The terms "Europe" and "Islam" may seem mismatched, with Europe

being a geographical continent and Islam a religion. However, this

asymmetry is more apparent than real.
*Europe as a Geographical Expression*
- Europe is a geographical expression, a continent divided into several
regions.

- The concept of Europe was created by Europeans, who also

divided the world into continents, including Asia and Africa.
- The idea of Europe as a cultural and political entity is relatively
modern, emerging from the secularization of Christendom.
Islam as a religion:

Islam, on the other hand, is not a place but a religion that

encompasses all aspects of life. For Muslims, the term "religion" has
different connotations than it does for Christians. It means both more
and less, as Islam is not just a belief system or worship but a
comprehensive way of life, including civil, criminal, and constitutional
law.

The term "religion" comes from Latin, while the Islamic term "dín"
originates from Arabic and means law in other Semitic languages.
Muslims do not separate religion from other aspects of life, and their
place of worship, the mosque, has no equivalent to the church as an
institution or power. Islam has no councils, synods, prelates,
hierarchies, canon laws, or canon courts. In classical Islamic history, the
caliph held both political and religious authority, eliminating any
potential conflict or separation between church and state."

The difference between Islam and Christianity stems from their

distinct origins and foundation myths. Muhammad, unlike Moses and
Jesus, founded a sovereign state during his lifetime and governed it
with his companions. His spiritual mission ended with his death, but his
religious, political, and military mission continued through his
successors, the caliphs. Muslims rapidly expanded their realm, creating
a vast empire that stretched from India and China to the Pyrenees and
the Atlantic.

The sacred history of Islam, as told in the Koran and traditional

biographies, recounts a story of swift and uninterrupted progress,
where leaders of false religions were overwhelmed, and the way was
prepared for the eventual triumph of the Muslim faith and arms. This
narrative has shaped the self-awareness and identity of Muslims
worldwide.

Islam is not only a religion but a whole civilization, encompassing a

political identity and allegiance that transcends national and regional
boundaries. The ideal of a single Islamic polity, ruled by one sovereign,
has persisted despite the decline of central power and the emergence
of regional monarchies.
Both Europe and Islam represent primary civilizational self-
definitions, making them counterparts in a discussion of their relations
and reciprocal perceptions. Christendom and Islam are the second and
third attempts to create a world religion, following Buddhism. Both
originated in the Middle East, sharing a common heritage of Jewish,
Greek, Roman, and ancient civilizations' ideas.

Medieval Islam and Christendom shared a common language,

concepts, and vocabulary, enabling translation and argumentation. The
Koran was translated into Latin to refute it, while converts translated it
into Persian, Turkish, and Indian languages, taking Arabic vocabulary
with them due to the lack of equivalent concepts and terms in those
languages.
Important points
1. Disagreement of Islam and Christendom
2. Tolerance for predecessors but antagonismtowards subsequent religions
3. Calling each other with names having religious connotations
4. Islam as a more progressive religion than Christianity
Jews, Muslims and Christianity had various disagreements. Islam and Christendom had a meaningful
disagreement due to same methods of argumentation, reasoning and similar notions regarding what
is religion. People of both religions called each other “infidels” and each understood what the other
meant. Christianity and Islam both were consecutive religious systems having gap of six centuries
between them. These religions were tolerant towards predecessors but had a hostile attitude
towards subsequent religions. For instance, for Christians, Judaism was a predecessor and an
incomplete religion which was replaced by Christianity. Christians were tolerant towards Jews as they
didn’t considerJudaism a false religion. This tolerance was limited whenever Christians have
some threat from Jews. But there was no forbearance for Muslims as Islam was a subsequent religion
to Christianity. Christians, after recapturing the territory of Sicily, Spain and Portugal, tried to convert
Muslims inhabitants forcibly and also expelled them from those regions. Jews were tolerated by
some medieval Christians as long as they were with Old Testament. With the advent of “Talmud” or
“Talmudic Judaism” this tolerance was diminished. Talmud was subsequent to Christianity just like
Islam and considered as a false belief system. But resistance towards Islam was strong as unlike
Talmudic Judaism, it sought to convert people.
For Muslims, on the other hand, Christianity like Judaism was a predecessor and an
incomplete religion, replaced by Islam. But Muslims also had some problems with these religions as
they thought that the followers corrupted or changed the authentic revelations which they had once
possessed. For Muslim theologians, some Christian doctrines such as trinity, son-ship and divinity of
Christ were blasphemous absurdities.But in general, in accordance with Koranic(Quranic)
laws, Muslims were willing to show some degree of tolerance towards them. Just like Christians,
Muslims did not show any leniency towards subsequent religions that challenged its finality. They
feared and oppressed post- Islamic religious movements such as the “Baha’is” and the “Ahmadis”.
In general, both Christianity and Islam had various disputations. Muslims tolerated Christians as long
as they submitted and if they did not, they were to be fought until they accepted the authority
of Islam and Muslims. For Christians, Islam was a heresy founded by an imposter or an Enthusiast
and should not be tolerated. Muslims and Christians both claimed that their religion was final
and whole of God’s truth.
Although both religions shared so many traditions and beliefs, they were not ready to accept each
other as a viable alternative. This unwillingness was showed through calling each other with
the names having religious connotations. Both Christians and Muslims didn’t call each other with
their ethnic names in order to diminish each other’s status and identity. At various places, Europeans
called Muslims “Saracens” , “Moors” , “Turks”, “Tatars” and most commonly “Mohammedans”. A
covert was called as a “turned Turk” whenever the conversion took place.Medieval Muslim writers
also called Christian rivals “Romans”, “Slavs”, “Franks” and most commonly
“Nazarenes (Nasara)” depending upon the encounter. Negative religious labelling such
as kafir (unbeliever) and paynim was also used by Muslims. But both called each other with a
common term “infidel”. These mutual attitudes determined the first encounters between these two
religions. At first Islam was seen as triumph religion.
It was progressive and universal. From its beginning, it was the world empire and civilization ruling
almost three continents, which were inhabited by different races. Muslims had inherited the
philosophy and science of Greece, the wisdom and statecraft of Iran and much even of the Eastern
Christian and Byzantine heritage which Europeans did not have access to for so many
centuries. Islam was also in contact with the rich civilization of China and India from where they
imported paper and positional and decimal notation of numbers. The Islamic world, specially,at
ottoman times, was rich and sophisticated having law abiding societies in contrast to
Europe. European travellers were astonished to see the city of Istanbul having rich culture and even
soldiers of the city having no swords due to sophisticated and law abiding individuals. There was a
unity between Islamic society which linked the network of lands and sea routes and that in
turn benefited them in terms of trade and pilgrimage.

