots and roots?
Figure 7.4 Budding in Hydra
Similarly buds produced in the notches
7.2.5 Vegetative Propagation along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the
There are many plants in which parts like the soil and develop into new plants (Fig. 7.5).
root, stem and leaves develop into new plants
under appropriate conditions. Unlike in most
animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for
reproduction. This property of vegetative
propagation is used in methods such as layering
or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane,
roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes.
Plants raised by vegetative propagation can
bear owers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds. Such methods also make
possible the propagation of plants such as Figure 7.5
banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost Leaf of Bryophyllum with buds
the capacity to produce seeds. Another
advantage of vegetative propagation is that all Activity 7.6
plants produced are genetically similar enough g Select a money-plant.
to the parent plant to have all its characteristics. g Cut some pieces such that they contain at
Activity 7.5 least one leaf.
g Cut out some other portions between two
g Take a potato and observe its surface. leaves.
Can notches be seen? g Dip one end of all the pieces in water and
g Cut the potato into small pieces such that observe over the next few days.
some pieces contain a notch or bud and g Which ones grow and give rise to fresh
some do not. leaves?
g Spread some cotton on a tray and wet it. g What can you conclude from your
Place the potato pieces on this cotton. observations?
Note where the pieces with the buds are
placed.
More to Know!
Tissue culture
In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the growing tip
of a plant. The cells are then placed in an articial medium where they divide rapidly to form a
small group of cells or callus. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones
for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow into
mature plants. Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from one parent in disease-free
conditions. This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.
70
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71
7.2.6 Spore Formation 7.3 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Even in many simple multi-cellular organisms, We are also familiar with modes of
specic reproductive parts can be identied. reproduction that depend on the involvement of
The thread-like structures that developed on the two individuals before a new generation can be
bread in Activity 7.2 above are the hyphae of
the bread mould (Rhizopus). They are not created. Bulls alone cannot produce new
reproductive parts. On the other hand, the tiny calves, nor can hens alone produce new chicks.
blob-on-a-stick structures are involved in In such cases, both sexes, males and females,
reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which are needed to produce new generations. What is
contain cells, or spores, that can eventually the signicance of this sexual mode of
develop into new Rhizopus individuals (Fig.
reproduction? Are there any limitations of the
7.6). The spores are covered by thick walls that
protect them until they come into contact with asexual mode of reproduction, which we have
another moist surface and can begin to grow. been discussing above?
All the modes of reproduction that we have 7.3.1 Why the Sexual Mode of Reproduction?
discussed so far allow new generations to be The creation of two new cells from one
created from a single individual. This is known involves copying of the DNA as well as of the
as asexual reproduction.
cellular apparatus. The DNA copying
mechanism, as we have noted, cannot be
absolutely accurate, and the resultant errors are
a source of variations in populations of
organisms. Every individual organism cannot
be protected by variations, but in a population,
variations are useful for ensuring the survival
of the species. It would therefore make sense if
organisms came up with reproductive modes
that allowed more and more variation to be
generated.
While DNA-copying mechanisms are not
Figure 7.6 absolutely accurate, they are precise enough to
Spore formation in Rhizopus make the generation of variation a fairly slow
process. If the DNA copying mechanisms were
to be less accurate, many of the resultant DNA
1. How does binary ssion differ from copies would not be able to work with the
multiple ssion?
2. How will an organism be beneted if it cellular apparatus, and would die. So how can
reproduces through spores? the process of making variants be speeded up?
3. Can you think of reasons why more Each new variation is made in a DNA copy that
complex organisms cannot give rise to already has variations accumulated from
new individuals through regeneration? previous generations. Thus, two different
4. Why is vegetative propagation practised individuals in a population would have quite
for growing some types of plants?
5. Why is DNA copying an essential part of different patterns of accumulated variations.
the process of reproduction? Since all of these variations are in living
72
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73
individuals, it is assured that they do not have become more complex, the germ-cells also
any really bad effects. Combining variations specialise. One germ-cell is large and contains
from two or more individuals would thus create the food-stores while the other is smaller and
new combinations of variants. Each likely to be motile. Conventionally, the motile
combination would be novel, since it would germ-cell is called the male gamete and the
involve two different individuals. The sexual germ-cell containing the stored food is called
mode of reproduction incorporates such a the female gamete. We shall see in the next few
process of combining DNA from two different sections how the need to create these two
individuals during reproduction. different types of gametes give rise to
But this creates a major difculty. If each differences in the male and female reproductive
new generation is to be the combination of the organs and, in some cases, differences in the
DNA copies from two pre-existing individuals, bodies of the male and female organisms.
then each new generation will end up having 7.3.2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering
twice the amount of DNA that the previous Plants
generation had. This is likely to mess up the The reproductive parts of angiosperms are
control of the cellular apparatus by the DNA. located in the ower. You have already studied
How many ways can we think of for solving the different parts of a ower – sepals, petals,
this difculty? stamens and pistil. Stamens and pistil are the
We have seen earlier that as organisms reproductive parts of a ower which contain the
become more complex, the specialisation of germ-cells. What possible functions could the
tissue increases. One solution that many multi- petals and sepals serve?
cellular organisms have found for the problem The ower may be unisexual (papaya,
mentioned above is to have special lineages of watermelon) when it contains either stamens or
pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it
cells in specialised organs in which only half contains both stamens and pistil. Stamen is the
the number of chromosomes and half the male reproductive part and it produces pollen
amount of DNA as compared to the non- grains that are yellowish in colour. You must
reproductive body cells. This is achieved by a have seen this yellowish powder that often
process of cell division called meiosis. Thus, sticks to our hands if we touch the stamen of a
when these germ-cells from two individuals ower. Pistil is present in the centre of a ower
and is the female reproductive part. It is made
combine during sexual reproduction to form a of three parts.
new individual, it results in re-establishment of
the number of chromosomes and the DNA
content in the new generation.
If the zygote is to grow and develop into an
organism which has highly specialised tissues
and organs, then it has to have sufcient stores
of energy for doing this. In very simple
organisms, it is seen that the two germ-cells are
not very different from one another, or may
even be similar. But as the body designs Figure 7.7
Longitudinal section of ower
74
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75
The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle

elongated part is the style and the terminal part
which may be sticky is the stigma. The ovary
contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain
fuses with the female gamete present in the
ovule. This fusion of the germ-cells or
fertilisation gives us the zygote which is
capable of growing into a new plant.
Thus the pollen needs to be transferred
from the stamen to the stigma. If this transfer of
pollen occurs in the same ower, it is referred to
as self-pollination. On the other hand, if the
pollen is transferred from one ower to another,
it is known as cross-pollination. This transfer of
pollen from one ower to another is achieved
by agents like wind, water or animals.
After the pollen lands on a suitable Figure 7.8
stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells Germination of pollen on stigma
which are in the ovary. For this, a tube grows
out of the pollen grain and travels through the
style to reach the ovary.
After fertilisation, the zygote divides
several times to form an embryo within the
ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is
gradually converted into a seed. The ovary
grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style
and stigma may shrivel and fall off. Have you Figure 7.9 Germination
ever observed any ower part still persisting in
the fruit? Try and work out the advantages of
seed-formation for the plant. The seed contains 7.3.3 Reproduction in Human Beings
the future plant or embryo which develops into So far, we have been discussing the variety of
a seedling under appropriate conditions. This modes that different species use for
process is known as germination. reproduction. Let us now look at the species
that we are most interested in, namely, humans.
Activity 7.7 Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.
g Soak a few seeds of Bengal gram (chana) How does this process work?
and keep them overnight. Let us begin at an apparently unrelated
g Drain the excess water and cover the point. All of us know that our bodies change as
seeds with a wet cloth and leave them for a we become older. You have learnt changes that
day. Make sure that the seeds do not take place in your body earlier in Class VIII
become dry. also. We notice that our height has increased
g Cut open the seeds carefully and observe
continuously from early age till now. We
the different parts.
g Compare your observations with the Fig. acquire teeth, we even lose the old, so-called
7.9 and see if you can identify all the parts. milk teeth and acquire new ones.
76
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77
All of these are changes that can be grouped Why does the body show sexual
under the general process of growth, in which maturation at this age? We have talked about
the body becomes larger. But in early teenage the need for specialised cell types in multi-
years, a whole new set of changes occurs that cellular bodies to carry out specialised
cannot be explained simply as body functions. The creation of germ-cells to
enlargement. Instead, the appearance of the participate in sexual reproduction is another
body changes. Proportions change, new specialised function, and we have seen that
features appear, and so do new sensations. plants develop special cell and tissue types to
Some of these changes are common to both create them. Human beings also develop
boys and girls. We begin to notice thick hair special tissues for this purpose. However, while
growing in new parts of the body such as armpits the body of the individual organism is growing
and the genital area between the thighs, which
to its adult size, the resources of the body are
can also become darker in colour. Thinner hair
mainly directed at achieving this growth. While
can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on
that is happening, the maturation of the
the face. The skin frequently becomes oily and
reproductive tissue is not likely to be a major
we might begin to develop pimples. We begin to
priority. Thus, as the rate of general body
be conscious and aware of both our own bodies
and those of others in new ways. growth begins to slow down, reproductive
On the other hand, there are also changes tissues begin to mature. This period during
taking place that are different between boys and adolescence is called puberty.
girls. In girls, breast size begins to increase, So how do all the changes that we have
talked about link to the reproductive process?
with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the
We must remember that the sexual mode of
tips of the breasts. Also, girls begin to
reproduction means that germ-cells from two
menstruate at around this time. Boys begin to
individuals have to join together. This can
have new thick hair growth on the face and their happen by the external release of germ-cells
voices begin to crack. Further, the penis from the bodies of individuals, as happens in
occasionally begins to become enlarged and owering plants. Or it can happen by two
erect, either in daydreams or at night. individuals joining their bodies together for
All of these changes take place slowly, internal transfer of germ-cells for fusion, as
over a period of months and years. They do not happens in many animals. If animals are to
happen all at the same time in one person, nor participate in this process of mating, their state
do they happen at an exact age. In some people, of sexual maturity must be identiable by other
they happen early and quickly, while in others, individuals. Many changes during puberty,
they can happen slowly. Also, each change does such as new hair-growth patterns, are signals
not become complete quickly either. So, for that sexual maturation is taking place.
example, thick hair on the face in boys appears On the other hand, the actual transfer of
as a few scattered hairs rst, and only slowly germ-cells between two people needs special
does the growth begin to become uniform. organs for the sexual act, such as the penis when
Even so, all these changes show differences it is capable of becoming erect. In mammals such
between people. Just as we have differently as humans, the baby is carried in the mother’s
shaped noses or ngers, so also we have body for a long period, and will be breast-fed
different patterns of hair growth, or size and later. The female reproductive organs and breasts
shape of breast or penis. All of these changes will need to mature to accommodate these
possibilities. Let us look at the systems involved
are aspects of the sexual maturation of the body.
in the process of sexual reproduction.
78
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79
7.3.3 (a) Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system (Fig. 7.10)
consists of portions which produce the germ-
cells and other portions that deliver the germ-
cells to the site of fertilisation.
The formation of germ-cells or sperms
takes place in the testes. These are located
outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum because
sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature. We have
discussed the role of the testes in the secretion of Figure 7.11 Human–female reproductive system
the hormone, testosterone, in the previous
7.11 and identify the various organs in the
chapter. In addition to regulating the formation of
female reproductive system.
sperms, testosterone brings about changes in
When a girl is born, the ovaries already
appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
contain thousands of immature eggs. On
The sperms formed are delivered through
reaching puberty, some of these start maturing.
the vas deferens which unites with a tube coming
One egg is produced every month by one of the
from the urinary bladder. The urethra thus forms
ovaries. The egg is carried from the ovary to the
a common passage for both the sperms and urine.
womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.
Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the
The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like
prostate and the seminal vesicles add their
structure known as the uterus. The uterus opens
secretions so that the sperms are now in a uid
into the vagina through the cervix.
which makes their transport easier and this uid
The sperms enter through the vaginal
also provides nutrition. The sperms are tiny
passage during sexual intercourse. They travel
bodies that consist of mainly genetic material
upwards and reach the oviduct where they may
and a long tail that helps them to move towards
encounter the egg. The fertilised egg (zygote)
the female germ-cell.
starts dividing and form a ball of cells or
7.3.3 (b) Female Reproductive System
embryo. The embryo is implanted in the lining
The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the
of the uterus where they continue to grow and
ovaries. They are also responsible for the
develop organs to become foetus. We have seen
production of some hormones. Look at Fig.
in earlier sections that the mother’s body is
designed to undertake the development of the
child. Hence the uterus prepares itself every
month to receive and nurture the growing
embryo. The lining thickens and is richly
supplied with blood to nourish the growing
embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the
mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta. This is a disc which is
embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi
on the embryo’s side of the tissue. On the
Figure 7.10 mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround
Human–male reproductive system
80
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81
the villi. This provides a large surface area for We must also consider the possible health
glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to consequences of having sex. We have
the embryo. The developing embryo will also discussed in Class IX that diseases can be
generate waste substances which can be transmitted from person to person in a variety
removed by transferring them into the mother’s of ways. Since the sexual act is a very intimate
blood through the placenta. The development connection of bodies, it is not surprising that
of the child inside the mother’s body takes many diseases can be sexually transmitted.
approximately nine months. The child is born These include bacterial infections such as
as a result of rhythmic contractions of the gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral infections
muscles in the uterus. such as warts and HIV-AIDS. Is it possible to
7.3.3 (c) What happens when the Egg is not prevent the transmission of such diseases
Fertilised? during the sexual act? Using a covering, called
If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one a condom, for the penis during sex helps to
day. Since the ovary releases one egg every prevent transmission of many of these
month, the uterus also prepares itself every infections to some extent.
month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus its lining The sexual act always has the potential to
becomes thick and spongy. This would be lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy will make major
required for nourishing the embryo if demands on the body and the mind of the
fertilisation had taken place. Now, however, woman, and if she is not ready for it, her health
this lining is not needed any longer. So, the will be adversely affected. Therefore, many
lining slowly breaks and comes out through the ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.
vagina as blood and mucous. This cycle takes These contraceptive methods fall in a number
place roughly every month and is known as of categories. One category is the creation of a
menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach
eight days. the egg. Condoms on the penis or similar
7.3.3 (d) Reproductive Health coverings worn in the vagina can serve this
As we have seen, the process of sexual purpose. Another category of contraceptives
maturation is gradual, and takes place while acts by changing the hormonal balance of the
general body growth is still going on. body so that eggs are not released and
Therefore, some degree of sexual maturation fertilisation cannot occur. These drugs
does not necessarily mean that the body or the commonly need to be taken orally as pills.
mind is ready for sexual acts or for having and However, since they change hormonal
bringing up children. How do we decide if the balances, they can cause side-effects too. Other
body or the mind is ready for this major contraceptive devices such as the loop or the
responsibility? All of us are under many copper-T are placed in the uterus to prevent
different kinds of pressures about these issues. pregnancy. Again, they can cause side effects
There can be pressure from our friends for due to irritation of the uterus. If the vas deferens
participating in many activities, whether we in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be
really want to or not. There can be pressure prevented. If the fallopian tube in the female is
from families to get married and start having blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the
children. There can be pressure from uterus. In both cases fertilisation will not take
government agencies to avoid having children. place. Surgical methods can be used to create
In this situation, making choices can become such blocks. While surgical methods are safe in
very difcult. the long run, surgery itself can cause infections
82
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83
and other problems if not performed properly. everybody’s standard of living. However, if
Surgery can also be used for removal of inequality in society is the main reason for poor
unwanted pregnancies. These may be misused standards of living for many people, the size of
by people who do not want a particular child, as the population is relatively unimportant. If we
happens in illegal sex-selective abortion of look around us, what can we identify as the most
female foetuses. For a healthy society, the important reason(s) for poor living standards?
female-male sex ratio must be maintained.
Because of reckless female foeticides, child sex
1. How is the process of pollination different
ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some
from fertilisation?
sections of our society, although prenatal sex
2. What is the role of the seminal vesicles and
determination has been prohibited by law. the prostate gland?
We have noted earlier that reproduction is 3. What are the changes seen in girls at the
the process by which organisms increase their time of puberty?
populations. The rates of birth and death in a 4. How does the embryo get nourishment
given population will determine its size. The size inside the mother’s body?
of the human population is a cause for concern 5. If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help
for many people. This is because an expanding in protecting her from sexually transmitted
population makes it harder to improve diseases?

