Road Construction

Road Construction & Plants
Road Construction and Plant

Introduction
Everybody travels, whether it is to work, play, shop, do business, or simply visit people. All foodstuffs and
raw materials must be carried from their place of origin to their place consumption.
Road
This is an open way, route or path for public travel or transportation
Way for vehicles and for other types of traffic which may or may not be lawfully usable by all traffic.
Traffic
This is the aggregation of pedestrians, animals or vehicles; coming and going in a particular locality
during a specified period of time.
Roads are the principal arteries (circulation or network) of traffic in the present-day world. The right
indicator of a country‟s prosperity is its road length and vehicle ownership
A ‘road’ is a lower order facility, designed for relatively lower speed and lower volume traffic in the non-
urban areas. For example, they can be district roads or village roads.
A ‘highway’ is an arterial road facility designed for high speed and high volume traffic in nonurban areas.
For example, the national road network of a country is called the National Highway Network.
Construction
The process by which a road is built according to established design standards and work methods.
General road terms

Earth Roads
Earth roads are formed from the in-situ soil material.
Gravel Road
Gravel roads have a gravel layer as a surfacing material.
Paved Roads
Paved roads have a homogenous and strengthened carriageway surface, which consists of bitumen,
concrete or other pavement materials such as stones and bricks.
Rehabilitation
Activities which restore a road‟s geometric characteristics to the original recommended design standards
Upgrading
1 NDBCE: 213 – Road Construction & Plants 1, Lecture Notes. UTC- Elgon, by +256 775 042 356
©, 2014; okiror6@gmail.com.
The process by which the standard of an existing road is improved to allow safe use by a greater volume
of traffic than originally designed for
Maintenance
The work required to keep the road, its structures and property within the road margins as near as
Transport Systems in Uganda’s' Economy

Different means of transport systems
o Land (by road, railway)
o Space (air)
o Water
Types of transport systems
 Road transport; different means include, bus, cars, bicycles, motor cycles, carts etc.
 Water transport; Different means are boats, ships, canoes etc.
 Air transport; means include aeroplanes, parachutes, jets, etc.
 Railway transport; by trains, chutes etc.
History of road development

Early age road dev’t
Roads are known to have started as trails by hunters.
As civilization developed and people‟s desire for communication increased, the early trails became
pathways and the pathways evolved into recognized travel ways.
As civilization advanced, the growth of agriculture took place and human settlements began to be formed.
The invention of the wheel in 5000BC and the domestication of animals saw the advent of chariots and
carts. These carts enabled heavy loads to be carried more easily and gave rise to wider travelways with
firmer surfacings capable of carrying concentrated loads, in both lower & upper valleys.
The trackways eventually become well established trade routes and well established & drained tarmac
roads along which settlements developed and these gave rise to hamlets and villages - Some of which,
eventually, became towns and cities.
Roles of great Engineers in road development

Middle age
Pierre Tresaguet, the inspector general of roads in France was the first to recognize the importance of
drainage of roads and its methodical maintenance. He appreciated the role of moisture in soils and
pavements and how moisture affects the performance of road beds. Camber began to be introduced in
roads during his time. Thus, he can be rightly called the father of modern highway engineering.
The name of John Metcalf is associated in Britain with the art of building good and stable roads in the
latter part of the 18th century. He used boulders to achieve strong foundations for roads and spread
gravel as a surface layer. He pioneered the construction of good roads on soft ground, using a sub base
of bundles of heather (Low spreading bush with small pink-purple flowers).
Thomas Telford (1757-1834) is yet another illustrious name in road construction, immortalized by
naming the hand-packed boulder foundation of roads as Telford base. The construction technique held
the sway for nearly 150years since Telford introduced it in the early part of the 19th century.
A run of names of eminent highway engineers is incomplete without John McAdams (1756-1836).
He was a Scottish road builder who has influenced road construction so profoundly that the term
„Macadam’ is frequently used in pavement specifications even to this day. His two important principles of
good road construction were;
 It is the native soil that supports the traffic load ultimately and when the soil is maintained in a dry
state, it can carry heavy loads without settlement.
 Stones which are broken to small angular pieces and compacted can interlock each other and
form a hard surface.
Thus Mc Adam‟s specifications were at variance with Telford‟s in that, smaller pieces of stones with
angular faces were favoured than larger hand packed boulders. He is reported to have given a practical
hint to engineers in selecting the size of stones; the size is good if the stone can be put into the mouth.
How valid his advice is even to this day! Other than the innovative specifications he introduced,
Mc Adam is also remembered for his foresight in urging the creation of a central highway authority to
advise and monitor all matters relating to roads in Britain. His recommendation is valid even now in
Uganda.
19th Century Roads

A significant development which revolutionized road construction during the 19th century was the steam
road roller introduced by Eveling and Barford. The development of Portland cement in the first decades of
the 19th century by Aspin and Johnson facilitated modern bridge construction and use of concrete as a
pavement material. Tars and asphalts began to be used in road construction in the 1830‟s, though it was
the pneumatic tyre vehicle which gave a real push to extensive use of bituminous specifications.
The automobile had its slow development in the 19th century, but the First World War, 1914-18, gave
momentum to its growth. Thus the road was given a new lease of life.
ROLE OF TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTORE

1) Transport provides the place utility of goods in a country; e.g. rice in Kibimba has a lower marginal
costs than that transported to the "City. The better the road network the cheaper goods become.
ii) Time utility of goods; transport minimizes the time spent in moving goods and people. It therefore gives
time utility to economic activities.
PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF ROADS

Introduction
In any development programme, planning is a pre request before taking any step. This is very important
in an engineering project such as road development programme. This is true because transport is an
important infrastructure for development. It occupies a pivotal position in the growth of developing
countries.
Goals and Objectives of road planning/or of a good transport plan
The transport/road/highway planning is done to achieve the following:
a) To help in translating the goals and objectives of the national development plan; i.e. to plan for
anticipated future developments and social needs.
b) To provide coordinated development of all modes of transport without prompting unhealthy

competition; i.e. an efficient, safe, economic, comfortable and speeding movement of goods, services and
people.
c) To phase the road development programme for financial considerations.
d) To conserve scarce resources such as oil fuels, coal and electricity.
e) To come up with a balanced development of the country, keeping in view the special needs of
inaccessible areas and backward classes of society.
PRINCIPLES OF ROAD PLANNING

In order to achieve the above enumerated objectives, the following should be given due consideration:
a) The proposed road should form an integral part of road network of the nation
b) The importance of the road should only be determined on the basis of traffic demand
c) The road should be free to all.
d) All roads should be given due priority of maintenance over new construction
e) All roads should have provision maintenance funds on sure and sustained basis.
f) All roads should have statutory provision for traffic regulations.
Objectives of a good Transport plan

a) The transport plan should not conflict with the broad goals and objectives of the national plan for
development. It should help in translating the goals and objectives of the national development plan.
b) The transport plan should aim at coordinated development of all modes of transport without prompting
unhealthy competition.
c) The transport plan should aim at conserving scarce resources such as oil fuels, coal and electricity.
d) The transport plan should generate employment potential and should favor labor-intensive
technologies to the extent feasible and desirable.
e) The transport plan should aim at a balanced development of rural and urban settlements.
While urbanization is an inevitable result of and a pre-requisite for economic development, growth of
cities beyond manageable limits leads to undesirable effects. Transport should be used as a tool for
dispersal of activities to result in overall health of the economy.
f) Transport plans should recognize the need to exploit the natural resources of the country and provide
for quick exports to earn valuable foreign exchange to developing countries.
g) Transport plans should facilitate the growth of new industries, agricultural production and processing of
raw materials. Functional linkages between industry and hinterland should be established.
h) Environmental impact of transport plans should be established.
THE ROAD PROJECT CYCLE PLANNING

Different components of a road project may include;
1. Problem identification
2. Feasibility
3. Design
4. Procurement and negotiation
5. Implementation
6. Operation
7. Monitoring and evaluation.
Problem Identification
The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. General planning identifies key transport
constraints and sketches solutions at a global or macro level, and should prioritize these as to the need
and urgency for resolution. The need for general road development is therefore examined in a very wide
socio-economic and policy-orientated context and requires looking at aspects like;
 An urban development study (or master plan)

 A national or regional transport study (sometimes known as a multi-modal or inter-modal
transport study)
 An urban land-use/transportation study
 An integrated rural accessibility plan
 A road safety strategic plan
This will normally identify what type of project would be suitable, checks that the project is not premature
and provides the information needed to commission a feasibility study.
Feasibility (quality of being doable)

The feasibility study finds the most suitable road improvement project for solving or helping to solve an
identified transport problem.
At the start of the study there is a clearly defined problem with an expectation that the problem can be
solved by some form of road improvement, in a manner that is environmentally, socially and economically
acceptable.
The study will provide;
 Evidence that this particular project should be carried out and that this project provides the most
suitable solution to the problem, taking into account its operational benefits and its environmental
and economic implications.
 A detailed description and a preliminary engineering design (PED) and associated drawings of
the proposed project to enable costs to be determined at a level of detail to enable funding
decisions to be made.
 An input to the road preparation budget process, giving greater detail (than earlier phases) of
costs that will be incurred and project timings.
Contents of a feasibility study report
Definition of study objectives; to support developmental activity; to increase the structural capacity or
traffickability of an existing road to cope with higher traffic flows; to provide an alternative to an existing
transport link or service; or to address a major safety hazard, environmental or social problem.
Determination of alternative ways of meeting objectives; which could be upgrading and new
construction, Reconstruction and rehabilitation, Stage construction or Maintenance
Make preliminary considerations; which may include Analysis period and design life, Uncertainty and
risk, Choice of technology, Socio-economic considerations or Environmental Conditions
Assessment of traffic demand; for the purpose of geometric design, structural design and evaluation of
economic benefits
Design and cost different options; like Route location, pavement design, geometric design and design
of drainage structures. In this stage an optimal balance between cost of provision and user cost is
important.
Determine benefits of each alternative; like Direct savings in the cost of operating vehicles, Economies
in road maintenance, Time savings by travellers and freight, Reduction in road accidents, Wider effects
on the economic development of the region
Economic analysis and comparison of alternatives
ROUTE SELECTION
Introduction
The location of a new or major road requires consideration of many complex and interrelated factors and
brings together different professionals namely economists, geologists, planners, surveyors and road
engineers.
Route location consists of selecting the best compromise between demand factors and terrain
factors.
Demand factors like traffic volume data, population determine the areas to be served by the new road
standard while terrain factors influence the engineering cost.
Terrain factors include: Ground conditions, materials for construction, earthworks, drainage both surface
and subsurface and the need for structures.
The choice of route is normally associated with the problem identification and feasibility stages of the
project life cycle.
Road locations are easier to determine through low cost relatively undeveloped lands than through well-
developed rural and urban areas.
Overview of the Location Process
Once the need for a new road has been justified by the transport planning process, the approach to the
selection of an appropriate route location becomes a structured decision process.
 The first step requires the fixing of end terminal
 Then defining a region which will determine all feasible routes between these two points.
Tangible considerations that might influence the selection process include topographic, soil and
geological survey data, land usage and population distributions, travel demands and road user
costs, construction and maintenance costs and safety factors.
Intangible considerations of a political, social and environmental nature requiring extensive public
consultation may need to be considered as well.
 The next step is the determination of the centre line of the proposed road.
It is a trial and error process where trial centre lines are drawn on the strip map and are adjusted
according to the skill and judgments of the engineer. Sketching can be by the method of arcs or
the method of tangents. The process of sketching on paper should go hand in hand with field
observations.
 In order to control the construction involved, the pegs and profile boards at the centre line must
be set out at intervals of 10 to 30 m along the whole stretch of construction
 Cross section levels should be taken at right angles on both sides of the centreline ensuring the
width is greater than the proposed roadway width.
The straights would be aligned between adjacent tangent points.

 The shoulder pegs C and D, defining the road/railway width, can be set out by appropriate offsets
at right angles to the centre-line chords.
 Pegs A and B, which define the toe of the embankment (fill) or top edge of the cutting, are called
slope stakes. The side widths from the centre-line are frequently calculated and shown on the
design drawings or computer print-outs of setting-out data.
These pegs are established along with the centre-line pegs and are necessary to define the area
of top-soil strip.
Location Surveys in Non-Built-Up Areas

The approach relies on three types of survey namely: reconnaissance, preliminary location and final
location/design.
a) Reconnaissance Survey
The reconnaissance stage of the survey process takes place during the identification stage of the project
where alternative possible routes are determined in terms of the corridors in which they lie.
The first step in the reconnaissance survey is to carry out a major desk study of the bands / corridors
being evaluated within the region. The types of information typically gathered for a desk study include:
 General land survey – locating the site on maps. Dated air photographs, site boundaries,
outliners of structures, meteorological information e.t.c.
 Permitted use and restrictions – Planning restrictions of an area according to planning legislation,
local authority regulations and byelaws, ancient monuments, burial grounds, environmental
restrictions.etc.
 Approaches and access – Checking road ownership, closed railway lines etc.
 Ground conditions – Geological maps, seismicity etc
 Sources of material for construction
 Drainage and sewerage – Authorities in charge, location of sewer lines, location of storm drains
etc.
 Water supply – Authorities concerned location of existing lines etc.
 Electricity supply – Information on concerned authorities and existing lines
 Telecommunications – Information on concerned authorities and existing lines.
On completion of the reconnaissance survey the engineer should have sufficient information which when
combined with economic, environmental, planning, social and traffic inputs enable the selection of the
feasible corridor routes.
The renaissance report describes the preferred corridor routes; a state of criteria satisfied by the project,
presents tentative project cost estimates, provides provisional geotechnical maps and shows
characteristics of important engineering features. It also states special issues that may lead to design and
construction problems.
b) Preliminary Location Survey
This is the feasibility stage of the project where corridors are appraised to select the best route. In the
course of carrying out the preliminary survey, a ground survey, which is one of the approaches, the other
being an aerial survey is taken by means of traversing and leveling to produce a strip map of the
proposed corridor for the route showing the physical features along the route, locations of soft ground,
locations of water bodies, power lines, pipelines, houses, monuments etc. These are converted into a
topographic map that shows both horizontal and vertical data usually with the aid of contour lines that
enable the road alignment to be defined in both horizontal and vertical planes. The survey area should be
greater than the roadway width of the proposed route.
The next step is the determination of the centre line of the proposed road. It should fit the topography
while meeting the intended traffic service requirements. It is a trial and error process where trial centre
lines are drawn on the strip map and are adjusted according to the skill and judgments of the engineer.
Sketching can be by the method of arcs or the method of tangents. The process of sketching on paper
should go hand in hand with field observations.
Many considerations influence the choice of centreline finally selected. These include;
 In rural areas locate the road along property edges rather than through them;
 Avoid alignments that cause the motorist to drive into the rising or setting sun for long periods;
 Site the road so as to view a prominent scenic feature;
 Minimize the destruction of manmade culture, cemeteries etc;
 Avoid highly developed expensive land areas and seek alignments that cause minimum
environmental damage;
 If a vertical curve is superimposed on a horizontal curve, ensure the horizontal curve is longer;
 Avoid introducing a sharp horizontal curve at or the top of a pronounced crest curve or the low
point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. For safety reasons, make horizontal and vertical curves
as flat as possible at junctions with other roads;
 Avoid locating bridges on or near curves;
 Minimize the use of alignments that require excavation of rock;
 Balance excavation quantities with embankment quantities.
Finally cost comparisons are made of alternative alignments to assist in recommendation of the best
route.
c) Final Location Survey
The final location survey involves fixing the final, permanent centreline of the road, while gathering
additional physical data needed to prepare construction plans. The centreline that is pegged during the
final location survey should closely follow the paper location of the preliminary survey map. Levels should
be taken at regular intervals along the centreline.
This should be extended say 175m beyond the start and end of the proposed scheme.
 Cross section levels should be taken at right angles on both sides of the centreline ensuring the
width is greater than the proposed roadway width.
 The leveling data obtained in the final location survey are fundamental to the vertical alignment,
earthworks and drainage designs.
 Main ground investigations for design are carried out during the final location survey. The
subsurface investigations should provide borrow pit information.
 Benchmarks are also established during the final location survey.
d) Road location in built up areas