Talmud refers to a compilation of ancient teachings regarded as sacred

And normative by Jews from the time it was compiled until modern times
And still so regarded by traditional religious Jews.
Arabic language served as a vital medium of communication in the Islamic world excelling in various
fields like government ,commerce, science ,philosophy and literature unmached by the language of
early medieval Europe such as Latin and Greek.
Christianity , a neighbour of Islam although Universal in principle was regionally focused on Europe
unlike Islam which aimed to convert all mankind. Christandom, prior to expansion was
predominantly confined to Europe with few exceptions like kingdom Of Ethiopia. Christian
population under the Muslim rule lacked sovereignty and were divided among different churches
and cultures . Christandom was European centric, similar to confucianism’s Chinese focus
characterized by a shared culture among people of one race and limited ethnic groups . Christandom
was regional in essence , representing a smaller and less diversed civilization compared to others like
Hindu India
Compared to Islam, christandom was poor , smaller and underdevelopment it was divided into small
kingdoms with its churches divided by sschism and Hersey. There was dis agreement between
Roman and eastern churches , conflict between rulers and sometimes one can see the two pops
competing with each other after losing the shores of eastern and Southern Mediterranean to Muslim
conquest , it became even more localised to what we know as Europe. For a long time it same that
nothing could stop the triumph and spread ofIslamic faith and Muslims powers to Europe .
According to Muslim tradition, prophet Mohammed sent letter to all the kings of the infidels urging
them to accept Islam. Document claims to contain the tenets of these letters but modern scholars
including many Muslims do not believe they are authentic most of what we know about early Islam
comes from stories passed down verbally by Arab Muslims before being written down. These stories
were likely influenced or maybe changed by conflicts with in the early Muslim community modern
scholars making it hard to understand the early Islamic history by raising doubts about the accuracy
and authenticity of these sources one thing which is that a half century before the prophet died,
Islam had evolved into the global region challenging Christianity and other faiths . The Muslim
community established by the prophet in the Madina had grown into large empire and aiming for
worldwide dominance.
From early Times , Muslim law required the leader of the Muslim state to engage in jihad after
interpreted as holy war and its literal meaning is ‘ striving’ is often associated with the words fi sabih
lila in the path of God . Traditionally it was seen as military duty for Muslims to fight against non
believers .The goal was for everyone to either convert to Islam or accept authority of the Islam until
this happened there was supposed to be on going warfare all the temporary truces
were allowed these truces were similar to peace treaties in Europe where princes often fought each
other .
The obligation of the jihad or holy war applied to all borders of Islam where there were non Muslims
territories in places like Asia and Africa there was pagans and ideolaters .Muslim saw an opportunity
to convert them to Islam due to the lack of strong religion .But in Europe especially christandum,
Islam faced strong resistance from a vital faith and state .For Muslims Europe was the main
enemy especially for Arabs and later ottoman Turks while smaller Jihads happened else where
local kings and chieftains jihad against local infidels in southeasrt Asia and in Sahara
African . The biggest battles for Islam were fought in Europe.
Where Islam begin to spread from Arabia it faced two major obstacles: Persian
and Byzantine empires controlling the Middle East region . The Persian Empire was conquered
leading to its incorporation into Islamic state, including its capital and ruling class converting to
Islam. The Byzantine Empire was not fully conquered but was pushed back , maintaining the
presence of along new boundary roughly aligned with the southern and eastern borders of the
Anatolia .
In the east, Muslims tried to take over Constantinople but were stopped by the Byzantines who
defended their city well. In the west, the Muslims moved quickly and managed to take over many
Mediterranean islands and the Iberian Peninsula, which includes Spain. They entered Spain in 710
after being invited by a local leader and by 718, they had taken over most of it and even moved into
France. However, in 732, they were defeated by Charles Martel, a Frankish leader, in a famous battle
called Tours and Poitiers. This battle is considered very important in Western history as it stopped
the Muslim advance into Europe. Arab historians, though, don’t think this battle was very significant.
They believe their retreat from France was more because they couldn’t keep control of the city of
Narbonne. The Muslims tried a few more times to take this city back but eventually had to stay
south of the Pyrenees Mountains. The fight over Spain lasted nearly eight centuries, ending in 1492
when the last Muslim state there, Granada, was defeated. After this, Muslims in Spain were forced
to convert to Christianity, leave the country, or face death.

Muslim Expansion and Counterattacks in Europe:

Turkish Rise and Conquest:

Turks from Asia took over lands in today's Turkey from the Byzantine Empire. It conquered Anatolia
from Byzantines.
They formed the powerful Ottoman Empire, capturing Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in
1453.
Ottoman armies attacked Hungary and even besieged Vienna in Austria twice (1529 and 1683).

Naval Attacks/Jihad:
Muslim fleets from North Africa raided European coasts and ships.
Pirates from Algeria and Morocco went as far as England, Ireland, and Iceland, causing trouble.

Mongol Invasion and Tatar Domination:

Mongols established the Khanate of the Golden Horde in Russia and eastern Europe. Berke Khan
converted to Islam, leading to the spread of Islam among Mongol and Turkish people. Tatars
continued to raid eastern Europe until the 18th century, often as Ottoman vassals.
European Counterattacks - The Crusades:
Viewed as religious wars by Christians to reclaim lost lands, particularly the Holy Land.
Initially, the majority of the population in these lands was Christian.
Arab historiography depicts these conflicts differently, often referring to Crusaders as Franks or
infidels.

Impact of the Crusades:

Trade between Europe and the Islamic

world got better for Muslims.

Christians in the Middle East faced tougher times. Eventually, the Crusades ended with a loss for the
Christians.

Fear of Islamic Expansion:

For about 1,000 years, Europe felt threatened by Muslim powers.
Losing Christian lands to Muslim rule made Europeans worry about being converted to Islam.
Europeans started studying Arabic to understand and counter Islamic influence.
At first, they wanted to stop conversions to Islam, but later hoped to convert Muslims to Christianity.
=>This text provides a perspective on how Europe was perceived from the Islamic world during
medieval
times as like Europe's perception to how central Africa was viewed by Victorian England: as a remote,
unexplored wilderness inhabited by exotic and primitive people.
The Islamic world saw Europe as a distant and somewhat backward region, lacking the cultural and
intellectual sophistication of the Islamic heartlands. Arab writings depict Europe as a place of little
interest or significance, with only a few intrepid explorers venturing into its territories and returning
with accounts that often conveyed a sense of disdain or condescension.
The Arabs were aware of Byzantium and respected the civilization of ancient Greece, but they
regarded
central and western Europe as culturally inferior. This perception was rooted in the relative levels of
civilization between the Islamic world and Europe during medieval times. While the Islamic world
flourished intellectually, scientifically, and culturally, Europe lagged behind in terms of moral and
material development. Therefore, there was little reason for the Islamic world to regard Europe with
respect or admiration.
=>While Europe was generally viewed as an outer wilderness of barbarism and unbelief, there was
also
an acknowledgment that Europeans, including those in western Europe, were not considered simple
barbarians like other neighboring regions of Islam.
 One key distinction was that Europeans were followers of a monotheistic religion, Christianity,
which was seen as resting on an authentic revelation, albeit one that Muslims believed had been
superseded by Islam. This recognition of Christianity as a monotheistic faith set Europeans apart
from polytheists and idolaters encountered in other regions. Despite being followers of a
superseded faith, Europeans were perceived as possessing a certain level of religious legitimacy
and superiority compared to other non-Muslim groups. However, unlike polytheists and
idolaters who were often more easily assimilated into Islamic society, Europeans were seen as
stubbornly attached to their own faith. Rather than embracing Islam, they demonstrated a
strong ambition to spread and uphold Christianity, sometimes in opposition to Islam. This
resistance to conversion and the persistence of Christianity further contributed to the
perception of Europe as a region with its own distinct religious identity and cultural resilience.
During the second great confrontation between Renaissance Europe and Ottoman Islam, there was
little
inclination for individuals to convert their faith. Those who did "turn Turk," as the saying went, were
primarily adventurers seeking career opportunities in the Ottoman Empire rather than genuine
converts
motivated by religious conviction. Muslims, on the other hand, remained steadfast in their
adherence to
Islam, considering Christianity to be an outdated and superseded religion.
The missionary efforts of Christian Europe during this period were primarily focused on regions
beyond
the reach of Islam, such as the Americas and more remote areas of Asia and Africa. The Islamic
threat to
Europe, particularly in its Ottoman form, was primarily perceived as military, political, and to some
extent, social. Rather than seeking conversions, the primary concern for European powers was the
strategic and economic opportunities presented by the expanding Ottoman Empire. One significant
aspect of this dynamic was the exploration of vast markets within the Ottoman realms across Europe,
Asia, and Africa. European merchants and traders recognized the economic potential of engaging
with
these markets and sought to exploit them for commercial gain. This economic motivation often
overshadowed religious considerations in interactions between Christian Europe and the Islamic
world.
=>This new situation is reflected in the continuing and changing study of Islam among Europeans.
The
primary purpose of this study shifted away from religious conversion, and the centers of learning
moved
from monasteries to emerging universities across Western Europe. Scholars, inspired by the
intellectual
curiosity and humanistic spirit of the Renaissance, began to explore classical Arabic texts, both
religious
and secular, using the rigorous philological methods developed by humanists.
Meanwhile, practical individuals engaged in diplomacy, warfare, and commerce showed a keen
interest
in gathering information about the Islamic world, particularly the Ottoman Empire. These "students"
of
the Islamic world were motivated by a combination of fascination and apprehension toward their
formidable neighbor. They made efforts to collect and interpret reports on the current situation and
recent history of the Ottoman Empire, recognizing its significance in shaping geopolitical dynamics.
=>Over time, the study of Islam attracted the attention of scholars from various backgrounds,
although
it would be centuries before it gained formal recognition within university curriculum. Despite
lacking
proficiency in Turkish and never having traveled to the Ottoman lands, figures like Richard Knolles ( a
vicar of Sandwich and former fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford) were able to draw on a wealth of
literature available in European languages. Knolles' work, "General History of the Turks," published in
1603, provided a detailed and historically informed account of the Ottoman Empire, reflecting the
growing interest and engagement of Europeans with the Islamic world. This shift in the study of Islam
from religious conversion to academic inquiry and practical interest underscores the changing
perceptions and interactions between Europe and the Islamic world during this period.
=>The lack of equivalents to European scholars like Richard Knolles among Arabs and Turks persisted
for
a significant period, indicating a general disinterest in European affairs similar to medieval times.
While
occasional concerns about developments beyond their borders may have arisen among Ottoman
officials and officers. There was no systematic effort to learn non-Islamic languages, and Muslim
rulers
often relied on their non-Muslim subjects or European refugees in their service for knowledge of
European languages or conditions. These refugees, or what we might now call defectors, were often
provided by the ongoing persecution of Jews by Christians and the conflicts between Catholics and
Protestants. While some attention was paid to European advances in weaponry and naval
technology,
other aspects of European culture, such as the arts, sciences, politics, and economics, were
considered
fundamentally irrelevant to Islamic life and were consequently disregarded.
II. RECONQUEST AND EMPIRE
During the period between 1555 and 1560, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, serving as the imperial
ambassador to Süleyman the Magnificent's court, penned a series of letters expressing deep
pessimism
about Europe's fate under the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. He lamented the decline of
European dedication and valor, noting that instead of defending Europe against a formidable enemy,
Christians were preoccupied with ventures to the Indies and Antipodes in search of wealth. Busbecq
portrayed Christian Europe as weak, divided, and irresolute compared to the centralized and
disciplined
Ottoman state. He highlighted the Ottoman Empire's vast resources, military strength, veteran
soldiers,
and disciplined structure, contrasting it with Europe's public poverty, private luxury, and lack of
military
discipline. He concluded that Europe was ill-prepared for confrontation, while the Ottomans were
accustomed to victory.He believed that Persia's intervention could only delay Europe's fate
temporarily,
as the Ottomans would eventually turn their full attention to Europe after dealing with Persia.
Busbecq's
observations reflected a European-centric view of the Ottoman threat, portraying the empire as an
unstoppable force. However, the Ottoman Empire faced its own challenges and rivalries, particularly
with Persia, the Shi'ite shahs of Persia seeking dominance in the Muslim world.
Despite Busbecq's predictions, the Ottomans did not achieve a decisive victory over Persia, nor did
they
triumph in Europe. Instead, they continued to engage in wars with Muslim neighbors and rivals,
extending well into the eighteenth century. This prolonged conflict weakened both the Ottoman and
Persian empires, ultimately diminishing their threat to Christendom.
=>While Busbecq accurately assessed the Ottoman Empire's military strength and discipline, his
global
perspective proved to be profoundly mistaken. Contrary to his predictions, the Ottomans did not
achieve dominance over Persia or Europe. Instead, they faced ongoing challenges and ultimately
experienced a decline in power.
The defeat of the Islamic armies was thanks to the bravery of Vienna’s defenders and the
explorers who sailed across the ocean. These explorers discovered new lands, found
wealth and resources, and helped Europe become stronger. This led to Europe defeating
the Islamic invasion and starting a new era in world history.
During this time, Europeans met different civilizations, including:
- Empty or sparsely populated areas, like northern Asia and North America, where they
settled and created their own communities.
- Advanced civilizations in Asia, like China and India, and Islamic regions, Africa, and
Central and South America.
What made Islam different was its goal to spread globally and unite people under one
religion. This was unlike China and India, which were powerful in their own regions but
didn’t aim to expand worldwide.
In short, European explorations led to the defeat of Islamic armies, the expansion of
Europe, and encounters with various civilizations, including the universal religion of Islam,
which had a profound impact on world history.
When Europeans first met people from China and India, they didn’t know much about each
other. This meant they could approach each other with an open mind. However, Europeans
and Muslims had a long history of conflict and rivalry that went back centuries. Europeans
saw Muslims as enemies who had invaded their lands, tried to convert them, and
challenged their religious beliefs.So, Indians and Chinese had never invaded European
lands or tried to convert them to their religions. The conflict between Europe and Islam was
intense and had a long history, which shaped European expansion and empire over the last
five centuries. This conflict started with European efforts to reclaim their lands from
Muslim rule and expel Muslim populations.Think of it like a long-standing feud between two
families. Europeans and Muslims had a history of conflict, while Europeans and
Chinese/Indians were more like strangers who didn’t have a prior history of conflict.
Europe was under attack by the Turkish Empire, which was threatening the heart of Europe.
But European countries like Spain, Portugal, and Russia fought back and won. They drove
the Muslims out of their lands and then went on to explore and conquer new territories.
Then after that Spanish and Portuguese went beyond Africa, discovering new lands and
seas. They sailed around Africa and found new trade routes to Asia. The Russians, on the
other hand, moved into Asia, liberating themselves from Tatar rule and expanding their
empire.Other European countries joined in, seeing this as a continuation of the Crusades, a
religious war against Muslims. They wanted to spread Christianity and defeat the Muslim
enemy. When Europeans arrived in Asian waters, they faced Muslim rulers who tried to stop
them, but failed.Even in far-off lands like Ceylon and the Philippines, Europeans still saw
their Muslim enemies as “Moors.” This was a term used to refer to Muslims in general, and
it showed that the conflict between Europeans and Muslims was still ongoing.
For a long time, Christian forces were only able to achieve small victories on the outskirts
of the Muslim world. They had some successes in the Eurasian steppe and in remote parts
of Asia, but in the central regions around the Mediterranean, Muslim powers like the
Ottomans were still very strong.
In fact, the Ottomans were gaining more ground, conquering Syria and Egypt in 1517 and
expanding their influence in North Africa all the way to the Moroccan frontier. This made
them a dominant force in the Mediterranean, and even a major Christian naval victory at
Lepanto in 1571 didn’t change the balance of power much.
In the West, Christian forces tried to attack the North African coast, from Tunis to Morocco,
but were decisively defeated by Ottoman and Moroccan forces. In the East, the Portuguese
tried to enter the Red Sea and Persian Gulf from their new bases in India, but were blocked
by the Ottomans and Persians.
Meanwhile, in the central arena of Christian-Muslim warfare on the European mainland,
the Ottoman threat to Vienna and the heart of Europe seemed as imminent as ever. So,
despite some small victories, Christian forces were not able to make significant gains
against Muslim powers in the central regions.And on September 12, 1683, the Turkish army
lifted their siege of Vienna and withdrew after 60 days. This was their second attempt to
capture the city, and like the first time in 1529, they failed. However, there was a big
difference between the two sieges. In 1529, the Ottoman Empire was at the height of its
power, and although they failed to take Vienna, they remained a strong force. The defeat
was not decisive, and the two empires, the Hapsburgs and the Ottomans, continued to
battle for control of Hungary and central Europe for over a century.Meanwhilethe second
siege in 1683 was a clear and decisive defeat for the Ottomans. They suffered further
defeats and lost cities and provinces. The Austrian and their allies’ victories were
confirmed in the Treaty of Carlowitz, signed on January 26, 1699. This treaty marked a
significant turning point in the relations between the Ottoman and Hapsburg empires, but
more importantly, it marked a shift in the balance of power between Europe and Islam
The strength of Islam dwindled economically and religiously from the beginning of seventeenth
century.
Europe felt less threatened from the great Ottoman Empire and its army after the conquest of
Vienna.
When Muslims were weak in 17th and 18 century they started saying, “This world is the paradise of
the
unbelievers and hell of the believers. “
Austria and Russia built more pressure against Ottoman Empire from North by launching a war which
ended with a peace treaty between Russia and Turks. The treaty benefitted Russia in three domains;
territorial, trading and annexation. Influence of Russia got increased after the war. So, it was a time
of
European domination, marked by many millitary conquests and annexations of lands of Ottoman
Empire, the most notable of which is annexation of Crimea in 1783
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the most visible form of European expansion was
military conquest and annexation, and Russians were particularly active in expanding their
territory. The annexation of Crimea in 1783 marked the beginning of a series of expansions
both eastward and westward along the northern Black Sea region. This expansion led to
conflicts with Turkey, Persia, and local rulers, resulting in the extension of Russian influence and
control into areas like the Balkans and the Caucasus (including modern-day Georgia, Armenia,
and Azerbaijan) by 1828. the French expedition to Egypt, led by General Bonaparte in 1798, had
considerable impact in that country but ended in defeat and produced no territorial change.
Both Britain and France engaged in encroachments and territorial expansions. The British
established naval dominance and strategic positions in areas like the Persian Gulf (important for