g Reproduction, unlike other life processes, is not essential to maintain the life of an
individual organism.
g Reproduction involves creation of a DNA copy and additional cellular apparatus by the cell
involved in the process.
g Various organisms use different modes of reproduction depending on their body design.
g In ssion, many bacteria and protozoa simply divide into two or more daughter cells.
g Organisms such as hydra can regenerate if they are broken into pieces. They can also give
out buds which mature into new individuals.
g Roots, stems and leaves of some plants develop into new plants through vegetative
propagation.
g These are examples of asexual reproduction where new generations are created from a
single individual.
g Sexual reproduction involves two individuals for the creation of a new individual.
g DNA copying mechanisms creates variations which are useful for ensuring the survival of
the species. Modes of sexual reproduction allow for greater variation to be generated.
g Reproduction in owering plants involves transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma which is referred to as pollination. This is followed by fertilisation.
g Changes in the body at puberty, such as increase in breast size in girls and new facial hair
growth in boys, are signs of sexual maturation.
g The male reproductive system in human beings consists of testes which produce sperms,
vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra and penis.
g The female reproductive system in human beings consists of ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus
and vagina.
g Sexual reproduction in human beings involves the introduction of sperm in the vagina of
the female. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
g Contraception to avoid pregnancy can be achieved by the use of condoms, oral pills,
copper-T and other methods.
84
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85
EXERCISES
1. Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in
(a) Amoeba.
(b) Yeast.
(c) Plasmodium.
(d) Leishmania.
2. Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in human beings?
(a) Ovary
(b) Uterus
(c) Vas deferens
(d) Fallopian tube
3. The anther contains
(a) sepals.
(b) ovules.
(c) pistil.
(d) pollen grains.
4. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
5. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?
6. Why does menstruation occur?
7. Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a ower.
8. What are the different methods of contraception?
9. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular organisms?
10. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?
11. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
86
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87
ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : Heredity
Heredity
88
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89
W e have seen that reproductive

processes give rise to new
individuals that are similar, but subtly different.
We have discussed how some amount of
variation is produced even during asexual
reproduction. And the number of successful
variations are maximised by the process of
sexual reproduction. If we observe a eld of
sugarcane we nd very little variations among
the individual plants. But in a number of Figure 8.1
animals including human beings, which Creation of diversity over succeeding generations.
The original organism at the top will give rise to,
reproduce sexually, quite distinct variations are say, two individuals, similar in body design,
visible among different individuals. In this but with subtle differences. Each of them,
chapter, we shall be studying the mechanism by in turn, will give rise to two individuals in the
next generation. Each of the four individuals in
which variations are created and inherited. the bottom row will be different from each other.
8.1 ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION While some of these differences will be unique,
DURING REPRODUCTION others will be inherited from their respective
parents, who were different from each other.
Inheritance from the previous generation
advantages. Bacteria that can withstand heat
provides both a common basic body design,
will survive better in a heat wave, as we have
and subtle changes in it, for the next generation.
discussed earlier. Selection of variants by
Now think about what would happen when this
environmental factors forms the basis for
new generation, in its turn, reproduces. The
evolutionary processes, as we will discuss in
second generation will have differences that
later sections.
they inherit from the rst generation, as well as
newly created differences (Fig. 8.1).
Figure 8.1 would represent the situation if 1. If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of
a single individual reproduces, as happens in an asexually reproducing species and a trait
B exists in 60% of the same population,
asexual reproduction. If one bacterium divides,
which trait is likely to have arisen earlier?
and then the resultant two bacteria divide again, 2. How does the creation of variations in a
the four individual bacteria generated would be species promote survival?
very similar. There would be only very minor
8.2 HEREDITY
differences between them, generated due to
The most obvious outcome of the reproductive
small inaccuracies in DNA copying. However, process still remains the generation of
if sexual reproduction is involved, even greater individuals of similar design. The rules of
diversity will be generated, as we will see when heredity determine the process by which traits
we discuss the rules of inheritance. and characteristics are reliably inherited. Let us
Do all these variations in a species have take a closer look at these rules.
equal chances of surviving in the environment 8.2.1 Inherited Traits
in which they nd themselves? Obviously not. What exactly do we mean by similarities and
differences? We know that a child bears all the
Depending on the nature of variations, different
basic features of a human being. However, it
individuals would have different kinds of does not look exactly like its parents, and
90
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91
human populations show a great deal of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884)