It takes a longer time to establish a major road in a built up area than in an undeveloped area. The search
for the line of a new road involves a combination of a reconnaissance-preliminary survey (dominated by
transport planning activities) and a final location survey.
The reconnaissance-preliminary survey involves a transport planning investigation carried out in
conjunction with a desk based physical site survey. The steps can be summarized as:
 Determine approximate traffic volume along a general corridor;
 Select road type, number of lanes to carry traffic load, level of service;
 Preliminary designs;
 Assign traffic to selected routes to determine design traffic volumes;
 Compare alternative locations using feasibility study criteria.
The final location survey is similar to the one described above for rural areas except it is more complex to
carry out. Setting out may need more complicated offsetting and reference methods.
ROAD CLASSIFICATION IN UGANDA

Roads in Uganda are functionally classified into three categories according to the type of service. The
three classes apply to both paved and unpaved roads i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary
Primary roads
These are the major arterial routes for the country.
Functions
o Interconnect principal urbanized regions
o Interconnect major centres of commerce
o Connect to major ports of entry i.e. provide transitional routing for foreign traffic and
o Connect to major international air ports
Secondary roads
These are roads which bridge the gap between regional communities and activity centres and the primary
network. They serve as collector roads for local & district council roads.
Functions
o Connect major regional commercial activity centres to the primary network
o Connect district administrative centres to the primary network and
o Connect rural feeder road systems to the primary network
Tertiary roads
These are roads that are more local in nature, providing access for local communities and rural regions to
public and commercial services, and link to the secondary network. They perform the following functions
o Connect local towns and communities to the secondary network.
o Connect rural region and small communities to administrative district centres and other public
service facilities.
ROAD NETWORK AND ITS ADMINISTRATION

Road network is an interconnected system of roads
Uganda‟s road network is approximately 88,827km and is subdivided into four categories; namely
national roads, district roads, urban roads and community access roads.
 National road network
This is the most vital infrastructure driving the country‟s economy and carries about 80% of its traffic. It
predominantly serves Uganda‟s transport by connecting the main centres to each other with in the
country and to the borders.
The ministry of works, housing & communication is responsible for the management and maintenance of
national road network. The ministry‟s role is to;
o Plan, design, construct, maintain and monitor road links, bridges, drainage and other structures
on the network.
o Supervision of road studies
o Training road sub sector personnel and programmes
o Procurement and upkeep of road construction and maintenance
o Operation and maintenance of ferry services at selected crossing points
District road network

These are roads manned by country‟s administrative districts. They link communities to commercial and
socio – economic centers and connect them to the national road network. They therefore facilitate
delivery of farm inputs, marketing of agricultural produce, delivery social and administrative services.
The ministry of works, housing & communication responsibility here is to carry out;
Macro – planning, coordinate, advocate, monitor and set standards for their construction and
maintenance, liaison with donors, training & capacity building.
Urban road network
These roads are a responsibility of the urban councils but are largely funded by the government through
the ministry of works, housing and communications which also provides technical support.
The ministry, through its districts urban roads division monitors the allocation of resources on these roads,
and the provision of technical support to the urban councils.
Community access roads
These roads are maintained by various communities (sub - counties) in the district. Maintenance works
are determined locally according to the needs of the local population. The district provides the required
technical services.
URBAN ROAD NETWORK
Early urban streets often followed existing trails and paths. Once cities were platted, urban road networks
were developed to follow the strict grid pattern imposed by the Township-Range-Section system utilized
by most communities. Suburban development and the Garden City movement of the early twentieth
century promoted curvilinear roads that followed the topography and had a romantic appeal.
As the automobile gained popularity, it created traffic problems. Increased congestion resulted in urban
streets being ranked by traffic volume. Arterial roads with high traffic volumes became highway feeders
and their maintenance and improvements were subsidized by the state or county
Networks of higher order
These include mainly motorways, express ways, arterials and all major road that carry heavy traffic at
high speeds
Networks of medium order
Radial-ring system
Here the main transport axes pass through a central point radially.
It‟s subdivided into internal and external ring networks
Internal ring network
Advantages
a) Favourable connection to surroundings

b) Possibility of traffic calmed areas in the urban centres
c) Development of central facilities via collector roads
Disadvantages
a) High traffic concentration in central area

b) Small distances between junctions of the collector road
c) Through traffic in case of multiple connections
External ring network
Advantages
a) easy implementation of road accompanying sidewalks and bicycle lanes

b) development of central zones due to coherent road networks
c) location of the high traffic density collector road outside the city
Disadvantages
a) long distances for local traffic

b) access to central institutions only via frontage roads
Grid system
Here the main transport axes form a grid.
Advantages
a) Short ways for all nodes

b) Flexibility in case of disturbances
c) Equal accessibility of areas
d) Suitable for public transport
e) Even transport distribution
Disadvantages
a) High share of through traffic

b) Difficult to influence the distribution of transport
Tangential system
Here the main transport axes are tangential to the development area 23
Advantages
a) Easy implementation of road-accompanying sidewalks and bicycle lanes

b) No through traffic on collector road
c) In certain areas Favourable connection with surrounding area
Disadvantages
a) Long distances for vehicles travelling within the road network

b) Concentration of traffic at the junction areas of the collector road with the higher ranked roads
Axial network
Advantages
a) Direct street course

b) Favourable connection to surroundings
c) Easy orientation
Disadvantages
d) Separation effect of collector roads on urban construction and non-motorised traffic
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Geometric design is an aspect of the highway design dealing with the visible dimensions of a roadway. It
is dictated, within economic limitations, by the requirements of traffic and includes the design elements of
horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, cross-section components, lateral and vertical
clearances, intersection treatment, control of access etc.
The purpose of geometric design
This is to reduce the number and severity of road accidents while ensuring high traffic flow with minimum
delay to vehicles.
The safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large extent by the care with
which the geometric design has been worked out.
Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is possible only if the design elements have been properly
considered with minimum available resources.
The basic inputs of geometric
These are the Design standards, design speed and the Design hourly volume.
The design speed governs the design of vertical and horizontal curvatures while design hour volume
governs capacity required.
Design Standards in Uganda
In Uganda they are formulated by the Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications and include;
o The Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1-Geometric Design Manual 2005.
o The AASHTO Standards represent the American practice,
o Whereas the Department of Environment (UK) standards give the current British practice.
It is important for engineers to exercise judgment in the use of a given design standard to ensure that
they come up with an economical solution for a geometric design.
Sometimes, more than one design standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design
with another so that the comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical option.
The design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting the design standards for a
highway.
 Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility ensures that the facility will not become
obsolete in the foreseeable future. Hence the volume and composition of traffic in the design year
should be the basis of design.
 Due consideration should be given to geometric design at the initial stage as Faulty geometrics
are costly, and in some cases impossible to rectify at a later date.
 The design should be consistent and compatible with the standards proposed for different road
elements. Abrupt changes in design should be avoided.
 The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs, markings,
proper lighting, intersections, etc.
 The highway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its location and
design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The highway should be
aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to control pollution.
 The design should be so selected that not only the initial cost of construction of the facility, but
also the total transportation cost, including maintenance cost and road user cost should be
minimized.
 Safety should be inbuilt into the design elements.
 The design should enable all the road users (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and animal
drawn vehicles) to use the facility. The performance of the vehicles using the facility should be
given due consideration.
Design Controls and Criteria

The basic design controls and criteria governing the geometric features of a roadway are; topography,
traffic (its volume, directional distribution, and composition, including the future estimates), speed,
capacity, design vehicle and control of access.
a) Topography
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a roadway in that,
the various design elements should be related to topographical features if an economical and sound
judgment is to emerge. The terrain can be classified
i. Flat Level or gently rolling: This offers few obstacles to the construction of a road having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope around 5%)
ii. Undulating or Rolling: This is where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently and
occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It offers some restrictions in horizontal and vertical
alignment. (20% ≥ transverse terrain slope > 5%)
iii. Mountainous Rugged: This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of
alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distances (70% ≥
transverse terrain slope > 20%)
iv. Escarpment: This class caters for those situations whereby the standards associated with
each of the above terrain types cannot be met. Escarpment situations are where it is required to
switchback road alignments or side hill traverse sections where earthwork quantities are huge
(transverse terrain slope >70%)
b) Traffic characteristics
Traffic directly affects the geometric features of design, such as widths, horizontal and vertical alignments
and indicates the need for improvement.
Traffic data for road design include traffic volumes for days of the year and times of the day as well as
the distribution of vehicles by types and by weights. The data also include information on trends from
which the designer may estimate the traffic to be expected in the future.
For low volume roads the design control is AADT in the "design year". For routes with large seasonal
variations the design control is ADT during the peak months of the "design year". The "design year" is
usually selected as year 10 or 20 after the year of opening to traffic. It is the last year of the design life of
the road or any other facility.
Design Volume
The volume of traffic estimated or expected to use a certain facility during the design year, which is 10 –
25 years in the future.
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
The total traffic volume for the year divided by 365. For two-lane rural road the total traffic in both
directions is taken.
Therefore the general unit for measuring traffic on a road is the AADT (Annual Average Daily traffic)
Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

The total volume of traffic during the given time period (in whole days), greater than one day and less
than one year, divided by the number of days in that time period. For two-lane rural road the total traffic
volume for both directions of flow is taken.
th
While a commonly used unit for geometric design is the 30 highest hourly volume abbreviated as 30 HV.
th
And it‟s defined as the 30 highest hourly volume during the year.
Hence the Design Hourly Volume (DHV) should be the 30 HV of the design (future) year chosen for
design. Exceptions may be made on roads with high seasonal fluctuation, where a different volume may
need to be used.
, Where K is estimated from the ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a
similar site.
The 30th HV is expressed as a fraction of ADT can vary as indicated in the following table.
th
Table 5-2: Traffic Condition and 30 HV as a fraction of ADT
th
T raffi c Co ndit ion 30 H V a s a fr a cti on of ADT
Rur a l Ar te r i a l ( a v er ag e v a lu e) 0. 1 5
Rur a l Ar te r i a l ( m ax im um va lu e) 0. 2 5
He a v i l y tr af f ic k e d r oa d u n der
Co n ges te d ur b an c on d it i o ns 0. 08 – 0. 1 2
Norm a l ur ba n c o nd i t io ns 0. 10 – 0. 1 5
Ro a d c at er i ng f or r ec r ea t io n a l or O t her t raf f i c of s e as o n al na tu re
0. 2 0 – 0. 3 0
The higher percentages in the table refer to roads with relatively high concentration of traffic during rush-
hours or large seasonal changes.
Future Traffic Estimates
The design of the geometric elements has to be prepared for the traffic likely to use the road in the design
year. The design period used for a flexible pavement generally varies from 15 to 25 years.
A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design. The future traffic estimates should be computed
to include current traffic (i.e. existing and attracted), normal (normal traffic growth), diverted and
generated traffic (i.e. diverted and induced).
c) Speed
Speed is a design control and criteria and is one of the most important factors to the traveler in selecting
alternate routes or transportation modes. The attractiveness of a public transportation system and a new
road are each weighed by the traveler in terms of time, convenience, and money saved and this is directly
related to speed.
Design Speed
It may be defined as the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a given section of the road
where conditions are so favorable. Design speed is a measure of the quality of a road. Geometric design
elements such as vertical and horizontal alignment (radius of curves), sight distances and super
elevation, are directly related to design speed.
It depends on topography and should be logical with respect to the adjacent land use, and functional
classification of road.
The speed adopted should satisfy nearly all drivers with exception of those few who drive at extremely
high speed.
The standard design speeds are 50km/h, 60km/h, 70km/h, 85km/h, 100km/h and 120km/h. These speed
bands are based on the premise that for a given highway, it is considered acceptable if 85% of the drivers
travel at or below the designated design speed.
Use of the 99th percentile speed would be safer but extremely expensive while use of the 50th percentile
speed would be unduly unsafe for faster travelling vehicles.
The curve depicting the cumulative distribution of speeds has a typical “S” shape. It is important to note
that designers use typical data previously obtained on similar roads.
Operating speed
Operating speed is the highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road under favorable
weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any time exceeding the safe speed
as determined by the design speed on a section-by-section basis.
Running speed
Running speed is the speed of a vehicle over a specified section of highway, being the distance traveled
divided by running time (the time the vehicle is in motion).
d) Design Vehicle Dimensions

The dimensions and operating characteristics of a vehicle profoundly influence geometric design aspects
such as radii, width of pavements, parking geometrics, etc. The weight of the axles and the weight of the
vehicles affect the structural design of the pavement and structures, as well as the operating
characteristics of vehicles on grades.
Normally chosen design dimensions are 2.5m x 5.0m by 1500kg for small saloon car.
e) Capacity
Capacity can be defined as the maximum number of vehicles per unit of time that can be handled by a
particular roadway component or section under the prevailing conditions.
It is important in design of road dimensions, number of lanes and minimum length of weaving length;
It speaks about the physical amount of vehicles and passengers a road can afford and depends on traffic
conditions, geometric design of the road etc. For example, a curved road has lesser capacity compared to
a straight road. Capacity is expressed in terms of units of something (car, people, etc.)
C = [1000V]/S
Where
C – Capacity in veh/hr
V – Design speed, kph
S – Stopping distance + average length of vehicle, m.
f) Driver performance
Knowledge of human performance, capabilities and behavioral characteristics is thus a vital input into the
design task. When a design is incompatible with human capabilities (both the driver and any other road
user) the opportunities for error and accidents
All road users do not behave in the same way and design should cater for substantial difference in the
range of human characteristics and a wide range of differences. Therefore
 A road should conform what drivers expect based on previous experience; and,
 Drivers should be presented with clear clues about what is expected of them.
The driver workload and Expectations:

The driving task is a complex task of performing several activities simultaneously based on the
information received in transit and information already possessed and making decisions and control. The
driver work load comprises of:
 Navigation: trip planning and route following;