trade routes and colonial interests) and the Red Sea. Meanwhile, the French annexed Algeria in
1830, marking a significant territorial acquisition in North Africa. Additionally, the British seized
Aden (now part of Yemen) in 1839, further consolidating their presence in the strategic Arabian
Peninsula.
A new wave began in the mid-nineteenth century, Russians pacified and eventually annexed
various Central Asian khanates, extending their empire southwards into territories like present-
day Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. This in turn was followed by France's
occupation of Tunisia and Britain took effective control of Egypt in 1882, leading to a period of
British domination in the country.
• Another wave began in 1911, Russia exerted pressure on Persia (Iran) and invaded its
northern provinces. Persian resistance was unable to prevent effective domination by Russia
and Britain until the outbreak of World War I.
Meanwhile, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in September 1911 and annexed the
territories of Tripolitana (Tripoli) and Cyrenaica (Benghazi), which later became Italian colonies
and were united as Libya in 1934.
The European pincers around the Islamic Middle East, formed by the expansion of Europe at
both ends since the sixteenth century. The First World War (1914-1918) proved to be a critical
turning point. The defeat and subsequent dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire (a major
Islamic power) led to the partitioning of its territories among the victorious Allied and
associated powers. This process marked a significant reconfiguration of the political landscape
in the Middle East. The aftermath of the Second World War (1939-1945) brought about further
changes. Most of the European colonial empires, which had ruled over Islamic lands for
extended periods, began to unravel. The post-war era witnessed the emergence of sovereign
and independent states in these regions as former colonial powers withdrew or were
compelled to relinquish control. The prolonged period of European dominance profoundly
transformed the societies, political structures, and self-perceptions of the affected regions.
European colonial rule often brought about significant social, economic, and cultural changes in
that region.
The economic effects of Europe's rise were just as important as the military and political
consequences for global relations. European exploration, particularly the voyages of discovery,
led to new trade routes and connections with distant lands, including the Islamic world. The
establishment of European commercial and colonial empires had a profound impact on trade
dynamics between Europe and the Islamic world. The emergence of these empires altered the
nature and structure of trade. Previously, Europe had limited goods to offer in exchange for the
diverse products of the Islamic lands. Before the Age of Exploration, Europe's economic
landscape was characterized by primitive industry and subsistence-level agriculture. This
limited its ability to engage in extensive trade with more economically developed regions like
the Islamic lands. One notable export from Europe to the Islamic world during this period was
slaves, particularly individuals from Eastern Europe. These slaves were sold into markets across
the Mediterranean and through Spain. Despite religious (papal) and royal prohibitions on
slavery, this trade persisted. Eventually, the European slave trade was disrupted by the
advancing Turks and Tatars, who sourced slaves directly from their own territories, similar to
how Vasco da Gama's explorations disrupted the traditional Eastern spice trade. This shift in
dynamics demonstrates how global trade and economic relationships evolved during this
transformative era.
The export of weapons from Europe was a significant trade activity, extending from the
Crusades era into later periods. European powers were known to sell weapons to various
factions and adversaries, often without hesitation, despite potential conflicts of interest. This
trade in weapons played a role in shaping military strategies and power dynamics across
different regions. Alongside weapons, various other commodities were exported from Europe.
These included European slaves, steel (likely referring to weapons and tools), and fine luxury
goods such as coral from the Mediterranean, amber from northern seas, and high-quality
woolen cloth from prominent textile-producing regions like Florence, Flanders, and later
England. The reference to English scarlet by Rashid al-Din, the Persian historian of the 14th
century, likely underscores the reputation and desirability of this particular type of cloth in
international trade. Similarly, the mention of "London cloth" in Turkish customs regulations of
the 15th century indicates the importance of textiles from London in commercial exchanges
during that period.
The expansion of Europe into the Western hemisphere, particularly with the voyages of
exploration and colonization initiated by Portugal and later other European powers like Spain,
significantly altered global trade patterns. The discovery and exploitation of new territories in
the Americas brought about profound economic and political changes. Concurrently, European
powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands (Dutch), and later Britain expanded their influence
and control in regions like South and Southeast Asia. This expansion was marked by the
establishment of trading posts, colonies, and commercial empires that facilitated European
dominance in key trade routes and markets. Halil Inalcik's perspective emphasizes that the
establishment of a strong European presence on both the eastern (South and Southeast Asia)
and western (Americas) sides of the Islamic world was a pivotal development. This European
presence significantly altered existing trade networks and power structures in the Islamic
world. While the immediate economic impacts of the early Portuguese voyages were limited,
subsequent consolidation of commercial empires by the Dutch and British had profound
consequences. These empires not only secured access to new territories and resources but also
exerted control over vast networks of trade. European control over both eastern and western
possessions provided access to a diverse range of commodities. This access, combined with the
consolidation of trade routes and colonies, enabled Europeans to dominate global commerce
and benefit from the exchange of goods across continents.
Coffee, initially cultivated in regions like Yemen and Ethiopia at the southern end of the Red
Sea, was first brought to Mediterranean lands in the 16th century. Over time, coffee became a
significant export from the Middle East to Europe. However, by the late 17th century, European
colonial powers like England, the Netherlands (Dutch), and France started growing coffee in
their tropical colonies in Central America and Southeast Asia. This colonial coffee, though
cheaper, eventually dominated Middle Eastern markets, leading to a shift in trade dynamics.
Sugar and paper, originally introduced to Europe from India and China respectively, were
accepted and produced in the Middle East since the Middle Ages. By the late 17th century,
European colonial sugar was extensively refined and exported to the Ottoman domains.
Watermarked paper manufactured in Europe also became widely used in the Ottoman Empire,
despite reservations about printing presses.The textile trade underwent significant changes
with European industrialization and expansion into South and Southeast Asia. The Middle
Eastern market began to receive textile imports from both sides: cheap cottons brought by
European merchants from India and traditional manufactured woolens directly from Europe.
This shift marked a decline in the dominance of Middle Eastern textile exports to Europe.The
growth of European power in regions like South and Southeast Asia, coupled with
industrialization in Western Europe, not only transformed the global production landscape but
also reshaped trade patterns and market dynamics across continents. European colonial
ventures led to the reorientation of trade routes and the displacement of indigenous industries
with European goods.
By the nineteenth century, the Middle East had significantly weakened in comparison to both
Eastern and Western Europe. This decline is notable when considering the Middle East's
historical prominence and economic power during the great days of the sixteenth century. The
passage also suggests that there is some evidence indicating an absolute decline in the
economic power of the Middle East during this period. This decline likely reflects a combination
of internal factors within the region and external influences, including shifts in global trade
patterns, technological advancements, and the impact of European colonialism.
The rise of European mercantilism, characterized by state-controlled trade policies aimed at
accumulating wealth and power, had a significant impact on Muslim powers. European nations
utilized mercantilist strategies to bolster their economies and expand their overseas trade
networks, which often disadvantaged Muslim trading interests. Muslim powers were affected
by the increasing complexity and cost of armament and warfare. As European states invested in
developing advanced military technologies and tactics, Muslim powers faced challenges in
maintaining competitive military capabilities. The influx of American precious metals (such as
gold and silver) into Europe during the Age of Exploration led to significant inflation in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This inflation, driven by the increased availability of
precious metals, resulted in rising prices that adversely affected trade and internal economies
in the Muslim world. The development of new European-operated trade routes, particularly
across the Atlantic and through southern Africa into South Asian waters, bypassed traditional
Muslim trading routes. This shift led to a decline in the importance and profitability of existing
Muslim trade networks. The Islamic world experienced a technological lag in agriculture,
industry, and transport compared to Europe during this period. This lag inhibited economic
development and innovation within Muslim countries, contributing to their relative economic
decline vis-à-vis Europe. nternal divisions, political instability, and social challenges within
Muslim societies further weakened their economic and military capabilities. These internal
weaknesses made Muslim powers more vulnerable to external pressures and advantages
gained by European advancements.
The economic and cultural impacts of European influence on the Middle
East :
Historically, the economic actors in the Middle East under European
influence were often not Muslim locals but rather foreigners and local
religious minorities such as Christians and Jews. These groups became
economically dominant under European protection, distancing
themselves from their Muslim compatriots and aligning more with
European interests.
As Europe advanced in science, technology, and culture due to capitalist
expansion and bourgeois influences, the Islamic world lagged behind,
particularly in areas outside of military advancements. This led to a shift
in how Europeans perceived Islam—from a dangerous adversary to a
subject of intellectual curiosity, without the prior urgency of religious or
existential threat. Islam's perception of Europe changed slower and was
more focused on adopting practical European technologies like military
equipment and medical practices without embracing broader European
cultural or civilizational elements.
Ottoman Naval Expeditions and European Supremacy in the Indian Ocean."
The Ottoman Empire's attempts to counter the growing dominance of European powers, particularly
the Portuguese and Dutch, in the Indian Ocean. The Ottomans recognized the strategic importance
of controlling trade routes, particularly through the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, to safeguard their
interests. After conquering Egypt and Iraq in the early 16th century, they launched naval expeditions
to challenge European incursions into these regions.
However, despite their efforts, these expeditions ultimately failed to achieve their objectives.
Ottoman ships, primarily designed for the Mediterranean, were ill-equipped to compete with the
more robust vessels of the Portuguese and Dutch, who were accustomed to the challenges of the
Atlantic Ocean. European ships boasted sturdier construction, heavier weaponry, and superior
seamanship, allowing them to decisively defeat Ottoman forces and establish Christian naval
supremacy in the Indian Ocean.
It also highlights the significance of naval power in the Ottoman strategy. Without adequate naval
strength, their plans to construct a canal through the Isthmus of Suez, which would have provided a
direct route between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, became impractical and were ultimately
abandoned.
In 1569, the Ottomans, worried more about the nearby Persian threat than the distant Russian one,
wanted to build a canal between the Don and Volga rivers. This would've extended their naval power
from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. But they couldn't do it, and eventually, they lost control of the
Black Sea to Russia's growing strength.
For Muslims, Christian territories were like frontiers, similar to how Europe viewed colonial America
or how America looked to its west. Initially, it was an untamed land of opportunity offering wealth,
land, or martyrdom. As these lands were conquered and settled, they became places of hope and
refuge for those facing persecution or seeking independence. Places like North Africa and Spain
served this purpose for medieval Arabs until they became wealthy enough to govern themselves,
with one of their states, the Fatimid caliphate, even dominating parts of the East for a time.
In later centuries, the Ottomans became the pioneers of Islam, exploring new lands, conquering
them, and spreading Islamic culture to Greeks and Europeans they considered backward. However,
as they reached barriers they couldn't overcome, their society faced crises, leading to debates on
what was wrong and how to fix it. Initially, they tried to revive old methods, but the defeat at Vienna
forced them to confront their weaknesses and compare themselves to Europe. Their attitude
towards Europe shifted from amusement to alarm as they realized European power posed a threat,
not just a curiosity. They had long admired European wealth, but now they feared their strength too.
Muslim perception of Christianity and its culture remained insignificant, but there was a growing
respect for Europe's material wealth and military power, especially evident in their defeats. Ottoman
thinkers engaged in self-examination, questioning where they went wrong and how to fix it. Over the
centuries, these questions became central to Ottoman and wider Islamic discourse, leading to
profound changes in Muslim society.
By 1920, Europe's triumph over Islam seemed complete, with most Muslim lands under European
colonial rule. Only a few remote regions retained some degree of independence. The former Russian
Empire, now the Soviet Union, saw a temporary relaxation of central control during revolution and
civil war, but Bolshevik victory brought back central authority.
In Europe, the Soviets temporarily gave up control of Baltic, Polish, and Balkan territories taken by
the czars. However, in Muslim lands, the Soviets quickly reasserted control, establishing Soviet
republics modeled on Russia. These republics were ruled by local Communist officials, resembling
native rulers. Muslims in the Soviet Union faced intense state-sponsored anti-Islamic propaganda,
unlike the more cautious efforts of Christian missions in Western colonies. This propaganda stemmed
from European secularism.
Only Turkey and Iran remained independent Muslim states in the heartlands of Islam. However, Iran
was caught in chaos during World War I, with Russian, British, and Ottoman forces operating freely,
leading to prolonged turmoil even after the war ended.