variation. Mendel was educated in a
Activity 8.1 monastery and went on to
study science and mathematics
g Observe the ears of all the students in the
at the University of Vienna.
class. Prepare a list of students having Failure in the examinations for
free or attached earlobes and calculate the a teaching certicate did not
percentage of students having each (Fig. suppress his zeal for scientic
8.2). Find out about the earlobes of the quest. He went back to his
monastery and started growing peas. Many
parents of each student in the class.
others had studied the inheritance of traits in
Correlate the earlobe type of each student peas and other organisms earlier, but Mendel
with that of their parents. Based on this blended his knowledge of science and
evidence, suggest a possible rule for the mathematics and was the rst one to keep
inheritance of earlobe types. count of individuals exhibiting a particular
trait in each generation. This helped him to
arrive at the laws of inheritance.
Mendel used a number of contrasting visible
characters of garden peas–round/wrinkled seeds,
tall/short plants, white/violet owers and so on.
He took pea plants with different characteristics
–a tall plant and a short plant, produced progeny
by crossing them, and calculated the percentages
(a) (b) of tall or short progeny.
Figure 8.2 In the rst place, there were no halfway
(a) Free and (b) attached earlobes. The lowest part of characteristics in this rst-generation, or F1
the ear, called the earlobe, is closely attached to the
side of the head in some of us, and not in others. Free progeny –no ‘medium-height’ plants. All plants
and attached earlobes are two variants found in human were tall. This meant that only one of the parental
populations. traits was seen, not some mixture of the two. So the
next question was, were the tall plants in the F1
8.2.2Rules for the Inheritance of Traits – generation exactly the same as the tall plants of the
Mendel’s Contributions parent generation? Mendelian experiments test
The rules for inheritance of such traits in this by getting both the parental plants and these F1
human beings are related to the fact that both tall plants to reproduce by self-pollination. The
progeny of the parental plants are, of course, all
the father and the mother contribute practically
tall. However, the second-generation, or F2,
equal amounts of genetic material to the child. progeny of the F1 tall plants are not all tall. Instead,
This means that each trait can be inuenced by one quarter of them are short. This indicates that
both paternal and maternal DNA. Thus, for both the tallness and shortness traits were inherited
each trait there will be two versions in each in the F1 plants, but only the tallness trait was
expressed. This led Mendel to propose that two
child. What will, then, the trait seen in the child copies of factor (now called genes) controlling
be? Mendel (see box) worked out the main traits are present in sexually reproducing
rules of such inheritance, and it is interesting to organism. These two may be identical, or may be
look at some of his experiments from more different, depending on the parentage. A pattern of
inheritance can be worked out with this
than a century ago.
assumption, as shown in Fig. 8.3.
92
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93
F1
traits are formed in F2 offspring when factors
controlling for seed shape and seed colour
recombine to form zygote leading to form F2
offspring (Fig. 8.5). Thus, the tall/short trait and
the round seed/wrinkled seed trait are
independently inherited.
8.2.3 How do these Traits get Expressed?
How does the mechanism of heredity
work? Cellular DNA is the information source
for making proteins in the cell. A section of
DNA that provides information for one protein
is called the gene for that protein. How do
proteins control the characteristics that we are
discussing here? Let us take the example of
Figure 8.3 tallness as a characteristic. We know that plants
Inheritance of traits over two generations
have hormones that can trigger growth. Plant
Activity 8.2 height can thus depend on the amount of a
particular plant hormone. The amount of the
g In Fig. 8.3, what experiment would we plant hormone made will depend on the
do to conrm that the F2 generation did efciency of the process for making it.
in fact have a 1:2:1 ratio of TT, Tt and tt Consider now an enzyme that is important for
trait combinations? this process. If this enzyme works efciently, a
In this explanation, both TT and Tt are tall lot of hormone will be made, and the plant will
plants, while only tt is a short plant. In other be tall. If the gene for that enzyme has an
words, a single copy of ‘T’ is enough to make alteration that makes the enzyme less efcient,
the plant tall, while both copies have to be ‘t’ for the amount of hormone will be less, and the
the plant to be short. Traits like ‘T’ are called plant will be short. Thus, genes control
dominant traits, while those that behave like ‘t’ characteristics, or traits.
are called recessive traits. Work out which trait If the interpretations of Mendelian
would be considered dominant and which one experiments we have been discussing are
recessive in Fig. 8.4. correct, then both parents must be contributing
What happens when pea plants showing equally to the DNA of the progeny during
two different characteristics, rather than just sexual reproduction. We have disscussed this
one, are bred with each other? What do the issue in the previous Chapter. If both parents
progeny of a tall plant with round seeds and a can help determine the trait in the progeny, both
short plant with wrinkled-seeds look like? They parents must be contributing a copy of the same
are all tall and have round seeds. Tallness and gene. This means that each pea plant must have
round seeds are thus dominant traits. But what two sets of all genes, one inherited from each
happens when these F1 progeny are used to parent. For this mechanism to work, each germ
generate F2 progeny by self-pollination? A cell must have only one gene set.
Mendelian experiment will nd that some F2 How do germ-cells make a single set of
progeny are tall plants with round seeds, and genes from the normal two copies that all other
some were short plants with wrinkled seeds. cells in the body have? If progeny plants
However, there would also be some F2 progeny inherited a single whole gene set from each
that showed new combinations. Some of them parent, then the experiment explained in Fig.
would be tall, but have wrinkled seeds, while 8.5 cannot work. This is because the two
others would be short, but have round seeds. characteristics ‘R’ and ‘y’ would then be linked
You can see as to how new combinations of to each other and cannot be independently
94
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–H•sTT. $Ôá ï q + €¿±s“• eT]já T T $Ôá ï q + sÁ + >· T “ –+{²sTT eT]jáTT n$ dŸÇÔá+çÔá«+>± nqTe+¥¿£Ôá #î+<ŠeÚ.
95
inherited. This is explained by the fact that each

gene set is present, not as a single long thread of
DNA, but as separate independent pieces, each
called a chromosome. Thus, each cell will have
two copies of each chromosome, one each from
the male and female parents. Every germ-cell
will take one chromosome from each pair and
these may be of either maternal or paternal
origin. When two germ cells combine, they will
restore the normal number of chromosomes in
the progeny, ensuring the stability of the DNA
of the species. Such a mechanism of inheritance
explains the results of the Mendel experiments,
and is used by all sexually reproducing
organisms. But asexually reproducing
organisms also follow similar rules of
inheritance. Can we work out how their
inheritance might work?
8.2.4 Sex Determination
We have discussed the idea that the two sexes
participating in sexual reproduction must be
somewhat different from each other for a
number of reasons. How is the sex of a newborn
individual determined? Different species use
very different strategies for this. Some rely
entirely on environmental cues. Thus, in some
animals like a few reptiles, the temperature at
which fertilised eggs are kept determines
whether the animals developing in the eggs will
be male or female. In other animals, such as
snails, individuals can change sex, indicating
that sex is not genetically determined.
However, in human beings, the sex of the
individual is largely genetically determined. In
other words, the genes inherited from our
parents decide whether we will be boys or girls.
But so far, we have assumed that similar gene
sets are inherited from both parents. If that is
the case, how can genetic inheritance determine
sex?
The explanation lies in the fact that all
human chromosomes are not paired. Most
human chromosomes have a maternal and a
paternal copy, and we have 22 such pairs. But
one pair, called the sex chromosomes, is odd in
not always being a perfect pair. Women have a
Figure 8.5 perfect pair of sex chromosomes, both called X.
Independent inheritance But men have a mismatched pair in which one
of two separate traits, shape and colour of seeds is a normal-sized X while the other is a short
96
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97
one called Y. So women are XX, while men are