 Guidance: following the road and maintaining a safe path in response to traffic
conditions; and,
 Control: steering and speed control
The designer must provide all the information the driver needs to make a correct decision simultaneously
ensuring that the information is provided at a tempo that does not exceed the driver‟s ability to absorb it.
ROAD ALIGNMENT
Introduction
The alignment refers to the straightness of a roadway, and is defined as the combination of horizontal and
vertical geometric elements giving the location of the road in the terrain. The horizontal elements used are
circles defined by the radius R, straights (tangents) and transition curves, normally clothoids. The vertical
elements used are grades and vertical radii R.
The basic assumption for road alignment
Is that the driver at design speed should be able to perceive any possible road hazard on or close to the
road to take action to avoid misshape.
This requires all the alignment to have good visual guidance and sufficient stopping sight distances.
There is also a need to be able to overtake slower vehicles. Parts of the road therefore require overtaking
sight distances. A basic rule is to avoid sharp bends after long tangents and other surprises to the driver
Harmony
No harmony
The road should have an inner and an outer harmony. The inner harmony means that the road should
have a satisfying, calm and graceful geometric form – considered only as a space curve without terrain.
The outer harmony requires the space curve to be tuned with the terrain and in harmony with the
landscape. The geometric elements should have the same scale as the surrounding terrain.
(a) HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the road in a horizontal plane. It
consists of a horizontal arc and two transition curves forming a curve joining two straights.
The design procedure itself must commence with fixing the position of the two straight lines which the
curve will join together.
The basic parameter relating these two straight lines is the intersecting angles.
Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the super-elevation of the
carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in most cases using a
value of 5%.
General Controls for Horizontal Alignment
The following general design considerations should be kept in mind for horizontal alignment practice:
a) The alignment should be as directional as possible;
b) The alignment should be consistent with topography and should generally conform to the natural
contours is difficult for maintenance;
c) The number of curves should be kept to a minimum, in general;
d) The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. i.e. Winding alignment consisting of short curves should
be avoided, since it is the cause of erratic vehicle operation;
e) A sharp curve at the end of a long tangent is extremely hazardous and should be avoided. If sharp
curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the route selected, it is preferable that this portion of the
road be preceded by successive sharper curves. Proper signage, well in advance of a sharp
horizontal curve is essential;
f) Short curves giving the appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for small deflection
angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide a pleasing appearance and smooth
driving on important highways. They should be at least 150m long for a deflection angle of 5
degrees, and the minimum length should be increased by 30m for each 1 degree decrease in the
deflection angle;
g) For a particular design speed, as large a radius as possible should be adopted. The minimum radii
should be reserved only for the critical locations;
h) The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut slopes, shrubs,
trees, etc., above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in estimating the extent of curvature
and fail to adjust to the conditions;
i) While abrupt reversals in curvature are to be avoided, the use of reverse curves becomes
unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately long transitional curves should be
inserted for super-elevation run-off;
j) Curves in the same direction separated by short tangents, say 300m -500m long, and are called
broken-back curves. They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in appearance and are
hazardous;
k) Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to a broken-back

arrangement, but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a single circular curve. To
ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to curve, the radius of the flatter curve should not be
disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve. A ration of 2:1 or preferably 1.5:1 should be
adopted;
l) The horizontal alignment should blend with the vertical harmoniously. General controls for the
combination of horizontal and vertical alignments should be followed.
Transition Curves
A transition curve is a curve in which the radius changes continuously along its length and is used for the
purpose of connecting a straight with a circular curve, or two circular curves of different radii.
Need for Transition
When a vehicle travelling on a straight course (i.e. R=∞) enters a curve of infinite radius, its suddenly
subjected to the centrifugal force which causes shock and sway. In order to avoid this, it is customary to
provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve, having a radius equal to infinity at the end
of the straight and gradually reducing the radius of the circular curve where the curve begins. Incidentally,
the transition portion is also used for gradual application of the super-elevation, curve widening and
improvement of the general appearance.
The transition curve is also used to achieve the following:
i. To reduce the tendency of vehicular skidding;
ii. To minimize passenger discomfort;
iii. To provide convenient sections over which super-elevation or pavement widening may be
applied;
iv. To improve the appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities in alignment at the end
and beginning of circular curves.
PROFILE
HORIZONTAL 1
STRAIGHT
R2
STRAIGHT
R1
STRAIGHT
HORIZONTAL 2
STRAIGHT
STRAIGHT
The Circular Curve
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force. The centrifugal
force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway and/or the side friction developed between
the tires and the road surface. It is recommended that curves are designed such that it is necessary for
vehicles traveling at the design speed to steer into a bend.
Super elevation
Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of a roadway throughout the length of a
horizontal curve to reduce the effects of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle; expressed as a
percentage.
Super elevation Run-off
Length of road over which super elevation is reduced from its maximum value to zero
Super-elevation on curves is intended to counteract a part of the centrifugal force, the remaining part
being resisted by the lateral friction. Also, super-elevation results in economies in maintenance. This is
because skidding and unequal pressures on the wheels of vehicles, which result from high value of
sideway force between the tyres and the roadway surface, necessitate frequent attention to the surface.
Basic formula for movement of vehicles on curves
For any given curve and speed, super elevation may be introduced to enable a component of the
vehicle's weight to reduce the frictional need; and this gives the relationship between super-elevation,
design speed and horizontal curvature
Let; M = mass of the vehicle;
v = speed of the vehicle in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
R = radius of the curve in metres;
g = acceleration due to gravity (=9.81m/s2);
N = normal force;
μ = coefficient of lateral friction;
α = angle of super-elevation;
e = rate of super-elevation, normally given as a percentage (= tanα)
C = centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force acting on the vehicle,
For equilibrium, resolving forces parallel to the inclined plane
Resolving forces perpendicular to the inclined plane
Substitute eqn.(3) into (2)
( )
Dividing all through the above equation by we obtain
The term is very small and can be ignored leading to;
or
Expressing speed as V in Km/hr
The terms and are known as centrifugal ratio and centrifugal acceleration
Maximum super-elevation Value, emax
It is desirable that the super-elevation should be such that a moderate amount of friction is developed
while negotiating flat curves and friction not exceeding the maximum allowable value should be
developed at sharp curves. Therefore designing the super-elevations to fully counteract the centrifugal
force developed at a fraction of the design speed will provide the necessary balance.
In Uganda the value is limited to 0.08 (8%) and for UK 0.07(7%)
For calculation of the minimum horizontal radius, Rmin, for a particular design speed, the following
equation shall be used:
2
VD
Rmin 
127(e   )
Where
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Cross fall of road or the maximum super-elevation
(%/100) the value of e may represent the simple removal of adverse cross fall or include super-elevation
(e = +ve for cross slopes sloping towards the inside of the curve and otherwise -ve).
= Coefficient of side friction force developed between the vehicle‟s tires and road pavement
For no extra super-elevation to be attained,
Method of Attainment of Super-elevation

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super-elevation surface in two
stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level.
It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting point of the
transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not exceeding 1 in 150 for plain
and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.
In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the full super-
elevation:
a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centre-line of the carriageway, gradually lowering the inner
edge and raising the outer edge while keeping the level of the centreline constant.
NB: In most circumstances this method is generally used because it results in the least distortion of
the pavement, details shown in the figure.
b) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the outer edge;
c) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the inner edge;
Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of 400m for a design
speed of 100kph in plain terrain. Comment on the results. What is the coefficient of lateral friction
mobilized if super-elevation is to be restricted to 7%.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Curve Radius, R = 400m
b) Design Speed, V = 100kph
c) Maximum super-elevation, e = 7%
2.0 Maximum Elevation, emax
According to the UK practice, the super-elevation is calculated on the assumption that it should 45% of
the centrifugal force developed at 67.082% of the design speed.
Therefore from equation
3.0 Comments on the Result

Since, as per UK practice, the maximum super-elevation allowable is 7%, then the computed super-
elevation is too high and should be restricted to 7%. The balance of the centrifugal force will be taken
care of by the friction which is mobilized. If μ is the coefficient of friction, then from
Widening on Curve
Reasons for pavement widening on curved portions of the road
(a) The vehicle or truck occupies a greater width because rear wheels generally track inside the front
wheels (off-tracking) in rounding curves,
(b) The driver experience difficulty in steering their vehicles to keep to the center line of the lane.
(c) Drivers have a psychological shyness to drive close to the edges of the pavement on the curves
Therefore; Widths should be increased on certain horizontal curves
i. To allow for the swept paths of trucks;

ii. To allow drivers to maneuver when approaching other vehicles;
iii. To make operating conditions on curves comparable to those on tangents
The required amount of Carriageway widening is dependent on the characteristics of the vehicles using
the road, the radius and length of the curve and lateral clearances.
Widening on curves and on high fill
Widening for curve should be applied on the inside of a curve and be gradually introduced over the length
of the transition. Fill widening shall be applied on both sides of the road.
Curve widening should be attained gradually over a length sufficient to make the whole of the
carriageway fully usable, also to ensure a reasonably smooth alignment of the edge of carriageway and
to fit the paths of vehicles entering or leaving the curve.
The Spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the most popular and recommended for
use in this country is the spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate of acceleration is uniform
through the length of transition. The Figure below shows the main elements of a circular curve provided
with spirals for transition at its two ends.
Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions
Where;
φmax = Spiral angle
θ = Deflection angle
T = Tangent length
R = Radius of circular curve
S = Shift
L = Length of Spiral (or transition curve)
I = Point of intersection
T = Beginning of spiral
T1 = Beginning of circular curve
T2 = End of circular curve
U = End of spiral
Important properties of a spiral are:
( )
Length of Transition curve
The length of the transition should be determined from the following two considerations:
i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause discomfort to the
drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration then:
Where;
aT1 = Radial acceleration at T1( ⁄ )
aT = radial acceleration at T (= 0)
t = time taken ( ⁄ )
Substituting the above in eqn. 1 gives
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
From which the length of transition curve, L is given by
and
3
The value of C is usually taken as 0.3m/s . But normally vary between (0.2 - 0.6)
ii) The rate of change of change of super-elevation should also be such as not to cause higher gradients
and unsightly appearances. This could be kept in 1 in 150 for roads in plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60
for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super-elevation can be given by rotating about the centreline, inner or
outer edge, the length of the transition will be governed accordingly. In calculating the length of transition,
the pavement width should include any widening that may have been provided at the curve.
Widening on Curves
From Figure, considering the triangle OCB, right angled at B,
2
Neglecting m , since it is small gives;
The widening due to psychological reasons is a function of speed and can be assumed to be given by the
empirical formula, Wp;
√
Where; V = speed in kph; R = radius in metres
The total widening for pavements, W e is given by the following formula:
( ) ( )
√
Transition length
Where; W= pavement width = w + W e; e = super-elevation, S = longitudinal gradient, and eo =

camber, w = un widen pavement width.
NB; If radius, R < 300m, extra widening, We, of the carriageway is required.
The higher of the values given by the above two methods should be adopted.
Example
A two-lane (7.0m wide) pavement on a National highway in hilly terrain has a curve radius of 250m. The
design speed is 80kph, maximum super-elevation is 7%, camber is 2.5%, the relative longitudinal
gradient is 0.5% (1 in 200), and the angle of deviation is 60o and the rate of change of radial acceleration
is 0.3m/s3. Determine the following assuming that; a) the curve will need to be widened if the curve radius
is less than 300m, b) the super-elevation is obtained by rotation about the centre line, and c) the design
vehicle is a DV-2 single unit truck with a wheel base of 6.1m.
i) The length of transition curve;
ii) The tangent length
iii) The total length of the curve.
Solution
Data Summary
a) Pavement width, W = 7.0m
b) Curve Radius, R = 250m
c) Design Speed, V = 80kph
d) Maximum super-elevation, emax = 7%
e) Camber, eo = 2.5%
f) Relative longitudinal gradient, S = 0.5%
g) Angle of deviation, θ = 60o
h) Rate if change of radial accn., C = 0.3m/s3
Transition Length, L
Based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, for safety and comfort;
Based on the rate of change of super-elevation, Ls
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
√ √
Therefore;
Adopt L = 146.319m since La > Ls. (i.e. take the greater of the two values)
Tangent Length, T
The tangent length T is given by;
( )
But
( )
Total length of the horizontal Curve, L T

The total length LT is given by;
Where; Lc is the length of circular curve, and L is the transition length;
{( ) ( )}
{ ( )}
From which;
Example 2;
a) Define the design speed

b) What factors govern the design speed?
c) Calculate the length of a transition curve and the shift using the following data;
Design speed 70km/hr.
Radius of the circular curve = 230m
2
Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration 0.6m/s ;
Allowable rate of change of super elevation 1 in 150;
Pavement width including extra widening 7.25m
(b) CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

The cross-sectional elements of a road design pertain to those features which deal with its width. They
embrace aspects such as road reserve width, carriageway width, central reservation (median), shoulders,
camber, side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc.
Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements
Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements

Road Prism
The cross sectional area bounded by the original ground level and the sides of slopes in cuttings and
embankments excluding the pavement.
Road Reserve
The road reserve or right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved in public interest for
road development purposes. The road reserve should be adequate to accommodate all the elements that
make up the cross-section of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development.
A „control line‟ is a line which represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled activity in relation to a
road.
A „building line‟ on the other hand is a line on either side of the road between which no building activity is
permitted at all.
Roadway
This is the Part of the road comprising the carriageway, shoulders and median.
Road Width
A measurement at right angle to the centreline incorporating travelled way, shoulders and, when
applicable, central reserve;
Carriageway Width
The term “carriageway” is used here Part of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and auxiliary
lanes but excluding. The width of traffic lanes governs the safety and convenience of traffic and has a
profound influence on the capacity of a road.
The factors that influence capacity of a carriageway are:
o The design volume, i.e. the greater the traffic volume the wider the carriageway and,
normally, the greater the number of lanes;
o Vehicle dimensions, i.e. heavy commercial vehicles require wider carriageways to ensure
adequate clearances when passing each other;
o The design speeds, i.e. vehicles travelling at high speed, especially commercial vehicles,
require wider carriageways to ensure safe clearances between passing vehicles;
o The road classification, i.e. the higher the road classification the greater the level of
service (and width of carriageway) expected.
Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least 3.5m, although
narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on both rural and urban roads.
However, increasing the lane width up to 3.65m on two lane two way rural roads decreases accident
rates.
Central Reservation (Median) Strip
A central reservation strip is the longitudinal space separating dual carriageways. The functions of the
median strip are:
a) To separate the opposing streams of traffic;
b) To minimize head-light glare;
c) To include space for safe operation of crossing and turning vehicles at intersections at grade;
d) To provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
In urban areas they can be as narrow as 1m, but 3m is preferred so that a crossing pedestrian pushing a
pram or wheelchair has space to wait in safety. On severely restricted arterial streets, where a narrow
separator of 0.6 – 1.2m is feasible, it may be desirable to have few, if any, openings in median except at
intersections.
Shoulders
A shoulder is a portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway and is intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface courses. The width of the
shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped vehicle. American practice
recommends a 3m width for high type facility and a width of 1.2m - 2.4m for low type facilities. UK practice
for rural roads recommends widths ranging from 1.2m to 3.65m depending upon the road type and nature
of Kerb treatment.
Shoulders are intended to perform the following purposes:

 To provide additional maneuvering space on roads of low classification and traffic flows;
 To provide parking space at least partly off the carriage for vehicles which are broken down;
 Safety margin to enable drivers to recover control;
 To enable non-motorized traffic (pedestrian and cyclist) to travel with minimum encroachment on
the carriageway;
 To provide lateral support of pavement structures; and,
 To act as moisture egress barrier.
Kerbs
A Kerb is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or shoulder, forming part of gutter,
strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the edge to vehicle operators.
It is sometimes called a Curb which is a Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the
edge of the roadway or footway.
Its functions are:

a) To facilitate and control drainage;
b) To strengthen and protect the pavement edge;
c) To delineate the pavement edge;
d) To present a more finished appearance;
e) To assist in the orderly development of the roadside.
Kerbs are classified as „barrier‟ or „mountable‟. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage vehicles from
leaving the pavement. The face may be vertical or sloping and the height may range from
15cm to 25cm. Mountable kerbs are those which can be easily crossed by vehicles if required.
They are used at medians and channelizing islands.
Camber
Is a crown or a high point in the middle which slopes downwards towards both edges; Camber is also
known as cross fall, facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally.
The amount of camber to be provided depends upon the smoothness of the surface and the intensity of
rainfall. In the UK, a value of 2.5% is generally adopted for design. A cross fall for the shoulders should
be generally steeper than for the pavement by about 0.3 – 0.5% to facilitate quick drainage. The UK
practice is to provide 5% slope on the shoulder.
Crown
This is the highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway.
Side slope
This is the area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the ditch bottom.
They enable accurate determination of maximum slopes at which embankments or cuts can safely stand.
A flatter slope is conducive for erosion control, but is costly. Flatter slopes of embankments promote
safety of traffic. Ordinarily, 1.5:1 to 2:1 in mild slope conditions and 2:1 to 3:1 in overwhelming slope
conditions will be adequate.
Laybys and bus bays

Part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes for short periods.
Laybys should be located at sites with good visibility and provided with tapered hard-strips at either end to
assist in the safe deceleration and acceleration of vehicles using them.
British practice provide 2.5m and 3m wide by 30m long laybys at 1.5km and 5.8km intervals, respectively,
on either side of the carriageway, while 3m wide by 100m long laybys are provided at approximately 1km
intervals on each side of dual carriageways.
Full bus bays (3.25m by at least 12m, plus 20m end tapers) may be provided at bus stops in urban areas;
however, the appropriateness of this provision is dependent on the traffic volumes on the road in
question.
Climbing Lane
An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving vehicles and to facilitate overtaking,
thereby maintaining capacity and freedom of operation on the carriageway
In Uganda, however, climbing lanes are recommended for use if the design truck speed decreases more
than 20 km/hr. under the truck speed limit.
Service roads
In the larger trading centres and towns it is recommended that service roads be provided. A typical
service road design is illustrated below. The local access traffic is kept separate from the through traffic,
and the service road provides space for parking, unloading and loading, bus stops, and informal trading.
Footway Footway Service road