Sèvres is famous for its delicate porcelain. (The term "porcelain" designates a type of ceramic
material known for its translucent quality and durability, often characterized by its white or ivory
color.) . A treaty there failed because Atatürk, Turkey's first president, broke it. He rejected European
dominance but embraced some European practices. This was a turning point, akin to
Constantinople's fall ( Constantinople refers to the former name of the city now known as Istanbul,
located in Turkey) or Vienna’s defeat.
Japan's 1905 victory over Russia inspired hope in Asia, including the Ottoman Empire. Atatürk's
expulsion of Greeks and resistance against the British marked a major Muslim victory against
Christian powers. This victory excited Muslims worldwide, from regions like West Africa to the Dutch
East Indies. In the early days, the Kemalist movement in Anatolia was very focused on religion. They
wanted to free Islamic lands and people from foreign invaders. Many Muslim leaders supported
the Kemalists, and even religious professionals were part of their group. They held meetings, like the
one in Sivas, to get support from other Muslim countries. When they fought, those who died were
called martyrs( shahid), and the leader who won was called a hero( Ghazi). This language is from
jihad, the holy war in Islam. People in places like Algeria were inspired by Kemal's victories against
colonial powers. All over Asia and Africa, Mustafa Kemal was seen as a hero whose successes others
wanted to copy in their own fights against foreign rulers.In recent years, some people have started to
see Atatürk differently. Instead of being seen as a great hero, some Muslim groups now view him as a
traitor. They think he surrendered to Europeans after winning, betraying his people.