XY. Now, can we work out what the inheritance
pattern of X and Y will be?
As Fig. 8.6 shows, half the children will
be boys and half will be girls. All children will
inherit an X chromosome from their mother
regardless of whether they are boys or girls.
Thus, the sex of the children will be determined
by what they inherit from their father. A child
who inherits an X chromosome from her father
will be a girl, and one who inherits a Y
chromosome from him will be a boy.
1. How do Mendel’s experiments show that

traits may be dominant or recessive?
2. How do Mendel’s experiments show that
traits are inherited independently?
3. A man with blood group A marries a
woman with blood group O and their
daughter has blood group O. Is this
information enough to tell you which of
the traits – blood group A or O – is
dominant? Why or why not?
4. How is the sex of the child determined in
human beings? Figure 8.6
Sex determination in human beings

g Variations arising during the process of reproduction can be inherited.
g These variations may lead to increased survival of the individuals.
g Sexually reproducing individuals have two copies of genes for the same trait. If the copies
are not identical, the trait that gets expressed is called the dominant trait and the other is
called the recessive trait.
g Traits in one individual may be inherited separately, giving rise to new combinations of traits
in the offspring of sexual reproduction.
g Sex is determined by different factors in various species. In human beings, the sex of the
child depends on whether the paternal chromosome is X (for girls) or Y (for boys).
98
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99
EXERCISES
1. A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding tall pea plants bearing violet owers with
short pea plants bearing white owers. The progeny all bore violet owers, but almost half
of them were short. This suggests that the genetic make-up of the tall parent can be
depicted as
(a) TTWW
(b) TTww
(c) TtWW
(d) TtWw
2. A study found that children with light-coloured eyes are likely to have parents with light-
coloured eyes. On this basis, can we say anything about whether the light eye colour trait
is dominant or recessive? Why or why not?
3. Outline a project which aims to nd the dominant coat colour in dogs.
4. How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the progeny?
100
nuó²«kÍ\T
1. ÿ¿£ yîT+&ƒýÙ ç|ŸjîÖ>·+ýË }<‘sÁ+>·T |ŸÚcÍÎ\qT ¿£*Ðq bõ&ƒy{ì ‹sÄD¡ yîTT¿£Ø\qT Ôî\T|ŸÚ sÁ+>·T |ŸÚcÍÎ\qT ¿£*Ðq bõ{ì¼
‹sÄD¡ yîTT¿£Ø\ÔÃ ç|ŸÈÈq+ #ûjáT‹&q~. dŸ+ÔáÜ yîTT¿£Ø\ú• }<‘sÁ+>·T |ŸÚcÍÎ\qT ¿£*Ð –H•sTT. nsTTÔû y{ìýË <‘<‘|ŸÚ
dŸ>·+ bõ{ì¼ yîTT¿£Ø\T @sÁÎ&†¦sTT. B““ ‹{ì¼ dŸÖº+#á‹&q bõ&ƒy{ì Èq¿£yîTT¿£Ø\ ÈqT« sÁÖ|Ÿ+ ‡ $<óŠ+>± e]’+#áe#áTÌ.
(m) TTWW
(_) TTww
(d¾) TtWW
(&) TtWw
2. ýñÔá sÁ+>·T ¿£ÞøßqT ¿£*Ðq |¾\¢\ ÈqÅ£”\T Å£L&† ýñÔá sÁ+>·T ¿£ÞøßqT ¿£*Ð –+{²sÁ“ ÿ¿£ n<óŠ«jáTq+ýË ¿£qT>=q‹&+~. B“
€<ó‘sÁ+>± ýñÔásÁ+>·T ¿£Þø—ß nHû \¿£ŒD+ ‹V¾²sÁZÔá \¿£ŒDeÖ ýñ<‘ n+ÔásÁZÔá \¿£ŒDeÖ n“ #î|ŸÎe#Ì? m+<ŠTÅ£” ýñ<‘ m+<ŠTÅ£”
#î|ŸÎýñeTT?
3. Å£”¿£Ø\ u¤#áTÌ sÁ+>·T jîTT¿£Ø ‹V¾²sÁZÔá \¿£ŒD²“• ¿£qT>=Hû –<ûÝXø«+ÔÃ ÿ¿£ çbÍCÉÅ£”¼qT “sÁÇV¾²+#á+&.
4. Ôá*¢<Š+ç&ƒT\ qT+& dŸ+ÔáÜ¿ì dŸeÖq+>± ÈqT« |Ÿ<‘sÁœ+ mý² n+~+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~?
101
ANDHRA PRADESH | Biology : Our Environment
13
Our Environment
102
€+ç<óŠç|Ÿ<ûXÙ | JeXæçdŸï+ : eTq |Ÿs«esÁD+
n<ó‘«jáT+ 13
eTq |Ÿs«esÁD+
103
W e have heard the word

‘environment’ often being used on
the television, in newspapers and by people
g If we add a few aquatic plants and
animals it can become a self-sustaining
system. Can you think how this happens?
around us. Our elders tell us that the An aquarium is an example of a human-
‘environment’ is not what it used to be earlier; made ecosystem.
others say that we should work in a healthy
g Can we leave the aquarium as such after
‘environment’; and global summits involving
the developed and developing countries are we set it up? Why does it have to be
regularly held to discuss ‘environmental’ cleaned once in a while? Do we have to
issues. In this chapter, we shall be studying how clean ponds or lakes in the same manner?
various components in the environment Why or why not?
interact with each other and how we impact the We have seen in earlier classes that
environment. organisms can be grouped as producers,
13.1 ECO-SYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS consumers and decomposers according to the
COMPONENTS? manner in which they obtain their sustenance
All organisms such as plants, animals, from the environment. Let us recall what we
microorganisms and human beings as well as have learnt through the self sustaining
the physical surroundings interact with each ecosystem created by us above. Which
other and maintain a balance in nature. All the organisms can make organic compounds like
interacting organisms in an area together with sugar and starch from inorganic substances
the non-living constituents of the environment using the radiant energy of the Sun in the
form an ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem presence of chlorophyll? All green plants and
consists of biotic components comprising certain bacteria which can produce food by
living organisms and abiotic components photosynthesis come under this category and
comprising physical factors like temperature, are called the producers.
rainfall, wind, soil and minerals. Organisms depend on the producers
For example, if you visit a garden you either directly or indirectly for their
will nd different plants, such as grasses, trees; sustenance? These organisms which consume
ower bearing plants like rose, jasmine, the food produced, either directly from
sunower; and animals like frogs, insects and producers or indirectly by feeding on other
birds. All these living organisms interact with consumers are the consumers. Consumers can
each other and their growth, reproduction and be classed variously as herbivores, carnivores,
other activities are affected by the abiotic omnivores and parasites. Can you give
components of ecosystem. So a garden is an examples for each of these categories of
ecosystem. Other types of ecosystems are consumers?
forests, ponds and lakes. These are natural g Imagine the situation where you do not
ecosystems while gardens and crop-elds are clean the aquarium and some sh and
human-made (articial) ecosystems. plants have died. Have you ever thought
what happens when an organism dies? The
Activity 13.1
microorganisms, comprising bacteria and
g You might have seen an aquarium. Let us fungi, break-down the dead remains and
try to design one. waste products of organisms. These
g What are the things that we need to keep microorganisms are the decomposers as
in mind when we create an aquarium? they break-down the complex organic
The sh would need a free space for s u b s t a n c e s i n t o s i m p l e i n o rg a n i c
swimming (it could be a large jar), water, substances that go into the soil and are used
oxygen and food. up once more by the plants. What will
happen to the garbage, and dead animals
g We can provide oxygen through an
and plants in their absence? Will the
oxygen pump (aerator) and sh food natural replenishment of the soil take
which is available in the market. place, even if decomposers are not there?
104
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105
Activity 13.2
g While creating an aquarium did you take
care not to put an aquatic animal which
would eat others? What would have
happened otherwise?
g Make groups and discuss how each of the
above groups of organisms are dependent
on each other.
g Write the aquatic organisms in order of
who eats whom and form a chain of at
least three steps.
g Would you consider any one group of