>= 2.0 m Main road >= 2.0 m typically 6.0 m
Shop
Drain Drain
Drainage channels
Good drainage is essential to protect the road from damage. Drainage channels include (a) road side
channel running parallel to the road and in cut sections to remove water from the road cross section; (b)
toe of slope channel to convey the water from any cut section and from adjacent slopes to the natural
watercourse; (c) intercepting channels placed back of the top of cut slopes to intercept surface water;
and, (d) chutes to carry collected water down steep cut or fill slopes
(c) VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Vertical alignment design refers to the arrangement of tangents and curves which compose the profile of
the road. It is composed of a series of straight-line gradients connected by curves, normally parabolic in
form. The main aim of vertical alignment is to ensure that a continuously unfolding stretch of the road is
presented to motorists so that their anticipation of directional change and future action is instantaneous
and correct.
Crest curve
Major Requirements of Vertical Curves
The two main requirements in the design and construction of vertical curves are the provision of:
• Adequate visibility, and
• Passenger comfort and safety.
In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road must be seen
clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design speed can stop or overtake safely.
This requirement is achieved by use of sight distances and K-Values. K –Value is the Ratio of the
minimum length of vertical crest curve in meters to the algebraic difference in percentage
gradients adjoining the curve.
In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle traversing a vertical
curve must be minimized. In crest curve design this effect could cause the vehicle to leave the road
surface (e.g. in hump-back bridges) while in the sag curve the underside of the vehicle would come into
contact with the surface, particularly where the gradients are steep and opposed.
The result is discomfort and danger to passengers travelling. This can be minimized by:
• Restricting the gradients; this has the effect of reducing the radial force;
• Choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced force is introduced gradually and
uniformly as possible.
PROFILE
Rv
HORIZONTAL
PROFILE
Rv
HORIZONTAL
Sag curve
General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment
The following general controls for vertical alignment should be kept in view while designing the vertical
profile of a highway:
o The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with the
class of highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades should be
avoided;
o The „roller-coaster‟ or „hidden type‟ of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous and
aesthetically unpleasant;
o Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should be
appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy trucks to
operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded by a down grade,
but may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent hazard to traffic;
o A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short
section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
o On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the
bottom and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be broken by
short intervals of flatter grades;
o Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, the
approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be flattened to the
maximum possible extent.
Equation of a Vertical Curve
A simple parabola is recommended when modeling vertical curves. The parabola provides a constant rate
of change of curvature, and hence visibility, along its length. The vertical curve is of the form:
Where;
Vertical Curve Examples

Question one
The elevation of an intersection of rising gradient of 1.5% and a falling gradient of 1.0% on a proposed
road is 93.600m AOD. Given that the K-Value for this particular road is 55, the through stationing of the
intersection point is 0 + 671.340 and the vertical curve is to have equal tangent length. Calculate:
a) The through stationing of the tangent points of the vertical curve if the minimum required length is to be
used.
b) The elevations of the tangent points and the elevations at exact 20m multiples of through stationing
along the curve.
c) The position and level of the highest point on the curve.
ROAD INTERSECTIONS
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross, within which
are included the roadway and roadside design features which facilitate orderly traffic movements in that
area.
An intersection leg is that part of any one of the highways radiating from an intersection which is outside
of the area of the intersection.
The importance of intersection design stems from the fact that efficiency of operation, safety, speed,
cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by the design. Since an intersection involves conflicts
between traffic in different directions, its scientific design can control accidents and delay and can lead to
orderly movement of traffic. Intersections represent potentially dangerous locations from the point of view
of traffic safety. It is believed that well over half the fatal and serious road accidents in built-up areas
occur at junctions.
Design principles of intersections:
o The number of intersections should be kept to a minimum. If necessary, some minor
roads may be connected with each other before joining a major road;
o The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers are
eliminated. This can be achieved by various techniques such as channelizing and
staggering;
o The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from traffic
signs about which path he/she should follow and the actions of merging and diverging.
This can be achieved by good layout, traffic islands, signs and carriageway markings.
Good visibility improves safety;
o The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths. Smoothness, in contrast to abrupt and
sharp corners, should guide minor streams of traffic into stopping or slowing down
positions;
o The number of conflict points should be minimized by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements;
o Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequate space at the junction.
Types of intersections or junctions
1. At-grade Grade
This is an intersection where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
2. Grade Separated intersections
An intersection layout which permits crossing manoeuvres at different.
Factors considered for the choice between an at-grade and grade separated intersection at a
particular site.
o Traffic
o Economy
o Safety,
o Aesthetics,
o Delay etc.
Grade-separated junctions
Generally are more expensive initially, and are justified in certain situations. These are:
a) On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways;
b) Certain at-grade intersections which have reached the maximum capacity and where it is not
possible to improve the capacity further by retaining the at-grade crossing;
c) At certain locations which have a proven record of bad accident history when functioning as at
grade junctions;
d) At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy and the delays and economic loss caused justify
the provision of grade-separation;
e) At certain specific topographical situations where it is logical to provide a grade-separated
structure rather than an at-grade intersection, which may involve considerable earthwork or
acquisition of land.
Basic Forms of At-grade Intersections
Intersections can be divided into the basic forms shown in Figure below.
Basic forms depending on design aspect

These intersections can also be divided according to whether they are controlled, priority controlled (stop,
Give Way), space-sharing (i.e. roundabouts), time sharing (i.e. traffic-signal controlled), or grade-
separated (including interchanges)
i. Unchannelised T-Intersection
The Unchannelized design is suitable for intersections where there is a very small amount of turning
traffic. It is the simplest design and has no traffic islands.
ii. Partly channelized T-Intersection

The partly channelized design is for intersections with a moderate volume of turning traffic. It has a
traffic island in the minor road arm. In urban areas, the traffic island would normally be curbed in order to
provide a refuge for pedestrians crossing the road.
iii. Channelized T-Intersection

The fully channelized design is for intersections with a high volume of turning traffic or high – speeds.
It has traffic islands in both the minor road and the main road.
Typical T-Intersections
ii) Control Intersections

Control intersections are mostly used in towns and trading centres where high traffic volumes are
expected. There are two types of control intersections:
Signalized Intersection
Signalized intersections have conflicts separated by traffic signals. No conflicts are allowed between
straight through traffic movements.
Roundabout
Roundabouts are controlled by the rule that all entry traffic must give way to circulating traffic.
The ratio of minor road incoming traffic to the total incoming traffic should preferably be at least 10 to
15%. Roundabouts can be of normal size, i.e. with central island radius 10 m or more or small size, i.e.
with central island radius less than 10 m.
Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts)

A roundabout is a form of channelization intersection in which vehicles are guided onto a one-way
circulatory road about a central island. Entry to the intersection is controlled by Give Way markings and
priority is now given to vehicles circulating (clockwise in Uganda) in the round about.
The main objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between crossing
traffic streams with the minimum delay. The operating efficiency of a roundabout depends upon entering
drivers accepting headway gaps in the circulating traffic stream. Traffic streams merge and diverge at
small angles and low relative speeds. For this reason, accidents between vehicles in roundabouts rarely
have fatal consequences.
a) General Usage of Roundabouts
Roundabouts are most effective as at grade intersections in urban or rural areas that have all or a number
of the following characteristics:
 High proportions and/or volumes of right turning traffic;
 Priority is not given to traffic from any particular road;
 Presence of accidents involving crossing or turning movements;
 Traffic on the minor roads is delayed by the use of „Stop‟ or „Give Way‟ signs;
 Where they cause less overall delay to vehicles than traffic signals;
 Where there is a marked change in road standard e.g. from a dual to a single carriageway road.
Roundabout intersections are not appropriate at the following sites:
o Where there is inadequate space or unfavourable topography that limits a good geometric design;
o Where traffic flows are unbalanced, e.g. at major/ minor T-Intersections;
o Where they follow a downhill approaches. The approach should be at least a 2% grade and
should be flattened at least 30m to the intersection.
o Where there are heavy volumes of vehicular traffic and where there is heavy cyclist and
pedestrian traffic
o Between traffic controlled signal intersections which could cause queuing back into the
roundabout exits.
Design Features of Roundabouts
 For small roundabouts, the central island should be approximately 1/3 of the inscribed circle
diameter (1/3D);
 At larger sites the proportion should be >1/3 to limit the circulatory width to a maximum of 15m;
 The circulatory width around the roundabout should be constant at about 1.0 to1.2 times the
highest entry width subject to the above maximum of 15m;
 Steep downhill gradients should be avoided at roundabout approaches;
 The frequent occurrence of roundabouts on high speed rural roads should be avoided;
 Mini roundabouts must only be used at existing junctions where there are space limitations and
where the 85 percentile approach speed on all approaches is less than 50km/hr;
 Entries should be flares. Single and two lane approaches should become 3 and 4 lanes
respectively at the give way line;
 The entry flare taper should be approximately 1 in 3. Each lane should be 2.5m to 3.5m wide at
the give way line dependent on site conditions. The taper width at the Give Way line should never
be less than 3m. The best entry angle is approximately 30 degrees. Lanes may be tapered to 2m
width (minimum) on the roundabout approaches;
 The entry width of an approach arm at a roundabout is one of the major factors apart from
approach carriageway half width that affects capacity. Flares on the approaches to roundabouts
should be designed in such a way that maximum entry widths are not greater than 10.5m on
single carriageway roads and 15m on dual carriageway approach roads. A typical flare length on
a rural road is 25m. The length can be as low as 5m on urban roads;
 Pedestrian crossing places (including zebras) should normally be within the flared approach but
as far from the Give Way line as pedestrian convenience will allow. This reduces the road width
to be crossed by pedestrians. A central refuge should always be provided wherever possible. A
deflection island may fulfill this function but should be at least 1.2m wide;
 Pedestrian guard rail should be used, where necessary to control haphazard pedestrian crossing
of the traffic streams. It also improves safety.
Overview of the intersection Design Process

The at-grade intersection design process involves data collection of both traffic and site conditions, the
preparation of preliminary designs from which a layout is selected, and the development of the final
design using appropriate design standards.
Traffic data gathered for design purposes normally include peak period volumes, turning movements and
composition for the design year, vehicle operating speeds on the intersecting roads (these are needed for
sight-distance/ speed-change lane design) pedestrian and bicycle movements (these affect the
layout/traffic control design), public transport needs (e.g. bus priority measures and bus stop locations
affect the layout/traffic control design), special needs of oversize vehicles (the selected design may have
to cope with the occasional heavily loaded commercial vehicle with a wide turning path), accident
experience (if an existing intersection is being upgraded), and parking practices (especially in built-up
areas).
Site data collected typically include topography, land usage, and related physical features (natural and
manufactured), public and private utility services (above and below ground), items of special interest (e.g.
environmental, cultural and historical features), horizontal and vertical alignments of intersecting roads
(existing and future), sight distances (and physical features which limit them), and adjacent (necessary)
accesses.
The preliminary design phase is essentially an iterative one. It involves preparing a number of possible
intersection layouts and generally examining each in terms of its operating characteristics (especially
safety and capacity), ease of construction and likely capital cost, and environmental and local impacts
that might affect the design selection. The most promising of the rough layouts are then selected for
further development and analysis (including road user and vehicle operating costs, if appropriate), refined
and examined in greater detail until that considered most suitable for the intersection is selected for
detailed design and preparation of final construction plans and specifications .
Sample questions;
Question 1
With the following data, calculate the total widening on the horizontal curve for a two lane road
Design speed 85km/hr.
Radius of the horizontal curve = ruling minimum radius
Lateral coefficient of friction ;
Maximum allowable rate of change of super elevation = ⁄ ;
Pavement width = 7.0m
Any other data required may be assumed
Question 2;
A rural 2 lane single carriage way has a design speed of 100km/hr. a vertical crest curve is to be
designed to connect two tangents of gradient 3.5% and 2.5% which intersect at a level of 95.80m AOD;
determine:
i. Minimum curve length

ii. Position and height of erect point
iii. The height of the curve at 30m intervals if the vertical tangents intersect at chainage of 650.00m
and K value is 55
Question 3
a) What is a transition curve

b) List down the objectives of providing transition curves
c) Explain the methods of providing super elevation. Sketch where possible
d) What are the aims of surface dressing? Discuss surface treatment.
Question 4
a) What is the procedure of constructing earth roads?

b) With the aid of sketch, show how you can construct any of the following gravel roads
c) What are the guiding principles in the geometric design
Question 5
a) Mention three qualities of a joint filler

b) Give procedures of filling potholes in paved roads
c) Using diagrams show the elements of a flexible pavement and explain the functions of each
Question 6
a) What are the principles of road planning?

b) What engineering studies are kept in mind under road planning surveys
c) What urban road patterns do you know? Sketch where possible
d) State any five factors are considered in the selection of the type of a base and surfacing in a road
Question 7
a) Mention any five draining structures

b) Mention any three significances of having good drainage system on a roadway
c) What are the principle considerations governing the choice of a binder
d) What do you know about the following?
i. Bitumen
ii. Cut back bitumen
Question 8
a) Differentiate between at grade intersection and grade separated intersection

b) Define the following terms related to road construction
i. Central reservation strip (median)
ii. Kerb
iii. Shoulder
iv. Climbing lane
c) Compare and contrast between Tar and Bitumen
Question 9
Stabilization is one of the methods used in preparation of materials applied in certain layers of flexible
pavement;
a) Why is soil stabilized? What are the key criterions that determine the method of stabilization to
use in general?
b) Describe the steps you would undertake as a construction engineer on site to construct a lime
stabilized road base
ROAD DRAINAGE
Drainage is very important to the life of a road pavement and the safety of road users.
Its main objective is to protect the road and the adjacent land against potential damage from storm and
subsurface water. Drainage elements should generally be free of obstructions and should maintain their
design cross sections and grades.
Principles of good drainage
Water is a major factor that causes road failure and it must be kept away from a road bed. To do this the
following principles must be adhered to:
a) The surface runoff over the pavement surface and shoulders should be drained away as quickly
as possible, preventing the water from finding entry into the pavement layers from the top and
into the subgrade from top and sides.
b) Precipitation over the open land adjoining the road should be led way from the road through
natural drainage channels or artificial drains. Also suitable cross drainage channels should be
provided to lead the water across the road embankment which may be cutting across the natural
drainage courses.
c) Consideration should be given to deal with the precipitation on the embankment and cut slopes
such that erosion is not caused.
d) Seepage and sub-surface water is detrimental to the stability of cut slopes and bearing power of
subgrades. Similarly, it can be of great importance in preventing frost action. An effective system
of subsurface drainage is guarantee against such failures.
e) Landslide prone zones deserve special investigations for improving drainage.
f) Poor embankment soils can perform satisfactorily if drainage is considered in the design
g) Water logged and flood prone zones demand detailed consideration for improving the overall
drainage pattern of the area through which the road is aligned
Problems of Improper or no drainage in a road system
a) Increases the risk of skidding and long braking distances in wet conditions,
b) Reduced wind screen visibility as a result of splashing from the tyres of other vehicles especially
commercial vehicles.
c) Results into road deterioration by weakening the soil around drainage structures and softening it
thereby causing loss of strength in terms of reduced bearing.
Main functions of Drainage
A good and well maintained drainage system plays the following main functions:
a) To convey rain water from the surface of the carriageway to outfalls;