For Muslim radicals and militants today, Atatürk is a significant figure, but not in a good way. They
see him as someone who turned against Islam. They believe Islam is being attacked both from
outside and within. The external enemies are powerful and include imperialists, missionaries,
Zionists, and Communists. These roles may change depending on the group's beliefs.
But it's the internal enemies that they see as more dangerous. They think these modernizers, like
King Faruk, President Nasser, the shah of Iran, and others, are trying to weaken Islamic laws and
values and replace them with Western ones. They see Atatürk as the pioneer of this idea because he
abolished the caliphate, ignored Islamic laws, and took away the authority of Muslim leaders. Kemal
Atatürk was the first Muslim leader to make big changes in Turkey. He got rid of Islam as the state
religion, stopped following Islamic laws (Shari‘a), and started using European practices in many areas
of life. This included things like how people got married, what they wore on their heads, and even
how they wrote their language.

Atatürk made Turkish people use the Latin alphabet instead of Arabic script, allowed them to have
only one wife, and told them to wear caps or hats instead of traditional head coverings like fezzes
and turbans. These changes weren't just random decisions; they showed a big shift in Turkish society,
becoming more like European countries.

Other Muslim countries followed some of Atatürk's reforms, but none did it as strongly or
successfully. Recently, there's been pushback against these changes in the Islamic world, including in
Turkey itself.

The roots of Atatürk's ideas go way back. Turks realized early on that they needed to learn from
Europeans, especially in military matters. They started trading with European countries and were
influenced by European culture. But there were barriers, like non-Muslim minorities who acted as
intermediaries, and rules that restricted printing in Arabic script and language.