organisms to be of primary importance?
Why or why not? Figure 13.1
13.1.1 Food Chains and Webs Food chain in nature
In Activity 13.2 we have formed a series (a) in forest, (b) in grassland and (c) in a pond
of organisms feeding on one another. This
g The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem
series or organisms taking part at various biotic
levels form a food chain (Fig. 13.1). capture about 1% of the energy of sunlight
Each step or level of the food chain forms that falls on their leaves and convert it into
a trophic level. The autotrophs or the producers food energy.
are at the rst trophic level. They x up the solar g When green plants are eaten by primary
energy and make it available for heterotrophs or consumers, a great deal of energy is lost as
the consumers. The herbivores or the primary heat to the environment, some amount goes
consumers come at the second, small
into digestion and in doing work and the
carnivores or the secondary consumers at the
third and larger carnivores or the tertiary rest goes towards growth and reproduction.
consumers form the fourth trophic level (Fig. An average of 10% of the food eaten is
13.2). turned into its own body and made
We know that the food we eat acts as a available for the next level of consumers.
fuel to provide us energy to do work. Thus the g Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average
interactions among various components of the value for the amount of organic matter that
environment involves ow of energy from one
is present at each step and reaches the next
component of the system to another. As we
have studied, the autotrophs capture the energy level of consumers.
present in sunlight and convert it into chemical g Since so little energy is available for the
energy. This energy supports all the activities of next level of consumers, food chains
the living world. From autotrophs, the energy generally consist of only three or four
goes to the heterotrophs and decomposers. steps. The loss of energy at each step is so
However, as we saw in the previous Chapter on great that very little usable energy remains
‘Sources of Energy’, when one form of energy after four trophic levels.
is changed to another, some energy is lost to the
environment in forms which cannot be used g There are generally a greater number of
again. The ow of energy between various individuals at the lower trophic levels of an
components of the environment has been ecosystem, the greatest number is of the
extensively studied and it has been found that – producers.
106
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107
g The length and complexity of food chains

vary greatly. Each organism is generally
eaten by two or more other kinds of
organisms which in turn are eaten by
several other organisms. So instead of a
straight line food chain, the relationship
can be shown as a series of branching lines
called a food web (Fig. 13.3).
Figure 13.3
Figure 13.2 Trophic levels Food web, consisting of many food chains
From the energy ow diagram (Fig.
13.4), two things become clear. Firstly, the ow
of energy is unidirectional. The energy that is
captured by the autotrophs does not revert back
to the solar input and the energy which passes to
the herbivores does not come back to
autotrophs. As it moves progressively through
the various trophic levels it is no longer
available to the previous level. Secondly, the
energy available at each trophic level gets
diminished progressively due to loss of energy
at each level.
Another interesting aspect of food chain
is how unknowingly some harmful chemicals
enter our bodies through the food chain. You
have read in Class IX how water gets polluted.
One of the reasons is the use of several Figure 13.4
Diagram showing ow of energy in an ecosystem
pesticides and other chemicals to protect our
crops from diseases and pests. These chemicals ways in which they enter the food chain. As
are either washed down into the soil or into the these chemicals are not degradable, these get
accumulated progressively at each trophic
water bodies. From the soil, these are absorbed level. As human beings occupy the top level in
by the plants along with water and minerals, any food chain, the maximum concentration of
and from the water bodies these are taken up by these chemicals get accumulated in our bodies.
aquatic plants and animals. This is one of the This phenomenon is known as biological
108
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109
magnication. This is the reason why our food radiation from the Sun. This radiation is highly
grains such as wheat and rice, vegetables and damaging to organisms, for example, it is
fruits, and even meat, contain varying amounts known to cause skin cancer in human beings.
of pesticide residues. They cannot always be Ozone at the higher levels of the
removed by washing or other means. atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting
on oxygen (O2) molecule. The higher energy
Activity 13.3 UV radiations split apart some moleculer
oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These
g Newspaper reports about pesticide levels atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen
in ready-made food items are often seen to form ozone as shown—
these days and some states have banned
these products. Debate in groups the
need for such bans.
g What do you think would be the source
of pesticides in these food items? Could
pesticides get into our bodies from this
source through other food products too?
g Discuss what methods could be applied
to reduce our intake of pesticides. The amount of ozone in the atmosphere
began to drop sharply in the 1980s. This
decrease has been linked to synthetic chemicals
like chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) which are
1. What are trophic levels? Give an example used as refrigerants and in re extinguishers. In
of a food chain and state the different 1987, the United Nations Environment
trophic levels in it. Programme (UNEP) succeeded in forging an
2. What is the role of decomposers in the agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986
ecosystem? levels. It is now mandatory for all the
manufacturing companies to make CFC-free
13.2 HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES refrigerators throughout the world.
AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT? Activity 13.4
We are an integral part of the environment.
Changes in the environment affect us and our g Find out from the library, internet or
activities change the environment around us. newspaper reports, which chemicals are
We have already seen in Class IX how our responsible for the depletion of the ozone
activities pollute the environment. In this layer.
chapter, we shall be looking at two of the g Find out if the regulations put in place to
environmental problems in detail, that is,
control the emission of these chemicals
depletion of the ozone layer and waste disposal.
13.2.1 Ozone Layer and How it is Getting have succeeded in reducing the damage to
Depleted the ozone layer. Has the size of the hole in
Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms the ozone layer changed in recent years?
of oxygen. While O2, which we normally refer
13.2.2 Managing the Garbage we Produce
to as oxygen, is essential for all aerobic forms
In our daily activities, we generate a lot of
of life. Ozone, is a deadly poison. However, at
material that are thrown away. What are some
the higher levels of the atmosphere, ozone
of these waste materials? What happens after
performs an essential function. It shields the
we throw them away? Let us perform an
surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV)
activity to nd answers to these questions.
110
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111
Activity 13.5 Activity 13.6

g Collect waste material from your homes. g Use the library or internet to nd out
This could include all the waste more about biodegradable and non-
generated during a day, like kitchen biodegradable substances.
waste (spoilt food, vegetable peels, used g How long are various nonbiodegradable
tea leaves, milk packets and empty substances expected to last in our
cartons), waste paper, empty medicine environment?
bottles/strips/bubble packs, old and torn g These days, new types of plastics which
clothes and broken footwear. are said to be biodegradable are
g Bury this material in a pit in the school available. Find out more about such
garden or if there is no space available, materials and whether they do or do not
you can collect the material in an old harm the environment.
bucket/ower pot and cover with at least
15 cm of soil.
g Keep this material moist and observe at 1. Why are some substances biodegradable
15-day intervals. and some non-biodegradable?
g What are the materials that remain 2. G i v e a n y t w o w a y s i n w h i c h
unchanged over long periods of time? biodegradable substances would affect
g What are the materials which change the environment.
their form and structure over time? 3. Give any two ways in which non-
g Of these materials that are changed, biodegradable substances would affect
which ones change the fastest? the environment.
We have seen in the chapter on ‘Life Visit any town or city, and we are sure to
Processes’ that the food we eat is digested by nd heaps of garbage all over the place. Visit
various enzymes in our body. Have you ever any place of tourist interest and we are sure to
wondered why the same enzyme does not nd the place littered with empty food
break-down everything we eat? Enzymes are wrappers. In the earlier classes we have talked
specic in their action, specic enzymes are about this problem of dealing with the garbage
needed for the break-down of a particular that we generate. Let us now look at the
substance. That is why we will not get any problem a bit more deeply.
energy if we try to eat coal! Because of this, Activity 13.7
many human-made materials like plastics will
g Find out what happens to the waste
not be broken down by the action of bacteria or
generated at home. Is there a system in
other saprophytes. These materials will be
place to collect this waste?
acted upon by physical processes like heat and
g Find out how the local body (panchayat,
pressure, but under the ambient conditions
municipal corporation, resident welfare
found in our environment, these persist for a
association) deals with the waste. Are
long time.
there mechanisms in place to treat the
Substances that are broken down by
biodegradable and non-biodegradable
biological processes are said to be
wastes separately?
biodegradable. How many of the substances
g Calculate how much waste is generated
you buried were biodegradable? Substances
at home in a day.
that are not broken down in this manner are said
g How much of this waste is
to be non-biodegradable. These substances
biodegradable?
may be inert and simply persist in the
g Calculate how much waste is generated
environment for a long time or may harm the
in the classroom in a day.
various members of the eco-system.
112
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113
g How much of this waste is biodegradable? have resulted in much of our waste becoming
g Suggest ways of dealing with this waste. non-biodegradable. What do you think will be
the impact of these on our environment?
Activity 13.8
Activity 13.9
g Find out how the sewage in your locality
g Search the internet or library to nd out
is treated. Are there mechanisms in place
what hazardous materials have to be
to ensure that local water bodies are not
dealt with while disposing of electronic
polluted by untreated sewage.
items. How would these materials affect
g Find out how the local industries in your
the environment?
locality treat their wastes. Are there
g Find out how plastics are recycled. Does
mechanisms in place to ensure that the
the recycling process have any impact
soil and water are not polluted by this
on the environment?
waste?
Improvements in our life-style have
resulted in greater amounts of waste material 1. What is ozone and how does it affect any
generation. Changes in attitude also have a role ecosystem?
to play, with more and more things we use 2. How can you help in reducing the
becoming disposable. Changes in packaging problem of waste disposal? Give any two
methods.
Think it over
Disposable cups in trains
If you ask your parents, they will probably remember a time when tea in trains was served in
plastic glasses which had to be returned to the vendor. The introduction of disposable cups was
hailed as a step forward for reasons of hygiene. No one at that time perhaps thought about the
impact caused by the disposal of millions of these cups on a daily basis. Some time back, kulhads,
that is, disposable cups made of clay, were suggested as an alternative. But a little thought
showed that making these kulhads on a large scale would result in the loss of the fertile top-soil.
Now disposable paper-cups are being used. What do you think are the advantages of disposable
paper-cups over disposable plastic cups?