b) To control the level of water table in the subgrade beneath the carriageway;
c) To intercept ground and surface water flowing towards the road;
d) To convey water across the line of the road in a controlled fashion.
The first three functions are performed by longitudinal drainage components; in particular side drains
while the fourth function requires cross drainage structures such as culverts, fords, drifts and bridges.
Road Drainage Terminologies
The Labour Based Maintenance Contractor Training Module (MoWH&C, 2003) defines the following
drainage terms:
a) Side drains; Side drains run along the road and collect the water from the carriage way and adjoining
land and transport it to a convenient point of disposal.
b) Mitre drains; Mitre drains (or turnout drains) let the water out of the side drains and safely dispose it
on adjoining land. Mitre drains should be provided as often as possible so that the accumulated water
volume in each drain is not too high and does not cause erosion to the adjoining land.
c) Catch water drains; where the road is situated on a hill side, a significant amount of rain water may
slow down the hill towards the road. This may cause damage to the cut face (back slope) of the road and
even cause landslides. Catch water drains intersect or catch surface water flowing towards from the
adjacent land and lead it away.
d) Scour Checks; Scour checks prevent erosion on side drains from stiff gradient by slowing down the
water. Scour checks are usually built using local available material, such as stones or wooden sticks.
e) Culvert; A culvert is a transverse drain built under the road and its function is to lead water from the
upper, uphill side to the lower, valley side. In tropical countries with high rainfall, 3-4 culverts are required
per kilometer. Culvert rings are usually made of concrete or prefabricated corrugated steel rings.
Classification /Types of drainage systems
Road drainage works may be classified into the following three categories which are to be discussed
hereafter:
1. Surface drainage;
2. Sub-surface drainage; and
3. Cross drainage.
Surface drainage
This takes care of the process of safely dispersing surface water from the road prism.
Sub- surface drainage
This caters for water beneath the pavement that may weaken it if not provided with drainage paths to lead
it away from underlying pavement layer.
Cross drainage
Cross drainage is used to control storm water within a watershed area.
Surface Drainage
The object of surface drainage is to remove storm water from the roadway so that traffic can move safely
and efficiently. Under this category, surface water is intercepted and diverted into a natural channel or
depression. If it„s not done, the surface water will flow along the road or across it causing erosion.
The major types of surface drainage
1. Open or ‘Over the edge drainage’ which is constructed over embankment slopes and into open
ditches or preformed channel blocks. It is mainly used in rural roads and should never be used
where a footpath is adjacent to the carriageway.
2. Kerbs and Gutters; here, vertical kerbs and sloping gutters are used to form triangular channels
that carry the runoff water to inlets in gulley pits. They are normally used in urban areas.
a) Forms of Open (or Over the Edge) Road Drainage

Longitudinal drainage can be classified into various forms of open road side drainage channels basing on
the various functions they perform. These include:
i) Ditches: - these are channels provided to remove the run off from the road pavement, shoulders, and
cut and fill slopes. Its depth should be sufficient to remove the water without risk of saturating the
pavement subgrade. It may be lined to control erosion. Unlined ditches should preferably have slopes not
steeper than 1:4.
ii) Gutters: - they are the channels at the edges of the pavement or the shoulder formed by curb or by a
shallow depression. They can be paved with concrete, bricks, stone blocks or other structural materials.
iii) Turnouts: - they are sometimes referred to as mitre drains„. They are short open and skewed ditches
or gutters. They are used to reduce the sizes of the side ditches and minimize velocity of water and
thereby the risk of erosion. They are provided at intervals depending on the runoff, permissible velocity of
the water and slope of the terrain.
iv) Chutes: - they are also open, lined channels or closed pipes used to convey water from gutters and
side ditches down fill slopes and from intercepting ditches down cut slopes. Their interval of placing
depends on the capacity of gutter or ditches.
v) Intercepting ditches: - they are sometimes referred to as cut off drains. They are located on natural
ground near the top edge of a cut slope or along the edge of the right – of – way. They serve to intercept
the runoff from hillsides before it reaches the road. Intercepting the surface flow reduces erosion of cut
slopes and roadside ditches, lessens silt deposition and infiltration in the roadbed area, and decreases
the likelihood of flooding the road in severe storms.
Sub-Surface Drainage
Under this category, the seepage or subsurface water is intercepted and removed to a safe place by
installation of intercepting drains and provision of drains to keep the water table about 1.5 metres below
the formation. The main aim sub surface drainage is to prevent changes in moisture content of the
subgrade as the increase in the moisture content reduces the bearing strength of subgrade.
A road with a poorly drained sub-surface will undergo pavement distress in the form of surface cracking,
rutting and potholes in the outer parts of the pavement especially in the wheel paths of heavy commercial
vehicles. When the moisture content of the subgrade increases, its strength decreases.
The variations in moisture content are caused by: seepage of water from higher adjoining ground,
penetration of moisture through the pavement, and percolation of water from shoulders, pavement edges,
and soil formation slopes. These are ways in which free water enters the pavement. As concerns ground
water entry, moisture variation is caused by rise or fall of underground water table, capillary rise of
moisture in retentive types of soils like clay and transfer of moisture vapour through soils.
MEASURES /WAYS OF WATER PAVEMENT INGRESS CONTROL

In controlling seepage flow, if seepage level reaches a depth of 0.60m – 0.90m from the road subgrade, it
should be intercepted to keep the seepage line at a safe depth below the road subgrade. This is done
where the surface of the ground and the impervious layer embedded below it is sloping towards the road.
In controlling capillary rise, the water table should be lowered by placing a granular layer of suitable
thickness can be inserted between the subgrade and the highest level of water table during construction.
The thickness of the granular layer should be such that the capillary rise of the water remains within this
layer. However, it should be noted that if the water table is more than 1.5m below the subgrade of the
road, it will not require any sub soil drainage.
Cross Drainage
Under this category of drainage, water of natural drainage under the road is intercepted and disposed off
using road drainage structures like culverts and bridges for high discharge and greater linear way.
Cross drainage structures can be very costly and it is therefore important to analyze all major cross
drainage along an alignment before final selection of the new road alignment. Where there is a choice in
the selection of the position of a stream crossing, it is desirable that, as far as possible, the stream is
located
a) On a straight reach of the stream, away from bends;
b) As far as possible from the influence of large tributaries;
c) On a reach with well-defined banks;
d) At a site which makes a straight approach road feasible;
e) At a site which makes a right angle crossing possible.
In order to determine the requirements for cross drainage, information must be collected and predictions
made about level of traffic and the likely flow of water passing under the road. The following types of
structures should be considered:
i) Ford; this utilizes a suitable river bed and is appropriate for shallow slow moving water courses with
little probability of flash floods, traffic volumes up to 100veh/ day.
ii) Drift; it consists of a concrete slab constructed in the river bed which would otherwise be unable to
carry vehicles. It is suitable as a crossing for rivers that are prone to flash floods, traffic volumes up to 100
vehicles/ day.
iii) Culverts; it consists of a concrete or steel pipe or a reinforced concrete box, placed under the road
within an embankment to provide a suitable means of conveying streams, or the contents of side drains
under the road with no restriction on traffic. The common forms of concrete culverts in Uganda are the
Portland Cement Concrete type with sizes ranging from 600mm- to- 1200mm and the reinforced concrete
box culvert. Common steel pipes include corrugated galvanized steel pipes also known as Armco culverts
iv) Bridge; this may have a super structure on timber ,concrete, and /or steel on masonry, concrete or
timber, abutments and will be required for crossing streams or rivers where cross culverts would provide
insufficient capacity, or where the road crosses an obstruction such as a railway or canal protected.
ROAD PAVEMENTS
The road pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed material
whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade. This is to ensure that the stresses
transmitted to the subgrade do not exceed its support capacity. Road traffic is carried by the pavement,
which in engineering terms is a horizontal structure supported by in situ natural material. The engineering
properties of the local rock and soil are established, particularly with respect to strength, stiffness,
durability, susceptibility to moisture, and propensity to shrink and swell over time. The relevant properties
are determined by either field tests, by empirical estimates based on soil type, or by laboratory
measurements. The material is tested in its weakest expected condition, usually at its highest moisture
content. Probable performance under traffic is then determined. Soils unsuitable for the final pavement
are identified for removal, suitable replacement materials are earmarked, the maximum slopes for
embankments and cuttings are established, the degree of compaction to be achieved during construction
is determined, and drainage needs are specified. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the in
situ soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively termed the
subgrade.
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will guarantee
adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the pavement does not become
overstressed during the design life of the highway.
The major variables in design of a road pavement are:
a) The thickness of each layer in the pavement;
b) The material contained within each layer of the pavement;
c) The type of vehicles in the traffic stream;
d) The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life;
e) The strength of the underlying subgrade.
Types of Pavements
Pavements are called either flexible or rigid depending on their relative flexural stiffness
Flexible Pavements
These pavements are rather flexible in their structural action under loading. They are surfaced with
bituminous or asphalt materials. Flexible pavements consist of several layers of materials and rely on the
combination of layers to transmit load to the subgrade. As a result of this action, flexible pavements
distribute load over a small area of subgrade.
Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements are made of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC). The concrete slab ranges in thickness
from 6 to 14 inches. These types of pavements are called rigid because they are substantially stiffer than
flexible pavements due to PCC‟s high stiffness. As a result of this stiffness, rigid pavements tend to
distribute load over a relatively wide area of subgrade. The concrete slab that comprises a rigid pavement
supplies most of its structural capacity.
In deciding whether to use flexible or rigid pavements, Engineers take into account lifetime costs, riding
characteristics, traffic disruptions due to maintenance, ease and cost of repair, and the effect of climatic
conditions. Often there is little to choose between rigid and flexible pavements.
Elements of a Flexible Pavement and their significance
Definition of Pavement layers

A flexible pavement is built up of layers namely; surfacing courses, road base, sub-base, capping layer
and subgrade.
Surfacing
The surfacing forms the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous surface
dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but resists abrasion and the
impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition.
The functions of this layer are;
Provision of a safe and comfortable riding surface to traffic,
Taking up wear and tear stresses caused by traffic, provide a water tight surface against infiltration of
water,
Provide a hard surface which can withstand tyre pressure.
Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing course and the base
course (or binder course)
Road base
The road base is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most important layer
of a flexible pavement. It distributes the applied wheel load to the subgrade in such a way that the bearing
capacity of the subgrade soil is not exceeded. This layer requires higher quality material often obtained by
stabilizing sub-base materials. It will normally consist of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils,
decomposed rock, sands and sand-clays stabilized with cement, lime or bitumen.
Subbase
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the roadbase. It will normally consist of a material
of lower quality than that used in the roadbase such as unprocessed natural gravel, gravel sand, or
gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer since its presence is justified by the
insufficiency of the subgrade or reliability.
Major uses include:
a) Distribution of stresses to the subgrade; as a result the sub base material must be stronger than
the subgrade material;
b) Acts as a drainage layer in case of poor subgrade. A good drainage layer should be able to drain
very fast if water is logged, but also must be able to retain some moisture in times of extreme
drought;
c) Serving as a separating layer preventing contamination of the roadbase by the subgrade material;
d) Under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the subgrade from damage by
construction traffic;
e) Preventing capillary attraction effect.
The sub-base is omitted when the subgrade is a hard intact rock or if it is granular and has a CBR greater
than 30% and has no high water table.
Capping Layer (Selected or Improved Subgrade)
A capping layer may consist of better quality subgrade material brought in from somewhere else or from
existing subgrade material improved by mechanical or chemical stabilization. It is usually justified where
weak soils are encountered.
Subgrade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders including kerbs are
constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the embankment or cut-section is referred to as
the subgrade [Bindra, 1999].
It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. The loads on
the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade layer; it is therefore, essential that the layer should
not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires preparation to receive layers on top either by
stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce required pavement thickness or designing and constructing
a sufficiently thick pavement to suit subgrade strength. The subgrade strength depends on the type of
material, Moisture content, dry density, internal structure of the soil particles, and type and mode of stress
applied [TRL, 1993]. The major factors that influence pavement thickness are; design wheel load,
strength of subgrade (and other pavement materials), climatic and environmental factors [Singh, 2001].
The Pavement Design Process
The overall process of designing a road consists of the following steps:
• Surveying possible routes which are part of the feasibility study process;
• Assessing traffic;
• Measuring subgrade strength;
• Selecting pavement materials;

• Selecting the type of pavement structure to use including drainage system.
The three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement are discussed below.
Summary of the Pavement Design Process
PAVEMENT MATERIALS
1) Bitumen Bound
These are common types of bituminous materials commonly referred to as premixes, which are
manufactured in asphalt mixing plants and laid hot.
The most important pavement materials include bitumen and tar, cement and lime, rock and gravel
aggregates. The surfacing course consists of coarse aggregates, fine aggregate, bitumen / tar and/or
cement or lime. The coarse aggregate should be produced from crushed, sound, un-weathered rock or
natural gravel. Crushed aggregates should be from crushed rock or natural sand clean and free from
organic impurities
Qualities of Good bituminous mixes;
a) High resistance to deformation,
b) High resistance to fatigue
c) Ability to withstand high strains (i.e. they need to be flexible),
d) Sufficient stiffness to reduce the stresses transmitted to the underlying pavement layers,
e) Good durability,
f) Low permeability to prevent water and air penetration,
g) Good workability to allow adequate compaction.
Bituminous Road Binder Materials
Two basic types of bituminous binder exist:
i. Bitumen – obtained from the oil refining process;
ii. Tar – obtained from the production of coal gas or manufacture of coke.
With the decreased availability of tar, bitumen is the most commonly used binding/water resisting material
from the oil refining process.
Bitumen
Bitumen is a viscous liquid or semi-solid material consisting of hydrocarbons and their derivatives which
are soluble in trichloroethylene. Bitumen is available as penetration grade bitumen, cutback bitumen, and
bitumen emulsions.
Most bitumen used on roads is penetration grade products of fractional distillation of petroleum products
at refineries. Penetration grade bitumen range from 15 pen (Hardest) to 450 pen (softest).
The medium grades (35-70 pen) are used in hot rolled asphalts and the softer grades (100-450 pen) in
macadam’s.
They are black or brown in colour, possess waterproofing qualities and adhesive properties and soften
gradually when heated i.e. its binding effect eliminates the loss of material from the surface of the
pavement and prevents water penetrating the structure.
Modified Binders
In order to apply the binder effectively, its stiffness must be modified during the construction phase of the
pavement. Two such binder modifications used during surface dressing are cutback bitumen and bitumen
emulsion.
i) Cutback Bitumen
Penetration grade bitumen is normally heated to very high temperatures (typically 140-180oC) for use in
road pavements.
Cutback bitumen capable of being applied at ambient temperatures with little or no heating is applied.
Cutback Classification
Slow-curing, medium curing and rapid curing depending on the nature of volatile solvent used to prepare
them. Medium curing cutback bitumen is applied in surface patching dressing, maintenance patching
purposes and open textured bitumen macadams that allow the solvent to evaporate quickly because they
are porous.
The medium curing cutback is produced by blending kerosene or creosote with a 100, 200 or 300 pen
bitumen. After application, the solvent dissipates into the atmosphere leaving the cementitious bitumen
behind.
ii) Bitumen Emulsions