It wasn't until 1727 that Turkey allowed its first Turkish-language printing press, after a Hungarian
convert to Islam and a Turkish official visited Paris. Some say the ban on Arabic printing was because
the script was seen as holy, while others think it was because of the power of the scribes and
calligraphers' guilds. Either way, the result was that Arabic printing was restricted for a long time in
Turkey.
Limited Travel opportunities pg 123
Muslims in the past had few chances to travel to the Christian Europe diplomatic missions
provided virtually the only opportunity for Educated Muslims to travel and stay for a while in
Christian Europe, and to meet and Converse, on more or less equal terms, with Educated
European Christians. Such missions were few and far and usually limited in duration
purpose, Effect.
• Purpose of missions :
1. European monarchs , like Francis 1 of France and Elizabeth 1 of England, may
have flattered themselves they had won the respect and even the goodwill of
Ottoman Sultan , and get some form of alliances.
↑
But there is no evidence of such perception on the Ottoman side.
• View of Christendom:-
Muslim leaders recognized that Christian Europe divided into
many warring states, which They could exploit for their Own advantages. This was evident
since the time of Crusades, Where Muslim leaders saw opportunities in division among
Christian powers.
Trade and Commerce :
Christians merchants engaged/ competed in Muslim markets Particularly those who
followed the Crusaders buying and selling a variety & Commodities and offered- even
weapons and other war materials at good prices.
Muslim attitude towards Europeans :
Muslims rulers generally didn’t prioritize diplomatic Contacts with Europe and Muslims
intellectuals didn’t see than as important either.
Management of Frontiers: Ottoman Officials were “surely aware of the squabbling tribes
and “nations “ Beyond the northwest but left their management to specialized officials
tasked with maintaining order and monitoring potential threats.
Vienna Retreat :
After the Ottoman defeat at Vienna, They had to negotiate a peace treaty from a position of
weakness, facing the efficacy of western weaponry and diplomacy.
Western Intervention:
Britain, France and the Netherland, intervened to mitigate the consequences of the
Ottoman defeat, ensuring they received better than Australians and their allies. And
prevent them (Australians + Allies) from fully benefiting from the victory over the
Ottomans.
Effectiveness of western weapons:
In war Western weapons proved effective, contributing to the Ottoman defeat: The
usefulness of western diplomacy emerged in the course of negotiations. Britain, France,
and Netherlands had their own reasons for intervening diplomatically. They aimed to
prevent Austrians to get full benefits from the victory of ottoman.
Ottoman Sultan Selim 3 :
Established permanent emphasis in Europeans Capitals , departing from traditional
Islamic diplomatic practices. They emphasized to facilitate the integration of Ottoman
Empire into European political system, and allowed Turkish officers to gain firsthand
knowledge of European civilizations.
William Penn’s Proposal:
In 1963, William proposed the ideas of establishing an organization of European state , to
prevent war and arbitrate disputes. He suggested s inviting Turkey to join, but with the
condition that Turks renounce Islam and embrace Christianity. However, the condition was
impossible and absurd. In 1856, the Treaty of Paris formally admitted (welcomed / the
Ottoman Empire (Turkey), into the concert of Europe. The Concert d Europe was a group of
Europeans powers, working together to maintain peace and Stability in the region. Despite
earlier suggestion by William Penn to impose religious conditions for Turkey’s entry into
such an organizations, no such a condition was imposed during this treaty. (Suggestions –
renounce Islam and embrace Christianity in the region).
Modern Context.
In modern Europe, the
Ideas of imposing religious conditions for membership are considered offensive ay
outdated. Instead, entry requirements are based on factors like; Culture, social and
political standards .
Questions raised :
• The debate about Turkey’s Possible membership in organizations Like the European
Economic community focuses On two main questions.
1. Whether Turkey, as well as other Islamic states, can meet the requirements set by
the organizations often include adherence to certain political, economical, and
social standards they may differ from those Islamic States.
2. Another Question whether European states still have authority or legitimacy to
impose such requirements after historical events.
Turks and Muslims had to gone through the process to adapt the European customs and
languages participate in order to participate in Concert of Europe.
Process :
Learning European Languages:
To engage effectively in European affairs, Muslims had to learn European languages and
the Latin script in which they were written. This was a significant departure from earlier
times when such knowledge was not considered necessary or desirable.
Historical Context:
In early medieval times, Muslims had translated works from pagan Greece Into Arabic,
enriching their cultural heritage. However, they were little translation of Christian European
work into Arabic, Turkish or Persian due to religious and cultural barriers.
Limited Communication:
There were few Muslims who could speak or understand European languages, and even
fewer who could read European books.This too charged in the course of 18 century, the first
age of Islamic reappraisal. Said Efendi, the first muslim Rank who is known to have
mastered a European Language, specifically French, during a diplomatic mission to Paris in
1720. He returned speaking “excellent French, like a native” according to contemporary
accounts.
Impact of language mastery :
Said Effendi’s language skills were not coincidental , he played a key role in establishing
the first Turkish Printing Press. This enabled the dissemination of knowledge and ideas
from Europe to the Islamic world.
1st book, printed on this Press was a treatise describing the ¹slaves and forms of
government existing in Europe ² The physical and military geography of the continent³and
the armed forces maintained by European States. And combat methods. This indicates a
growing interest among Muslims In understanding European Political and military systems.
III. RETREAT AND RETURN (page no 127-130)
Muslims were initially unwilling to learn European languages and
venture(move/travel) into European territories, viewing it as distasteful and
unnecessary. However, military necessity forced them to acquire European
military methods and technologies to defend against advancing European powers.
In the 18th century, European instructors were employed to train Ottoman forces,
and Sultan Selim III requested a military mission from the newly established
French Republic. Throughout the 19th century, rulers like the pasha of Egypt, the
sultan of Turkey, and the shah of Persia sent young men to Europe to study
military and other arts. Progress in learning European languages was slow initially,
but it accelerated after 1844. The Greek war of independence highlighted the
importance of Turks acquiring language skills themselves rather than relying on
Greek intermediaries for dealing with European states. Consequently, language
offices were established in Ottoman ministries, and learning European languages
became increasingly accepted, useful, and ultimately necessary for engaging with
European powers.
Learning of language gave only a small number of educated Muslims access to
European knowledge and ideas . However, the translation movement and the
spread of printing made this knowledge accessible to a much larger audience.
Until the late 18th century, few European books were translated into Muslim
languages, mainly focusing on practical topics like geography and medical science.
Medical works, especially those dealing with syphilis, were of particular interest
due to the disease’s introduction to the Middle East by Europeans. Syphilis,
known as “firangi” in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, served as a metaphor for the
spread of European ideas and practices among Muslim authors.
The early translations from Istanbul and Cairo printing presses in the 19th century
focused mainly on practical sciences, with some historical works including those
about Napoleon, Catherine the Great, and Charles XII of Sweden by Voltaire.
Machiavelli’s “The Prince,” translated in 1825 for Muhammad Ali Pasha, survived
only in manuscript form. Literary translations, including poetry, fiction, and later
drama, began in the mid-19th century. By the early 20th century, a large number of
literary works had been translated into Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, influencing
the development of a new literature in these languages, heavily influenced by
European models. Traditional literary forms declined significantly, with Turkish
2
seeing their extinction and Arabic and Persian experiencing reduced significance
by the late 20th century.
In the arts, Europeanization began earlier and had a deeper impact compared to
literature. Artists in Turkey and Persia showed the influence of European
paintings from an early stage, with European decorative motifs even appearing in
mosque architecture by the 18th century. In the 19th century, traditional Islamic
art forms like architecture and miniature painting were slowly replaced by new
styles. Only a few artists continued to practice traditional art, and later, there was
a brief revival of classical styles. However, Western classical music was slower to
gain acceptance in Islamic countries. Despite being introduced to Western music
and receiving some government support, Islamic societies were slower to adopt
and appreciate Western music compared to other non-Western cultures like
China, Japan, and India.
The arrival of mass media from Europe quickly changed the way Muslims saw the
world and understood current events. At first, newspapers in the Middle East
were published in French, which limited their reach. But in early 19th century,
local newspapers in Arabic and Turkish started appearing, approved by local
leaders like the pasha and sultan. These newspapers aimed to:
- Share accurate news and government information to avoid confusion and unfair
criticism
- Provide helpful knowledge on business, science, and the arts
- Help modernize and educate the public
The first nonofficial newspaper in the Middle East was founded by an Englishman
named William Churchill in 1840. This newspaper provided some coverage of
news from both home and abroad. However, the significant development of
newspapers began during the Crimean War when Turkey was involved in a major
conflict with two Western European powers as allies. When British and French
armies arrived in Turkey, people became eager for daily news. This was fueled by
war correspondents from Britain and France who were reporting on the events.
At the same time, the telegraph was introduced, making it easier to share news
quickly. As a result, newspapers became very popular, and their circulation grew
rapidly. Not only literate people read them, but also many others who had friends
and neighbors read the news to them. This helped spread information and news
to a wider audience.
The introduction of newspapers in the Islamic world brought about a new
perception and awareness of events, particularly in Europe where significant
3
developments were occurring. The need to discuss and explain these events led
to the evolution of new languages, which contributed to the development of
modern Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Additionally, the emergence of journalists
played a crucial role in shaping the modern Islamic world. During the period when
Britain and France rule in the Middle East, newspapers experienced relative
freedom.
In 1925, Turkey initiated radio broadcasting, followed by most other Muslim
countries, and television was introduced in the 1960s, becoming widespread
across the Islamic world. Unlike newspapers, radio and TV broadcasts can’t be
easily controlled or blocked at borders. While some journalists and media outlets
may follow traditional guidelines, listeners and viewers now have the freedom to
choose from various sources, including authoritarian and foreign ones. This
freedom of choice is a form of Europeanization, allowing people in the Islamic
world to access diverse perspectives and ideas.
The Islamic legal system underwent a big change with the introduction of secular
laws and legal professionals like lawyers and judges. This was a significant
departure from the traditional Islamic law based on the Holy Law. The main
reason for this change was the growing European commercial presence, which
required a legal framework that could handle new economic complexities.
The adoption of secular legal codes and the establishment of new courts,
including appeal courts, introduced a new level of legal bureaucracy that didn’t
exist in Islamic law before. This transformation shows how legal systems can
adapt to social and economic changes, but it also highlights the challenges of
integrating new legal concepts into established religious frameworks.
Islamic Modernization:
In the past, education in the Islamic world was largely controlled by religious scholars, known as
the ulema(1),and focused on religion. However, as the society started to modernize, there was a
need for new types of education and professionals like lawyers and journalists who were not
traditionally part of the religious educational system. New schools were created to train these
professionals, and these schools began to look and function more like their European counterparts.
This shift towards a more secular, modern education reduced the influence of the ulema, even in
areas like personal status law where they had held significant control.