g The various components of an ecosystem are interdependent.
g The producers make the energy from sunlight available to the rest of the ecosystem.
g There is a loss of energy as we go from one trophic level to the next, this limits the number of
trophic levels in a food-chain.
g Human activities have an impact on the environment.
g The use of chemicals like CFCs has endangered the ozone layer. Since the ozone layer
protects against the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, this could damage the environment.
g The waste we generate may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
g The disposal of the waste we generate is causing serious environmental problems.
114
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115
EXERCISES
1. Which of the following groups contain only biodegradable items?
(a) Grass, owers and leather
(b) Grass, wood and plastic
(c) Fruit-peels, cake and lime-juice
(d) Cake, wood and grass
2. Which of the following constitute a food-chain?
(a) Grass, wheat and mango
(b) Grass, goat and human
(c) Goat, cow and elephant
(d) Grass, sh and goat
3. Which of the following are environment-friendly practices?
(a) Carrying cloth-bags to put purchases in while shopping
(b) Switching off unnecessary lights and fans
(c) Walking to school instead of getting your mother to drop you on her scooter
(d) All of the above
4. What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
5. Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for different
trophic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without causing any
damage to the ecosystem?
6. What is biological magnication? Will the levels of this magnication be different at different
levels of the ecosystem?
7. What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
8. If all the waste we generate is biodegradable, will this have no impact on the environment?
9. Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern? What steps are being taken to limit this
damage?
116
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117
Class X
Suggested Pedagogical Processes Learning Outcomes
The learners may be provided with The learner —
opportunities individually or in groups
and encouraged to — y differentiates materials, objects,
y recognise the difference between organisms, phenomena, and
reactions, such as, exothermic and processes, based on, properties and
endothermic, oxidation and reduction, characteristics, such as, autotrophic
etc. and heterotrophic nutrition,
y observe to understand the difference in biodegradable and non-biodegradable
the temperatures in both the reactions substances, various types of reactions,
using laboratory thermometer. strong and weak acids and bases,
y investigate the ways of segregation of acidic, basic, and neutral salts using
waste material on the basis of their different indicators, real and virtual
degradation property. They may be images, etc.
encouraged to practice the segregation y classifies materials, objects,
of waste before disposal at home, organisms, phenomena, and
school, and public places. processes, based on properties and
y explore the relationship between two characteristics, such as, metals and
physical quantities, such as, between non-metals, acid and bases on the
potential difference across a conductor basis of their physical and chemical
and electric current flowing through it; properties.
design, conduct, and share the findings y plans and conducts investigations and
of an activity experiments to arrive at and verify
y find out ‘why’ and ‘how’ of processes or the facts, principles, phenomena,
phenomena, such as, transportation in or to seek answers to queries on
plants and animals, extraction of metals their own, such as, investigates
from ores, with the help of activities, conditions necessary for rusting, tests
experiments, and demonstration. The the conductivity of various solutions,
learners may be encouraged to discuss, compares the foaming capacity of
relate, conclude and explain processes different types of soap samples, verifies
or phenomena to their peers using laws of reflection and refraction of light,
interdisciplinary approach. Ohm’s law, etc. Do variegated leaves
perform photosynthesis? Which gas is
y observe diagrams, such as that of
evolved during fermentation? Why does
digestive system and the names given
the shoot of a plant moves towards
to various organs. The learners may be
light?
motivated to make poster of the digestive
system for displaying in school. They y relates processes and phenomena
may also be provided opportunities to with causes and effects, such as,
use ICT tools for drawing. hormones with their functions, tooth
decay with pH of saliva, growth of plants
y collect wide variety of graphs from
with pH of the soil, survival of aquatic
newspapers, magazines, or the
life with pH of water, blue colour of sky
internet, with a view to understand
with scattering of light, deflection of
the information contained therein. The
compass needle due to magnetic effect
learners may be facilitated to draw a
of electric current, etc.
graph, such as V-I graph for analysing
the relationship between the potential y explains processes and phenomena,
difference across a conductor and the such as, nutrition in human beings
current through it. and plants, transportation in plants
118
Learning Outcomes at the Secondary Stage
y study how chemical equations are and animals, extraction of metals from
balanced using simple mathematical ores, placement of elements in modern
skills. Discussion may be conducted periodic table, displacement of metals
on the significance of balancing of from their salt solutions on the basis
chemical equations. of reactivity series, working of electric
y get familiar with New Cartesian Sign motor and generator, twinkling of stars,
Convention using illustrated cards and advanced sunrise and delayed sunset,
may be given ample opportunities to formation of rainbow, etc.
apply the sign convention in various y draws labelled diagrams, flow charts,
situations of reflection by spherical concept maps, and graphs, such
mirrors. as, digestive, respiratory, circulatory,
y perform a role-play on ecosystem in a excretory, and reproductive systems,
hypothetical situation, such as, what electrolysis of water, electron dot
will happen if all herbivores suddenly structure of atoms and molecules, flow
vanish from earth. This may be followed chart for extraction of metals from ores,
by a discussion about how the loss of ray diagrams, magnetic field lines, etc.
biodiversity disrupts the food chain y analyses and interprets data,
hereby adversely affecting the energy graphs, and figures, such as, melting
flow in an ecosystem. and boiling points of substances to
y derive equations, formulae, laws, etc. differentiate between covalent and ionic
For example, the derivation for formula compounds, pH of solutions to predict
of the equivalent resistance of resistors the nature of substances, V-I graphs,
in series (or parallel). They should be ray diagrams, etc.
encouraged to practice the derivation y calculates using the data given,
till they are confident. such as, number of atoms in reactants
y study the features inherited through and products to balance a chemical
genes, such as, attached or free equation, resistance of a system of
earlobes. They may be encouraged to resistors, power of a lens, electric
observe and compare the earlobes of power, etc.
their friends with the earlobes of their y uses scientific conventions to
parents and grandparents to arrive at represent units of various quantities,
the conclusion that characters or traits symbols, formulae, and equations,
are inherited in offsprings from their such as, balanced chemical equation
parents. by using symbols and physical states of
y collect print and non-print materials by substances, sign convention in optics,
exploring the library and the internet SI units, etc.
about scientists and their findings to y handles tools and laboratory
appreciate how concepts evolved with apparatus properly; measures
time. They may be motivated to share physical quantities using appropriate
their findings by preparing posters and apparatus, instruments, and
performing role plays or skits. devices, such as, pH of substances
y encourage learners to visit science using pH paper, electric current and
museums, biodiversity parks, aviaries, potential difference using ammeter and
zoological parks, botanical gardens, voltmeter, etc.
fisheries, poultry farms, factories, etc.
119
Learning Outcomes for Science
y collect eco-friendly, commonly available y applies learning to hypothetical
materials to design and develop situations, such as, what will happen
technological devices and innovative if all herbivores are removed from an
exibits, such as, electric motor, soda ecosystem? What will happen if all
acid fire extinguisher, respiratory non-renewable sources of energy are
system, etc. They may be motivated exhausted?
to display their exhibits or models y applies scientific concepts in daily
in science exhibitions, science club, life and solving problems, such as,
classrooms, during parent-teacher suggest precautions to prevent sexually
meet and to respond to the queries transmitted infections, uses appropriate
raised during interaction. electrical plugs (5/15A) for different
y visit classrooms, laboratories, library, electrical devices, uses vegetative
toilets, playground, etc., to identify propagation to develop saplings in
places where wastage of electricity and gardens, performs exercise to keep in
water may be occurring. Discussion good health, avoids using appliances
may be held on importance of natural responsible for ozone layer depletion,
resources and their conservation, applies concept of decomposition
leading to the conviction for adoption reaction of baking soda to make spongy
of good habits in their day-to-day cakes, etc.
life. The learners may also organise y derives formulae, equations, and
a sensitisation programme on such laws, such as, equivalent resistance of
issues. resistors in series and parallel, etc.
y share their findings of the activities, y draws conclusion, such as, traits or
projects, and experiments, such as, features are inherited through genes
extraction of metals from ores, working present on chromosomes, a new
of electric motor and generator, species originates through evolutionary
formation of rainbow, etc., in oral and processes, water is made up of hydrogen
written forms. Report writing may be and oxygen, properties of elements
facilitated to share their findings by vary periodically along the groups and
using appropriate technical terms, periods in periodic table, potential
figures, tables, graphs, etc. They may difference across a metal conductor
be encouraged to draw conclusions on is proportional to the electric current
the basis of their observations. flowing through it, etc.
y takes initiative to know about scientific
discoveries and inventions, such as,
Mendel’s contribution in understanding
the concept of inheritance, Dobereiner for
discovering triads of elements, Mendeleev
for the development of the periodic table
of elements, Oersted’s discovery that
electricity and magnetism are related,
discovery of relation between potential
difference across a metal conductor and
the electric current flowing through it by
Ohm, etc.
y exhibits creativity in designing
models using eco-friendly resources,
such as, working model of respiratory,
120
digestive, and excretory systems,
soda acid fire extinguisher,
periodic table, micelles formation,
formation of diamond, graphite, and
Buckminsterfullerene, human eye,
electric motor and generator, etc.
y exhibits values of honesty,
objectivity, rational thinking, and
freedom from myth and superstitious
beliefs while taking decisions,
respect for life, etc., such as,
reports and records experimental data
accurately, says no to consumption of
alcohol and drugs, sensitises others
about its effect on physical and
mental health, sensitises for blood
and organ donations, understands
the consequences of pre-natal sex
determination, etc.
y communicates the findings and
conclusions effectively, such as,
those derived from experiments,
activities, and projects orally and in
written form using appropriate figures,
tables, graphs, and digital forms, etc.
y makes efforts to conserve
environment realising the inter-
dependency and inter-relationship
in the biotic and abiotic factors of
environment, such as, appreciates
and promotes segregation of
biodegradable and non-biodegradable
wastes, minimises the use of plastics,
takes appropriate steps to promote
sustainable management of resources
in day-to-day life, advocates use of
fuels which produce less pollutants,
uses energy efficient electric devices,
uses fossil fuels judiciously, etc.
Suggested Pedagogical Processes in an Inclusive Setup