Bitumen can be made easier to handle by forming it into an emulsion where particles of it become
suspended in water. These emulsions are applied in surface dressing and premix work. Their advantage
is that they can be applied on damp surfaces.
Road Tar
Road tar is a black viscous liquid with adhesive properties that is obtained by the destructive distillation of
coal, wood, and shale at temperatures well beyond 600oC. Destructive distillation is the application of
heat in the absence of air.
The major difference in their manufacturing processes is that bitumen is obtained from the oil refining
process while tar is obtained from the production of coal gas or the manufacture of coke.
Differences between bitumen and tar:
a) Tar coats aggregates and retains it better in the presence of water than bitumen;
b) Tar is less susceptible than bitumen to the dissolving action of petroleum solvents and would last
longer in places like parking yards that are susceptible to fuel spills;
c) Tar is more temperature susceptible than bitumen and has a narrower working temperature
range;
d) Tar is more readily oxidized than bitumen when used in surfacing materials unless very well
compacted.
2) Aggregates
For road construction, aggregates play a role in bearing the main stresses occurring in the road pavement
as a result of application of static, traffic or dynamic loads, the necessity of the geological production and
testing of aggregate properties and characteristic must be carefully assessed if the aggregates are to
meet the required purpose. Aggregates are obtained from natural rocks that occur as rock outcrops,
gravel or sand. The physical properties governing the suitability of aggregates for use differs not only
widely in each group but also often show considerable variation in samples taken at different times from
the same parent rock.
Aggregate properties and their significance:
a) Road aggregates should be strong enough to withstand stresses caused by traffic loads;
b) Offers resistance to abrasive action of traffic, normally in the wearing of coarse;
c) They take up subjected wheel impact loading;
d) Aggregates should be capable of standing test of time by resisting weathering agents e.g. rain
during the design life of the road;
e) Cubical-angular aggregates are normally preferred because of their high affinity for bitumen and
water.
The coarse aggregates used for making premix should be produced by crushing sound, un-weathered
rock or natural gravel. The specifications for the aggregates are similar to those for granular roadbases.
The aggregate must be clean and free of clay and organic material. To obtain good mechanical interlock
and good compaction the particles should be angular and not flaky. Rough-textured material is preferable.
Gravel should be crushed to produce at least two fractured faces on each particle. The aggregate must
be strong enough to resist crushing during mixing and laying as well as in service. Aggregates which are
exposed to traffic must also be resistant to abrasion and polishing. Highly absorptive aggregates are
wasteful of bitumen and give rise to problems in mix design. They should be avoided where possible but if
there is no choice, the absorption of bitumen must be taken into account in the mix design procedure.
Hydrophillic aggregates which have a poor affinity for bitumen in the presence of water should also be
avoided. They may be acceptable only where protection from water can be guaranteed. The fine
aggregate can be crushed rock or natural sand and should also be clean and free from organic impurities.
The filler (material passing the 0.075 mm sieve) can be crushed rock fines, Portland cement or hydrated
lime. Portland cement or hydrated lime is often added to natural filler (1-2 per cent by mass of total mix) to
assist the adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate. Fresh hydrated lime can help reduce the rate of
hardening of bitumen in surface dressings and may have a similar effect in premixes.
Surface Dressing
Surface dressing comprises a thin film of binder, generally bitumen or tar, which is sprayed onto the road
surface and then covered with a layer of stone chippings. The thin film of binder acts as a waterproofing
seal preventing the entry of surface water into the road structure. The stone chippings protect this film of
binder from damage by vehicle tyres, and form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free wearing surface.
Surface dressing is a very effective maintenance technique which is capable of greatly extending the life
of a structurally sound road pavement if the process is undertaken at the optimum time. It also retards the
rate of failure of a structurally inadequate road pavement by preventing the ingress of water and thus
preserving the inherent strength of the pavement layers and the subgrade.
Selection of Bitumen for Surface Dressing
The correct choice of bitumen for surface dressing work is critical. The bitumen must fulfill a number of
important requirements. They must:
a) be capable of being sprayed;
b) 'wet' the surface of the road in a continuous film;
c) not run off a cambered road or form pools of binder in local depressions;
d) 'wet' and adhere to the chippings at road temperature;
e) be strong enough to resist traffic forces and hold the chippings at the highest prevailing ambient
temperatures;
f) remain flexible at the lowest ambient temperature, neither cracking nor becoming brittle enough
to allow traffic to 'pick-off' the chippings; and
g) Resist premature weathering and hardening.
DETERIORATION AND FAILURE OF ROADS

Road deterioration involves the worsening of roads over a period of time due to various causes.
Deterioration leads to defects and subsequent failure of the road structure.
Deterioration modes of paved roads
There are two basic failure modes namely;
Non - structural failures
Are those related to wearing course material failures due to weather or material decomposition of the
upper pavement layers.
Structural failure
Are failures of the various pavement layers or shear failure of the subgrade. They are caused by
overstressing due to loading of the pavement. The deterioration is worsened by drainage system allowing
ingress of water to the subgrade causing a reduction in the shear strength of the subgrade.
In structural terms, the primary causes of pavement failure are related to the design process.
Deterioration of the carriageway (rutting, potholes, corrugations)

Ruts are the longitudinal depressions along the carriageway. They form on the wheel path commonly
followed by the traffic & sometimes high temperatures. The narrower the carriageway, the more ruts will
develop.
Potholes are depressions found randomly distributed over the carriageway. They occur on sections of
the road where the road base has been exposed to high moisture levels. They are most formed by effect
of traffic and water. Potholes cause driving over the carriageway to be bumpy and rather dangerous.
Approach to permanent repair of potholes on paved roads
o Remove all mud, dust, leaves and loose material
o Cut holes to a regular shape with all sides vertical or undercut
o Paint the interior surfaces with a thick coat of bitumen emulsion, hot bitumen or cold thixotropic
bitumen
o Slightly overfill the hole with coated macadam
o Fully compact the material in layers not exceeding 75mm using a plate rammer or vibrating roller.
o Seal all the surface joint with bitumen approximately 50mm wide.
Corrugations are transverse wave patterns occurring on the carriageway formed mainly during the dry
season on gravel or earth roads on which high proportions of loose material exists. carriageway. As the
traffic passes, the loose material is pushed into regular lumps across the road.
Silting of the drainage system

Silt accumulates in the drainage channels or culverts leading to the malfunction of the drains or total
blockage of the system.
Erosion of the drainage system

This involves the loosening of exposed soil material (mainly in drainage channels or surface region) and
their wash away by the erosive force or effect of water resulting to loss of useful material from the road.
CAUSES OF ROAD DETERIORATION

The main causes of damage to a road include the following:
Water
The damaging effect of water may arise in the following ways:
1. Stagnation of water in depressions (flat surfaces) on the road leading to infiltration into the lower (base)
layers. As water infiltrates, it soaks and softens the gravel and base course, or the subgrade material
causing the layers to fail by the punching effect of the traffic load.
2. Scouring or erosion of the steep sections of the road by running water.
3. In flat sections of road, runoff water in the drains will not be able to flow fast enough, resulting into
settlement or deposition of silts in the drains, which normally build up to fill or block the drains.
Traffic
Traffic is the second main cause of road deterioration, and their damaging effect is as follows:
1. Traffic load causes deformation of the roadway. Vehicles often follow the same wheel tracks along the
road. These repeated loading results into deformation (ruts) along the carriageway.
2. Material (gravel) loss through displacement by traffic. The higher the traffic the higher the rate of loss of
gravel.
3. Over time, traffic causes closely spaced ridges (corrugations) to form across the width of the road
called corrugations.
Gradients (very steep or very flat)
The steepness or flatness of the road section will accelerate the deterioration of the road by effects of
water above. Flat terrain or road sections cause stagnation of water on the surface or in drains thus
accelerating failure of road as explained above. Steep grades accelerate the erosion process.
Poor pavement construction
The poor construction resulting from poor workmanship, material, inadequate level of construction and
poor supervision result in weakness in the road pavement structure or drainage structures which will
accelerate their deterioration and failure.
Vegetation
In flat areas, tall grass in side drains slows the speed of running water enabling silt to settle and deposit in
and eventually block the drain. Tall grass, trees and bushes obstruct drivers view resulting into accident
hazards especially around corners.
JOINTS IN PAVEMENTS
Joints are deliberate planes of weakened inset into the pavement. They are constructed in concrete
pavements due to the following reasons:
o To permit construction and expansion of the concrete under the action of the temperature and
moisture changes.
o To relieve warping and curling stress due to temperature differential.
o To prevent unsightly irregular breaking of the pavement.
o As a construction expedient to allow for the breaking in constructional end of the day‟s work.
o To allow the pavement to be laid in lines of the convenient width.
Broadly joints can be divided into following two types.
a) Longitudinal joints. These joints are provided parallel to the center line of the road.
b) Transverse joints. These are provided at right angles to the center line of the road.
Joints can also be classified into following categories according to the primary purpose for which they
are installed in pavements.
o Expansion joints
o contraction joints
o warping joints
o construction joints
As far as possible the number of joints should be kept to the minimum because the construction of joints
involves considerable amount of extra work and is liable to interfere with the progress of concreting.
The requirements of a good joint can be listed as follows;
1) A joint should be water proof all times

2) A joint should not permit ingress of stone grits
3) Joint must be permitted to move freely at all times.
4) A joint should not detract from the riding quality of a carriage way.
5) A joint should interfere as little as possible in concreting.
6) A joint should not be the cause of an unexpressed structural weakness in a pavement.
Expansion joints
They are intended to provide space in the pavement for expansion of the slabs; expansion takes place
when the temperature of slabs rises above the value when it was laid. It is normally a transverse joint.
Expansion joints also relieve stresses caused by contraction and warping.
Contraction joints
When the temperature of concrete falls below the laying temperature, the slab contracts if a long length of
slab is laid, the contraction induces tensile stress and the slab cracks. If joints are provided at suitable
intervals transversely, the appearance of crack and places other than the joints can be eliminated.
Contraction joint is to relieve warping stresses to some extent. A groove joint is a popular form of
construction joint and is illustrated in the figure
The features of this joint are
o The surface groove formed by driving a flat metal plate when the concrete is green is not less
than 6mm wide depth and has a depth equals to one forth the depth of the pavement.
o A sea ling compound to prevent ingress of external material
o A dowel- bar arrangements to adequately transfer the load across the joint. This is a dispensed
with and considered that the aggregate inter lock is able to transfer the load. When the
contraction takes place, the concrete slab cracks at the predetermined location in the portion
below the groove as indicated in the figure above.
Warping joints
This is also known as hinge joints which are intended to relieve warping stresses. They permit hinge
action but no appreciation separation of adjacent slabs, warping joints can be longitudinal or transverse.
A major difference between the warping joints and the expansion or contraction joints is that in the
former appreciable changes in the joint width are prevented. This is achieved by continuation of
reinforcing steel through the joint or by the installation of the bars across the joint .A tongue and the
groove longitudinal warping joints is illustrated in figure below.
Construction joint
It becomes necessary when work has to be stopped at a point where there would be otherwise no joint. It
is advisable to plan a day‟s work such that work stops at contraction or expansion. Such joints should be
regular in shape placing a cross – form in a position.
The reinforcement should be continued across the joint. A groove in the joint with a sealing compound will
rest the entry of foreign matter and is desirable.
Longitudinal joints
These are joints provided parallel to or along the length of the pavement.
When the pavement width is more than 5m, it is necessary to provide a longitudinal joint and construct
the pavement in strips. These joints allow for warping and uneven settlement of the sub grade; the very
purpose of the longitudinal joints, being to reduce warping stresses and uneven settlements. Load
transfer is done by the tie bars (12.5mm to 25mm diameter), at 60cm centres and of length 1m. These
bars are fully bonded. The joint is of a butt-type. Alternatively a tongue and groove joint may be provided
with suitable tie rods 12.5mm diam. And 1m long hang and 60 – 75cm centres. The rods are fully
bonded.
Spacing of joints
This is governed by a number of factors such as;
a) Temperature variations
b) Thickness of slab
c) Amount of reinforcement provided
EARTH WORK AND PREPARATION OF SUBGRADES
SOIL STABILISATION
This is any treatment applied to a soil to improve its strength, reduce its vulnerability to water and to
withstand stresses imposed by traffic under any weather conditions without deformation.
Or is the process of treating a soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter or improve the performance of
the soil as a construction material.
The change in the soil properties is brought about by either the incorporation of additives or by
mechanical blending of soil types.
The stabilising process involves the addition of a stabilising agent to the soil, intimate mixing with
sufficient water to achieve the optimum moisture content, compaction of the mixture and final curing to
ensure that the strength potential is realized.
Purpose of soil stabilization
This is practiced in road construction with one or more of the following objectives:
 To improve the strength or the stability of the soil.

 To control dust, erosion or stabilize moisture in the soil, so as to facilitate compaction and
increase load bearing capacity /property.
 To improve the shear resistance of soil
 To bring about cost economy in building and road construction
 To improve porosity susceptibility or alter permeability characteristics of the soil
 To reduce compressibility and thereby settlements
 To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such as excessive
swelling or shrinkage, high plasticity, difficulty in compacting etc.
 To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are otherwise inferior;
 To reduce frost susceptibility
Problems associated with Stabilization;
o Traffic, thermal and shrinkage stresses can cause stabilized layers to crack.
o Cracks can reflect through the surfacing and allow water to entre the pavement structure
o If carbondioxide has access to the material, the stabilization reactions are reversible and the
strength of the layers can decrease.
o The construction operations require more skill and control than for the equivalent unstabilised
material.
Methods or forms of stabilization
1. Mechanical or granular stabilization
Eg. Compaction, consolidation, and blending
2. Chemical stabilization
Eg. Cement, lime, soda ash, admixture, bitumen
Mechanical stabilization
This is where mechanical energy or physical effort is used in improving the quality of a soil mass.
It is accomplished by mixing or blending the available soil with imported soil or aggregates of different
gradation so as to obtain a desired particle size distribution, and by compacting the mixture to a desired
density.
Mechanical stabilization is the most commonly applied method because it enhances maximum usage of
locally available materials.
Mechanical stability is brought about by the resistance property of the granular structure to lateral or
vertical displacement. i.e. inherent cohesive and internal friction properties of proportions of raw materials
that are admixed. (i.e. cohesion by clays and internal friction by coarser materials like gravels, sand)
Methods of mechanical stabilization
(a) Compaction
(b) Consolidation
(c) Blending
(a) Blending
Stability is attained by mixing or blending the soil with imported material or aggregates as to attain the
desired particle size distribution. Mechanical stabilization is evident in; soil – aggregate mixtures, sand-
gravel mixtures, sand-clay roads, stabilization of soil with soft aggregates.
Soil – aggregate mixtures
This is a material in which soil and aggregate particles are mixed in suitable proportions such that the
resulting mixture conforms to a dense and stable mix. The particle-size distribution is a major factor
determining the stability. The aggregates should be so graded that a grain to grain contact exists,
producing internal friction. The technique is used for low traffic roads for the surface course as well.
(b) Consolidation
This is associated with increase in density of the soil due to gradual expulsion of water from the soil pores
by pre - loading it. The purpose of consolidation is to sufficiently reduce soil settlement by improving its
bearing capacity.
Consolidation methods include;
o Surcharge method – consolidation is accelerated by adding a sufficient quantity of an extra

load/fill over the soil to attain the ultimate settlement predicated for the height of the embankment
or land during construction. The surcharge material is removed after a desired settlement has
been achieved.
o Dewatering – lowering of the underground water table. This can be done by use of cofferdams,
sheet pilling, sub - surface drainage methods – i.e. drains
o Dynamic method – use of heavy load vibrators, rollers, and rammers;
(c) Compaction
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the particles closer together with
a reduction in the volume of air by means of rollers, rammers or vibrators;
NB (i) There is no significant change in the volume of water in the soil.
(ii) The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density, i.e. the mass of
solids only per unit volume of soil given by;
The major purpose of compaction is to reduce the volume of air voids so as to increase soil density
Proper compaction improves the field mass of the soil in the following ways;
Higher shear strength and bearing capacity
Low compressibility
Higher CBR valve
Lower permeability
Factors affecting compaction