As the world around them changed, traditional roles such as soldiers, civil servants, and scholars also
evolved. They saw that in order to protect their society from European threats, they needed to adopt
European methods and innovations. This led to major changes in the government, military,
and educational systems, making them similar to those in Europe. Some in these societies went even
further, seeking to adopt Western forms of government, such as constitutional and parliamentary
systems, believing this would bring them the same success that Europe had achieved. These changes
often involved challenging or removing the old rulers who resisted these modernizing efforts.
Islamic countries made various changes to become more like Europe, both in symbolic and practical
ways. For instance: The adoption of European attires :, European clothing styles were adopted first by
government and military officials, and later by other city dwellers. This trend was strongly promoted
by Kemal Atatürk in Turkey and gradually accepted in many Muslim nations, especially in the military.
However, changes in women’s clothing came later, faced more resistance, and affected fewer people.
1) Ulema : a body of Muslim scholars who are recognized as having specialist knowledge of Islamic
sacred law and theology
Other significant changes were more social in nature. These included ending slavery, improving
women's rights and reducing polygamy(2), and giving non-Muslims equal legal rights. Additionally,
there were major upgrades in public services and infrastructure like street lighting, and the
introduction of gas, electricity, and modern communication systems, which linked the Islamic world
more closely with the global economy. These advancements, however, also caused growing tensions
within Islamic societies, particularly as television exposed disparities and new ideas to even the most
remote or conservative areas.
(2) polygamy : the practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.

Ideas about change and opposition have often been influenced by European thought, brought back
by students and diplomats who studied or lived in Europe. In the 19th century, important ideas
like patriotism(3) and liberalism(4) emerged from Western Europe. These ideas centered on devotion
to one's country and the desire for a freer society. However, as these ideologies sometimes failed
and patriotic identities became less clear in the 20th century, other ideologies
like fascism(5)and communism(6) from Central and Eastern Europe became influential. Ethnic
nationalism(7) also rose during this period.

Despite these European influences, not all opposition movements in the Islamic world were based on
European ideas. Many Muslims resisted foreign control and internal changes in the name of
preserving Islamic values, rather than adopting Western ideologies. They viewed the threat as both
foreign and domestic, particularly from those trying to replace Islamic laws with secular
ones. Historical examples: include the Wahhabi uprising against the Ottomans around the 18th and
19th centuries, various resistances in India, Daghestan, and Algeria during the 19th century, and pan-
Islamic movements against European powers. Resistance continued into the 20th century with
opposition to Soviet rule and brief radical Islamic movements in the Arab world and Iran in the 1940s
and 1950s. Most of these movements were defeated until the successful Islamic revolution in Iran in
1979, which had a significant impact across the Islamic world.
2) patriotism: the quality of being patriotic; devotion to and vigoroussupport for one's country.
Liberalism : .
willingness to respect or accept behaviour or opinions different from one's own; openness to new
ideas
3) Fascism : Fascism is a far-right form of government in which most of the country's power is held by
one ruler or a small group, under a single party.
4) Communism: a theory or system of social organization in which all property is owned by the
community and each person contributes and receives according to their ability and needs.
5) Ethnic Nationalism: membership in a nation is associated with membership in a specific ethnic
group

The frustration felt by many traditional Muslims facing modern challenges is understandable. Raised
in a religious culture where being right historically meant being dominant, these individuals have
witnessed a loss of supremacy: globally to Western powers, locally to foreign influences and
Westernized protégés (8), and even within their own families to empowered women and
independent-minded children. They have grown up with a complex network of social commitments
shaped by faith and family ties, only to see these bonds criticized as outdated or corrupt, and
replaced by a focus on material gain or political ideologies like socialism.

Economically, traditional Muslims also face hardships worsened by poor management and increasing
awareness of widening wealth gaps through mass media. They see the affluent, often dictatorial
elites adopting Western lifestyles, which to them symbolize the influence of foreign, non-Islamic
cultures. Despite Western assertions that these superficial adoptions of Western culture do not
equate to deep cultural change, traditional Muslims, with limited exposure to actual European
lifestyles, may not perceive or accept such nuanced views. Thus, many find solace and a sense of
pride in returning to a revitalized Islamic identity, using it to critique existing conditions and shape
new political realities.
8) protégés: a person who is guided and supported by an older and more experienced or influential
person.
. The Islamic movement led by Khomeini in Iran was highly effective, primarily in mobilizing support.
●. Islamic resurgence movements existed in many countries, both sponsored by governments and
originating from grassroots movements.
●. These movements were driven by a rejection of Western influence and a vision of a restored
Islam.
●. Kemalism's victories paradoxically included repulsing European power while accepting European
civilization.
●. Muslim radicalism today similarly rejects Western civilization while seeing a massive migration to
Europe and America.
● The Muslim presence in non-Muslim territories represents a significant change from historical
norms.
● Historical Islamic jurisprudence focused on the legal status of non-Muslims under Muslim rule, but
less so on Muslims under non-Muslim rule.
● Early Islamic expansion led to many non-Muslims being brought under Muslim rule, with little loss
of Muslim territory to non-Muslim invaders.
●. However, by the eleventh century, events like the Crusades and Mongol invasions created new
challenges for Muslim territories.
●Despite these challenges, the basic norms of Sharia had been established by then.
●. Jurists initially believed that Muslims living under non-Muslim rule was undesirable and, for some,
forbidden, except under dire necessity.
●. The Maliki school of jurisprudence allowed Muslims to visit non-Muslim lands only for specific
reasons, such as ransoming captives or trade, albeit with differing opinions on the permissibility of
trade.
●. Some juristic schools permitted the establishment of Muslim merchant colonies in non-Muslim
territories, especially in Asia and Africa.
●. The reconquest of Muslim territories by Christian invaders raised the question of Muslims living
under Christian rule in their homeland.
●. Maliki jurists debated whether Muslims should emulate Prophet Muhammad’s migration from
Mecca to Medina when facing Christian rule.
●. Al-Mäzari suggested various excuses for Muslims to remain temporarily under Christian rule, while
al-Wansharisi insisted that Muslims should leave for Muslim lands.
●. Most Muslims in Spain left for Muslim lands after the reconquest, either due to religious rulings or
practical necessity.
●. Al-Mäzari argued that Muslims could stay if the non-Muslim rulers allowed them to practice Islam
fully, while al-Wansharisiinsisted they should leave regardless of the rulers’ tolerance.

●. Islam was established as both a religious community and a political entity during Muhammad’s
lifetime, with him serving as both a prophet and a sovereign.
●. According to the Qur’an, one of the fundamental duties of Muslims is to “command good and
forbid evil,” which necessitates authority.
●.. The Maliki jurists and others believed that commanding and forbidding could only be effectively
carried out from a position of authority.
●. In regions where Islam was conquered by non-Muslim rulers, mass emigration was impractical,
leading to the necessity of finding new compromises.
●. Classical jurists did not foresee the scenario of Muslims willingly living under non-Muslim rule,
subjecting themselves and their families to non-Muslim personal law, and sending their children to
non-Muslim schools.
●. However, this situation has become prevalent, with millions of Muslims from various regions now
residing in Western Europe under non-Muslim governance.
●. The challenges faced by these Muslim immigrants include living without Islamic authority,
adhering to non-Muslim personal law, and dealing with education issues, particularly for girls.
●. The majority of these immigrants come from traditional social classes and regions, and many still
feel compelled to uphold Islamic principles in their new homes.
●. Europe and the Middle East are experiencing changes in their economic relationship, with
European merchants competing in the Middle Eastern market, while Middle Eastern powers invest
heavily in Europe.
●. Although Europe maintains military and industrial superiority, Middle Eastern powers are now
engaging in conflicts on European soil, and Muslim governments and individuals exert significant
financial influence in European markets.

●. The influx of Muslims, including Turks, North Africans, Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis, has
established a substantial and permanent Muslim presence in Europe.

●. This demographic shift is likened to historical invasions, but instead of military conquest, it occurs
through economic and demographic means.

●.Despite retaining ties to their countries of origin, Muslim communities in Europe are gradually
integrating into their host countries.

●The integration of Muslim communities will have immense consequences for both Europe and
Islam, shaping their future trajectories significantly.