The curriculum in a classroom is same for everyone. This means
all students can actively participate in the classroom. There can
be some students who may face learning difficulties including
language, visual-spatial, or mixed processing problems. They
may require additional teaching support and some adaptation
in the curriculum. By considering the specific requirements of
children with special needs, a few pedagogical processes for the
teachers are suggested:
121
Learning Outcomes for Science
y Use multisensory approach for integrating information from
auditory, olfactory, tactile as well as visual sources.
y Provide learning experiences through touching objects,
materials, organisms, models, etc., to experience size,
shape, texture, pattern, and changes.
y Use embossed line diagrams for explaining texts, pictures,
graphs and flow charts, etc.
y Use direct sensory experiences for developing concepts like
temperature, volume, etc.
y Give opportunities to work with peers during experiments.
Rotating partners for the entire class would be a good
strategy.
y Allow students to record classroom presentation and
lectures or the text in audio format.
y Label the pictures within the text, whenever possible. This
can be done by the students as an activity.
y Relate the projects and experiments to real life experiences.
y Encourage group task and peer assistance for project and
experiment work.
y Give the project and experiment in fewer steps and sequence
the steps through visual cues. Display the examples
of completed projects and experiments in classroom or
laboratory for better understanding.
y Consider alternative or less difficult activities and exercises
for the students, with same or similar learning objectives.
y Write all homework or assignments and laboratory
procedural changes on the chalkboard.
y Give the student time to finish a step in an experiment and
wait until the student indicates that she/he is ready for
further work.
y Topics can be taught through class projects, experiments,
examples, etc. Activities can be conducted through
multisensory modes before explaining any theory and
concept.
y Peer support can be used wherever a figure or table has to
be drawn. Peer partner can draw with a carbon paper (for
copying).
y Highlight and underline the key concepts.
y Provide extra time to complete an experiment and understand
a concept.
y Always provide proper guidelines to arrange the task in a
planned way. Make use of visual aids, graphic organisers
and explain the steps of experiments and assignment
repetitively till the child learns.
y Sequence maps with visual cues can be provided to the
students to understand the sequence of events.
122

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Biology

Smt. Kasula Rama Mani MSc, MEd.

Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar

Smt. V. Sarada Devi

Sri Sk. Mohammad Gouse

Dr. T.V.S. Ramesh

Smt. S. Uma Maheswari

Sri P. Satya Prakash

Sri. Y. Hemasundara Rao

Sri Nusum Chinna Moula

Smt. S. Uma Maheswari

Sri P. Satya Prakash

into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:

Ÿ Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from

teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning

Ÿ Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

Teacher Corner Student Corner

* Note: Chapters-9, 10, 11, 12 are related to

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human populations show a great deal of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884)

inherited. This is explained by the fact that each

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