Water content/moisture content

The energy supplied by the compaction equipment (referred to as the compactive effort).
Nature of the soil
Method of compaction
Admixtures
Moisture content
For low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to compaction. As water content
increases, the soil particles get lubricated and the soil mass become more workable hence the soil
particles attain closure parking.
The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in water content till the optimum water content is
reached. At this stage, the air voids attain approximately a constant volume such that; further increase in
water content, the air voids don‟t decrease but the total voids increase and dry density decreases.
Thus a higher dry density is achieved upto optimum water content due to forcing out air from soil voids.
Nature/type of the soil
In general, the coarse grained soil can be compacted with a higher dry density than fine grained soils
With addition of small quantity of fine to the coarse grained soils, the soil attains much higher dry density
for the same compactive effort.
However, if the quantity of fine is increased to a value more than that required to fill the voids of coarse
grain soil, the maximum dry density reduces.
A well graded soil attains much higher dry density than a poorly graded soil.
Compactive effort
The effect of increasing the amount of compaction effort is to increase the max dry density and to
decrease the optimum water content
At the water content less than optimum, the effects of increase compaction is more predominant.
At water content greater than optimum, the air voids volume become almost constant and the effect of
compaction is not significant.
Method of compaction
For the same amount of compactive effort; the dry density will depend on whether the method of
compaction neutralizes kneading action, dynamic action, or static. E.g. in a compaction test, the soil
compacted by kneading action, the compaction curve obtained is different from that obtained from
compaction test with equal compactive efforts.
Different methods of compaction give different curves consequently line of optimum value is also
different.
Chemical stabilization
This is a general term implying the use of chemicals for bringing about stabilization. The additives used
are lime, cement, sodium silicates, calcium chloride, bituminous materials and resins. The different
material used formulates the different types or methods of chemical stabilization and include methods
like
o Cement stabilization,
o Lime and
o lime – pozzolan stabilization,
o Bituminous stabilization
Selection of type of treatment
The selection of the stabilizer is based on,
 Type of soil to be stabilized;- The plasticity and Gradation or particle size distribution of
materials
 to be treated
Basing on particle sizes, coefficient of uniformity , should be greater than 5 or else

stabilization will be very expensive
For low plasticity soils, cement would be very good,
For high plasticity soils, lime is appreciable
 Quality of the material to be used;- - free from organic compounds,
- Detect whether additives can be added or not
- Strength and durability required
 Construction aspects/situation;- - divert traffic in lime and no traffic diversion for
cement
 stabilization as it cures fast
 The purpose for which the stabilized layer will be used
 Environmental conditions
 The cost
Lime stabilization
Lime stabilization is done by adding lime to a soil. It is useful for stabilization of clayey soils. When lime
reacts with soil, there is exchange of cations in the absorbed water layer and a decrease in plasticity of
the soil occurs. The resulting material is more friable than the original clay and is therefore more suitable
as sub grade. The amount of lime required for stabilization varies between 2 to 10% of the soil.
Lime is produced by burning of limestone in kilns. The quality of lime obtained depends upon the parent
material and the production process.
Quick lime is more effective as a stabilizer than hydrated lime, but the latter is more safe and convenient
to handle therefore more generally used.
The higher the magnesium content of the lime, the less is the affinity for water & the lesser the heat
generated during mixing.
Lime stabilization is is not suitable for effective for sandy soils. However, these soils can be stabilized by
combination with clay, fly ash or other pozzolanic materials which serve as hydraulically reactive
ingredients. The ratio of fly ash to lime generally varies between 3 to 5.
Types of limes; - quick lime (CaO), Hydrated lime or slaked lime (Ca(OH) 2), dolomitic lime(CaO + MgO)
Normal hydrated dolomitic lime [(Ca(OH)2 + MgO)] etc.
Cement stabilization
Cement stabilization is done by mixing pulverized soil and Portland cement with water and compact the
mix to attain a strong material. The material obtained by mixing the soil is known as soil – cement. The
soil cement becomes hard and durable structural material as the cement hydrates and develops strength.
Factors affecting cement stabilization
Type of soil – granular soils with sufficient fines are easily pulverized & mixed hence good for cement
Stabilization and reverse is true.
Silty & clayey soils can produce soil cement but those with a high clay content difficult to
pulverize; also the quantity of cement increases with increase in clay content hence
quality of soil cement is not good cause of high shrinkage properties.
Quantity of cement – a well graded soil requires about 5% cement, whereas poorly graded, uniform sand
may require about 9%, non-plastic silts about 10% and plastic clays may need 13%
cement. The quantities determined by laboratory tests.
Quantity of water – this should be potable & sufficient for cement hydration, & making the mix workable.
Mixing compaction & curing – the success of cement stabilisation depends on degree of mixing,
compaction effort and curing period.
Bituminous stabilization
This is generally done with asphalt as binder.
Bitumen is a non – aqueous system of hydrocarbon that is soluble in carbon disulphide. Tar is one
obtained by destructive distillation of organic materials such as coal. Asphalt is a material in which
primary components is natural or refined petroleum bitumen.
Factors affecting cement stabilization
Type of soil – effective in stabilizing sandy soils with less or no fines and cohesive soils with plastic limit
less than about 20% and the liquid limit less than 40%.
Amount of asphalt – the quantity of bitumen stabilized soil improves when the amount of the asphalt is
excessive; it results in a highly fluid mixture that can be properly compacted.
Mixing – the quality of the product improves with more through mixing.
Compaction – the dry density of the bitumen soil depends on the amount and type of compaction. It also
depends upon the volatile content
Construction method
The construction of stabilized layers follows the same procedures whether the stabilising agent is cement,
lime or mixtures of lime – pozzolan. After the surface of the layer has been shaped, the stabilizer is
spread then mixed through the layer; sufficient water is added to meet the compaction requirements and
the material mixed again. The layer must be compacted as soon as possible, trimmed, re-rolled and then
cured.
In detail;
Spreading the stabilizer
This can be manually by „spotting‟ the bags at predetermined intervals, breaking the bags and then raking
the stabilizer across the surface as uniformly as possible.[ more good for lime as more uniform distribution
is attained]. Alternatively, mechanical spreaders can be used to metre the required amount of stabilizer
onto the surface.
Mixing
Robust mixing equipment of suitable power for the pavement layer being processed is capable of
pulverizing the soil and blending it with the stabilizer and water.
Plant pre-mixing gives the possibility of better control than in-place spreading and mixing provided that
the plant is close enough to the site to overcome possible problems caused by delays in delivery.
Graders are used for mixing stabilized materials but they are in efficient for pulverizing cohesive materials
and considerable numbers of passes are needed before the quality of mixing is acceptable. They are
therefore slow & only to be considered for lime stabilized layers because of lime greater workability and
subsequent diffusion thru‟ the soil aggregation.
Compaction
A stabilized layer must be compacted as soon as possible after mixing, in order to realize its full strength
potential and density without overstressing the material. If the layer is over stressed, shear planes will be
formed near the top of the layer and premature failure along this plane is likely, particularly when the layer
is only covered by a surface dressing.
For multi-layer construction, layers not greater than 200 or lower than 100mm thick should be carefully
compacted as to avoid carbonation at the surface of the bottom lift.
The compaction operation should be completed within 2hrs.
Curing
Spraying can be more efficient curing system if a layer of, 30 to 40mm thick, is first spread on top of the
stabilized layer. If this is done, the number of spraying cycles per day can reduce thereby saving the
amount of water to be used. After 7days, the sand is brushed off and the surface primed with a low
viscosity cutback bitumen.
Proper curing is very important for three reasons;
It ensures that sufficient moisture is retained in the layer so that the stabilizer can continue to hydrate.
It reduces shrinkage
It reduces the risk of carbonation from the top of the layer.
Construction procedures of stabilized pavements
Construction techniques for different soil- stabilized pavements depend on number of factors like;
o Type of stabilization
o Type of binder, if any to be added
o Type of soils
o Leads involved for the materials
o Magnitude of the project
o Availability of equipment
o Availability of labour
Basing on the above mentioned factors, two construction techniques can be identified;
(a) Mix in place method
In this method of construction, mixing of soil cement is done at the place where it would finally be placed.
It consists of the following steps;
o The undesirable materials are cleared such as top soil, boulders, debris or stumps. It‟s then
leveled to the required formation level.
o The leveled subgrade is scarified to a depth equal to the proposed thickness of the soil
cement.
o The scarified soil is the pulverized till at least 80% of the soil passes 4.75mm sieve. It can be
done either manually or with the help of a machine.
o The pulverized soil is properly shaped to the required grade and the required quantity of
cement is spread uniformly over the surface. It is then intimately mixed dry with rotary tillers
or special soil mixtures.
o The required quantity of water is sprinkled over the surface and wet mixing is done till the
mixture has a uniform colour. The operation should not last longer than 3hrs.
o Compaction is done using suitable methods. The thickness of the layer should not be more
than 150mm. compaction, the surface is properly finished.
o The compacted soil is moist cured for at least 7days by providing a bituminous primary coat.
(b) Plant mix method
Travelling plant can move along the road under construction. The soil after placement of cement over it, is
lifted up by an elevator and discharged into the hopper of a mixer of the travelling plant. Water is added
and proper mixing is done. The mix is then discharged on the subgrade and spread by a grader. It is the
properly compacted.
MECHANICAL PLANTS
Earthworks
Construction of new roads, especially major highways, nearly always involves the movement of soil and
rock prior to building the road pavement
Earthwork operations may be classified as:
o Clearing and grubbing
o Excavation
o Construction of embankments
o Compaction
o Finishing operations
Clearing and grubbing
This is also referred to as Site Clearance and Stripping
Clearing and grubbing involves the removal of trees, stumps, roots, debris, etc. from the area of proposed
excavation and embankment. Clearing refers to the removal of material above the existing ground
surface. Grubbing is the removal of objects to a nominal depth below the surface. On equipment-based
road projects, clearing and grubbing operations are generally performed by bulldozers with various
attachments. A considerable amount of hand labour may also be necessary.
Excavation
This is the process of loosening and removing rock or earth from its original position and transporting it to
a fill or waste deposit. Excavation is often divided into three categories: road and drainage excavation,
excavation for structures and borrow excavation.
Reduced Level Excavations
This is carried out below over site level to form surface on which to build and can consist of both cutting
and filling operations. The level to which the ground is called the formation level on small site hand or
manual method can be used and on all site mechanical methods could be used. A bulldozer for cut and
fill operations could be used. Graders can also be used to give accurate and neat formation level.
For narrow excavation primarily for strip foundation and buried services like electric cables, water
service, telephone cables etc; can be carried out by hand or machine. If the depth of excavation
exceeds 4.5m, some methods of removing spoil from the excavation will have to be employed.
Factors considered in the choice of excavation
- Volume of work
- Nature of material to be excavation and how far it has to be hauled
- Climatic conditions
- Time framework to deliver work

- Type of work ,e.g deep excavation
- Availability of labour
- Government policy.
Excavation can be carried out into two ways.
a) Manual methods using hand held tools such as picks, shovels and wheel barrows. This is
practical on small sites
b) ii. Mechanical methods. This can be used on all sites. The actual plant employed being
dependent on factors such as volume of soil involved, nature of sites and time element.
Mechanization of the construction industry
Why the trend in mechanization in the construction industry
Prestige
Owning particular types plant gives recognition and elevation class wise among follow contractors.
Reliability
Plants once well maintained are more reliable and consistent in their productivity unlike men who may fall
sick and not turn as per plan or for their own reasons refuse to give notice to their bosses for their
absence.
Higher productivity
Given other factors constant, plants definitely produce more than men per unit time.
Nature of work
There are particular types of works like piling, grading, sheet piling, construction under water, tunneling
where it is inevitable for machine use.
Quality of work
Plants give higher level of quality, workmanship and accuracy more than men.
Expensive Labour
In some parts of the world, labour is scarce, the social behavior and economic factors have made man
prefer less hours of working and more hours towards social life. This has made man less available in a
day. Plants can work as long as you can decide although with limitations far ahead of man‟s availability.
Overall cost
The money needed to pay , maintain and motivate a worker [i.e. salary, allowances, housing, transport,
medical etc. insurance social, security funds ] is a lot compared with what the company may have to
provide to maintain the plant [maintenance, training] ; There‟s no automatic guarantee of higher
production from man despite the motivation .
Competition
The getting of jobs by a contractors is increasingly becoming more difficult competitive. The quotation
must be as low as possible.
Size and complexity of work
Where large volumes of work needed to be execution in rather shorter period, this will necessitate the use
of machines [tunneling, services installation s in urban areas, concrete dams road construction etc]
Government policy
This allows a contractor to off –set as much as 1ow taxes in the first year of purchase. This is intended to
modernize construction industry to try and bring it up with the level of the regions. Taxes and
depreciations on plant and equipment are closely linked. Depreciation allows the companies to write off a
portion of an investment against current income. This reduces the amount of taxable and thereby frees
up funds for other uses [e.g. invest in additional equipment, etc]
Growths of plant hire companies
There‟s a growing trend of the plant hire company in this country which saves the contractor from locking
up large sums of money in the purchase and maintenance of Plant .A contractor today finds it easy to hire
only those plants he/she needs at particular times or during the peak periods during execution of works.
Convenience
You decide when to use the plant that type to use. How long to use it etc. In other words, is at ones
disposal.
Fatigue
Eliminate heavy work thus reducing fatigue and increase in productivity of manual workers.
Move away from trade union demands threats,
In industries were trade unions are very active, a move towards mechanization would use minimized
influence of the unions.
Some of the factors which influence the choice of excavating equipment;
1. The quantities of materials to be moved

2. The types and physical properties of materials to be excavated
3. Whether the materials are suitable for compaction in an embankment or if there is surplus of
excavation
4. The weather condition that is likely to be encountered
5. Whether there are any restrictions on Excavating or earth moving equipment on the public roads
6. The types of equipment that are available and whether plant will be hired
7. The mobility of the plant over the terrain.
Advantages of using mechanical plant
The main advantages of using items of plant are enumerated below
(i) Increased rate of output

(ii) Reduced overall building cost
(iii) Carry out activities that can note be done manually or to do them more economically
(iv) Eliminates heavy manual work thus reducing fatigue and increasing the productivity of manual
workers
(v) To maintain planned rate of production where there is a shortage of either skilled or unskilled
operatives.
(vi) Maintain the high standards often required by present-day designs and specifications, especially
when concern with structural engineering works.
(vii) The relevant financial benefit
(viii) Performance and functionality
(ix) Machines optimize the quantity of work executed on building site if well operated and
maintained
(x) Best for some nature of work e.g. tunneling/piling
The main disadvantages are;
- There is need for special transporting vehicle such as a low loader to move some equipment
between sites.
- Some types of equipment are noisy and create noise hazards to people in the vicinity of the work
place.
- Very expensive
- Cause accident
- disposal is very difficult
- high maintenance cost
- under-use due to lack of work and or over use
Factors considered in acquiring a plant.
o The availability of funds

o Utilization level. How much work is available to keep the plant working
There are two ways of ways of acquiring a mechanical plant;
a) Hiring.
The advantages of hiring plant are as follows;
o The plant can be hired as required and for the minimum period necessary
o Hire firms are responsible for maintenance, repairs and replacements
o The contractor is not left with unused expensive plant items after completion of the contract.
o Hire rates can include operator, fuel and oil
Disadvantages of hiring plant is that
o The plant being expensive if it is to be hired for a time
b) Purchasing the plant.

The advantages of buying plant are as follows
o plant is available when required

o The builder can apportion the plant cost to the various contracts using the plant, by his/her own
chosen method.
o The is some re sale value
o The cost of idle time caused by inclement weather, work being behind planned
o Programme or delay in deliveries of materials will generally be less on owned Plant than on hired
plant
The Disadvantage of purchasing the plant is that.
Idle plant means financial loss; therefore an owner of mechanical plant must have sufficient work for the
plant, either through the firm‟s own contracts, or through public hire business.
c) Leasing.
CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL PLANTS
1. Transporting e.g. Dumpers and trucks [toppers]
2. Earth moving e.g. Wheel loader, Excavator, and bull dozer
3. Mixing plants and compacting plants e.g. Batching plant and concrete mixer
4. Road works e.g. Grader, water boozer and rollers
5. Lifting plant e.g. crane, fork lift and hoist
6. Piling plants e.g.
EXCAVATING PLANTS
Excavating plants include face shovels, back actors, forward loading shovel, bulldozers, scrapers, and
ripper s and graders augers.
Categories
- Rope excavators
- Hydraulic operated excavators
Rope excavators
Control of all work motions i.e. traveling,36oo skewing, digging, lifting done by the operator using
mechanically actuated controls from within the cab.
Hydraulic excavators
Hydraulically operated machines are of self-propelled by using the attachments as hydraulic jacks but
rope operated excavators need care. e.g . Compressors and concrete vibrators.
(a) Drag line ;

A dragline is frequently used for excavation in swampy land. it is therefore used for digging below the
level of the track
Types; back actors, ripper teeth, ditching buckets, face shovel
(b) BULL DOZERS

It is has an attachment mounted on it, can be used for ripping or used for winching [pulling something)
also Used for the following purposes;-
- Can excavate material

- used for very short hauls
- for spreading dumped materials
- It can clear the site of the vegetation
- It can do uproot big trees
- For backfilling
(c) SCRAPPERS
These are adopted for moderate and longer haul as they offer lower costs.
- Can be used for digging/ excavating
- It can used to contain material
- Can spread material
(d) RIPPERS
These are meant to break hard material to enable other machine to excavate. They work in hard gravel,
cemented / compacted material, Asphalt road surface, rock, concrete slabs etc. They work by static or by
dynamic.
(e) GRADERS
Usually used at the finish part of the work for example while cambering the carriage ways or parking area.
Some times to allow for a fairly level surface to be obtained.
Therefore they are used:
- For shaping ditches,
- Trimming slopes and
- Shaping the cross section of the road.
(f) AUGERS
These are used in soil investigation can be either manual or mechanical.
(g) LOADERS
Basically same as front shovels but the buckets are bigger and higher. They Range from 0.5m3 to 3m3
etc.
They are used;
- For loading,
- Tipping,
- Excavating,
- Site striping,
- Backfilling,
- Leveling etc.
For places of rock excavation, drilling and blasting, a crane with shovel may be needed to load the
blasted rock into trucks.
(h) CRANES
For deep excavation, a crane with a clamshell is suitable because of its ability to excavate vertically and
its close proximity to the bracing and sheeting required in deep excavations.
(i) Compactors
The most common type of compactor is the self-propelled, smooth, steel wheeled roller. The slow-moving
roller acts on the soil with „static‟ loads.
It can be used for compacting all types of soil, that is, gravel and sand as well as clay.
Rubber tyred trucks
- Good in firm dry conditions

- Good on flat terrain
- Good on long hauls and where speed is required
- Requires less maintenance
- Good on made up or public because they do not damage the roads.
Tracked-chain trucks
- Good in soft wet conditions

- Good on both flat and steep terrain
- Good for slow hands and where low speed is required
- Required more maintenance
- May not be allowed to move on the road as they trend to destroy it.
Finishing operations
Finishing operations are the final activities necessary to complete the earthwork.
These involve trimming of formation level, shoulders, ditches and side slopes. Most finishing operations
are carried out concurrently with other earthwork operations and performed as the job approaches
completion. The equipment most widely used for finishing is the motor grader and the bulldozer.
Earth Moving Plant Selection
Selection is in six stages
o Task identification
o Preliminary selection
o Machine output estimation
o Machine matching
o Output costing
o Final selection
1. Task Indentification
One considers;
o Volume and weight/ unit volume of material to be removed
o Type of material to be removed [it is fractional or cohesive]
o Assess the possible presence of large rock
o Overall contract time; allows you to break down each operation and give starting date and
times of completion.
o Assessment of the haul distance thus find out nature of excavation [should trucks go
downhill while loaded and vice-versa]
2. Preliminary Selection
All plants the can execute the task will be looked at
- First look at soil conditions
- Work area accessibility, limits of the bridges, width of heal dust overhead cables and
maneuverability
- Method of soil disposal
- Scrapers are excellent for spreading over large areas
- When tip or fill adjacent an excavation, then the long reach of a drag-line may be more
economical.
- Size of task
- Weather conditions [related to the soil conditions]
- Wheels or trucks [maintenance cost], is the haul route part of the public route speed.
1. Machine Out Put Estimation

Machine output selection is governed by the contract time
Formula used to estimate out of
This is governed by machine condition
- Efficiency of operator
- Terrain [topography]
- Bulking of material should be considered.
2. Machine Matching
Machine finally selected will be matched to the task that is the machine capacity will match the
job requirement.
3. Out-Put Costing
Supposed to compare manufacturers output by on –site output; Cost\unit material
4. Final Selection
Best achieved by preparing a table as below.
Sta Prelimina Vol. Estimat Time Time Total Cost Lengt Final
rt ry to be ed allowed required for cost of per h of selecti
dat move output for task task machi Vd3/ time on
e d completi completion( ne m3 on
on (hr) hr) site
1 Machine
A
2 Machine
B
MAINTENANCE OF ROADS
Introduction
Road maintenance involves interventions or works required to keep the road, its structures and property
within the road margins as near as possible to their as-constructed or rehabilitated conditions.
The continuous need for maintenance interventions tend to be more complex than construction and often
difficult to predict.
The Purpose of Maintenance

The purpose of road maintenance is to ensure that the road remains serviceable until the end of its
design life. Maintenance therefore performs the important function of:
 Prolonging the life of the road by reducing the rate of deterioration, thereby safeguard previous
investments in construction and rehabilitation
 Lowering the cost of operating vehicles on the road by providing a smooth running surface
 Keeping the road open on a continuous basis by preventing it from becoming impassable.
Types of Maintenance
Road Maintenance operations are usually grouped according to planning, organizational and funding
arrangements. They can normally be categorized as Routine, Periodic and Emergence maintenance
operations.
1. Routine Maintenance
These are normally small-scale operations with limited resource requirements and are usually performed
regularly on a section of road. Routine maintenance consists of relatively simple activities mainly
performed by labour, except grading, which may be a mechanized operation.
The need for routine maintenance activities must be estimated and the execution of the work must be
planned and controlled
Routine Maintenance Activities for Unpaved Roads
 Inspection and removal of obstacles
 Cleaning of drainage structures and their inlets and outlets
 Repairs of culvert head wall, approaches and aprons of culverts and drifts
 Repairs of culvert drains / mitre drains / catch-water drains and excavation to original sizes
 Cleaning of side drains and excavation to original size
 Cleaning of mitre and catch-water drains and excavation to original size
 Filling of potholes in carriageways
 Repairs of shoulders and slope erosion
 Light reshaping of carriageway (camber formation, corrugation, ruts and so on)
 Maintenance of erosion controls in drains
 Cutting of grass on shoulders and side drains
 Bush clearing
2. Periodic Maintenance
These activities need to be carried out on a road after about 2 to 7 years depending on the traffic volume,
pavement materials, rainfall, etc. This will be early determined by the Rehabilitation and Maintenance
Planning System (RAMPS). They require extra resources to implement.
Below is a check lists for periodic maintenance activities for which separate work units or sub-programs
could be established.
Periodic Maintenance Activities
 Heavy reshaping of road or road section (by labour, drag or towed grader, motorized grader)
 Installation or reconstruction of small drainage structures
 Spot improvement of road or road section
 Spot improvement of major structures (bridges, drifts)
 Re-gravelling / resealing of road or road section
 Provision of gravel stacks along the road to be used for routine maintenance activities.
3. Emergency Maintenance
These activities are required from time to time on a section of road whenever sudden and unforeseen
damage occurs. Usually this requires additional resources.
By definition, emergency activities cannot be forecast during the annual maintenance needs assessment,
so they cannot be planned. However, it is possible to reserve to a certain percentage of the routine
maintenance funds for emergency case.
To plan realistically and organize the emergency activities when they happen it is necessary to identify
the extent and kind of damage as fast and exactly as possible.
Emergency Maintenance Activities
 Reconstruction or repair of damage to structures resulting from washouts, erosion, breakage or
damage from high floods
 Clearing of landslides, fallen tree or rock fall
 Reconstruction or repair of damage to a road section resulting from washouts or erosion
 Reconstruction or repair of damage to drainage systems resulting from serious silting up or
erosion
 Reconstruction or repair of damage to erosion protection resulting from serious washouts,
landslide, etc.
HEALTH ISSUES (RISKS) IN ROADWORKS
Introduction
Carrying out activities on a construction site involves interaction of people and other aids such as
equipment and tools. Under such circumstances accidents are bound to happen resulting into serious
occupational health issues like injuries or even death of workers and perhaps may extend to the local
communities as well. Causes of these can be Human error, negligence or natural occurrences.
ROAD ACCIDENTS
Types of accidents
The accident type describes the manoeuvres or conflict situation (e.g. a collision between a vehicle and a
pedestrian crossing the road) which resulted in the accident. Only the conflict situation, which led to the
accident, plays a role in determining the accident type. Different countries categorize accidents differently
for example in Germany, the typology contains somewhat less basic accident types and these include:-
1. Driving Accident
An accident in which the driver loses control of the vehicle because he or she was driving at a speed
which was inappropriate for the layout, the cross-section, the incline or the conditions of the road, or
because he or she did not realise how the road was laid out or that there was a change in the cross-
section until it was too late. Driving accidents are not always “one-party accidents” in which the vehicle
leaves the road. They can also result in a collision with other road users.
2. Turning-off Accident
Turning-off accidents are those triggered by a conflict between a vehicle turning off a road and a road
user travelling in the same or the opposite direction. This can happen at junctions and intersections with
roads, at field tracks or cycle tracks, or at entrances to properties/car parks.
3. Turning-into/Crossing Accident
An accident triggered by a conflict between a vehicle which is obliged to give way, turning into a road or
crossing the path of other traffic, and a vehicle which has right of way, is referred to as a “turning-
into/crossing accident”. This can happen at junctions and intersections with roads, field/cycle tracks and
railway crossings, or at entrances to properties/car parks.
4. Crossing-over Accident
An accident is triggered by a conflict between a pedestrian crossing the road, and a vehicle, provided the
vehicle had not just turned off a road. This rule applies irrespective of whether the accident occurred at a
site without any special pedestrian-crossing facilities or at a zebra crossing, a light-controlled crossing or
similar installation.
5. Accident caused by Stopping/Parking
An “accident caused by stopping/parking” is an accident triggered by a conflict between a vehicle in
moving traffic and a vehicle which is parked (parking) or has stopped (is stopping) on the road.
Such accidents include accidents in which the moving traffic conflicted with a vehicle maneuvering
into/out of a parking position. It does not matter whether stopping/parking was permitted.
6. Accident in longitudinal traffic
An “accident in longitudinal traffic” is an accident triggered by a conflict between road users moving in the
same or opposite directions, provided the conflict is not the result of a maneuver that corresponds to
another accident type.
7. Other Accidents
These accidents are all those which cannot be assigned to any other accident type.
Causes of road accidents
The causes of road accidents are many and varied but can be grouped into;
a) Road user/Human error: road user includes the driver, pedestrian, cyclist and all others who use
the road. The behavior of the road user, including his/her physical and psychological traits,
influence road safety immensely; and accounts for about 80% of the road traffic crashes. This
includes reckless driving, over speeding, inconsiderate use of the road, careless or ignorant
pedestrians, incompetent drivers and driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.)
b) Defective vehicle condition which accounts for about 10%, (include defective brakes, steering,
suspension, worn out tyres, defective lights, indicators and engine among others.)
c) Environment factors which account for about 5% (include weather conditions and activities along
the road such as road repairs, grazing of cattle alongside the road and road side markets.)
d) Road condition which also accounts for about 5%, (include bad road surface, pot holes and poor
road designs and inadequate road furniture.
HIV/AIDS Issues Associated With Road Works

Introduction
HIV stands for Human Immuno-deficiency Virus. It is the virus that causes AIDS. If someone is HIV
positive, the person may show no symptoms and will remain healthy for many years. However, no matter
how well a person may feel the virus remains in his /her body and can be transferred to another person.
Over the years, the person‟s immune system weakness, meaning that he/she will be vulnerable to many
illnesses (syndrome), which may include tuberculosis, and some cancers, eye, skin and nervous system
conditions that can be serious. As a person suffers these illnesses, he/she will later on develop AIDS and
will suffer frequent attacks of different illnesses.
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. This is a stage when an HIV infected person
begins to suffer many illnesses as result of a weakened immune system as mentioned earlier. At this
stage, it may be difficult to engage such a person on heavy road rehabilitation activities. However, this
does not mean that, such a person is stigmatized and not given work at all at site. He can do fairly simple
tasks that his system can afford. It is important therefore to create awareness to parties involved in road
activities exactly what AIDS is all about and how it is transmitted.
Modes of HIV/AIDS transmission

All the stakeholders in the road sector and later the community who will constitute the work force during
the execution of road activities must be made to know the different ways through which HIV/AIDS is
transmitted. They include the following:
 Having unprotected vaginal or anal sex (without a condom) with someone who is HIV positive.
 Sharing syringes.
 Contaminated medical equipment which has not been properly cleaned
 Being given HIV untested infected blood transfusion
 Donor insemination with HIV infected semen
Other ways through which HIV/AIDS can be transmitted.

a) Mother to Baby
 The virus is transmitted to the foetus across the placenta during pregnancy.
 The baby may be infected during childbirth
 A baby may be infected through breast milk.
b) Children can get HIV from:

 Receiving infected blood transfusions
 Receiving treatment with unsterile medical equipment such as needles. Syringes or surgical
instruments.
 Suffering sexual abuse involving penetrative vaginal or anal sex.
It is of importance for everybody therefore, to take precautionary measures against the above listed,
modes of HIV/AIDS transmission to remain safe from infection.
Health and HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS is not transmitted by:
 Shaking hands or hugging
 Tears or sweat
 Sneezing or coughing
 Using other people‟s cutlery
 Dogs, cats or insects bites
 Kissing or saliva
 Eating from the same plate.
Why mainstream Health and HIV/AIDS in road works
Management of risks, health and safety considerations in road works is a continuous process and it is of
paramount importance to the Ministry of Works Housing and Communications operations and activities in
its areas of mandate. This calls for the need to regularly identify the hazards and assessing the risks
associated with them in the various sub-sectors at large and roads in particular.
Health and HIV/AIDS mainstreams in Road work sites due to;

 Road works calls for a high degree of use of manual /human labour to execute road activities
supported with light or heavy equipment such as Pedestrian rollers, tractor towed rollers and
tractors among others. Because of the nature of work involved, bringing big numbers of people of
different sexes and age groups to work together, chances that their interactions during the course
of work in groups developing into sexual relations between men and women is very high. Such
Road work sites therefore provide a breeding place for the spread of HIV/AIDS among the
workers from the communities
 Usually when a road is improved, chances that Truck Drivers buying local produce and supplying
other necessities to the local communities, other mobile population like sex workers, groups of
business men and job seekers increase in the communities. These categories of people are
usually vulnerable to HIV/AIDS catch because of the nature of their jobs and, they could also be a
transmission source to the local population.
Intervention Measures for HIV/AIDS in Road works
Sensitization and Awareness Raising
This can be done through community meetings, radio programmes and display of posters.
The target group for training and sensitization shall be the road workers and those community members
at proxy kilometres. This therefore explains the reason why, HIV/AIDS has been mainstreamed into the
road sectors among other development sectors.
Contractor Procurement
Pre-qualification of contractors should favour those who shall demonstrate capability and willingness to
address workplace safety, health and HIV/AIDS issues. During contract procurement, the Tenderers shall
be reminded of workplace safety, health and HIV/
AIDS issues through Pre-tender Site Meetings. Tenderers shall go into the bidding process when they
are well aware of the workplace issues.
Trainings
Workplace Safety, Health and HIV/AIDS sensitization is already an integral part of the technical training
provided at training centres.
Sample questions 2
Question1
(a) (1) Explain the following terms as regards to plant selection and usage
i. Task identification
ii. Preliminary selection
iii. Machine matching
(ii) Explain three advantages of owning a mechanical plant over hiring
(b) With relevant sketches, describe noting two major applications of;
i. Bulldozer
ii. Scrapper
(c) Explain three reasons why pneumatic tried trucks are preferred to Tracked-chain trucks in
earthmoving and preparation works
Question 2
Explain the following as associated to roadwork health and safety
(i) HIV
(ii) AIDS
Explain four major mainstreaming causes of HIV – AIDS in Roadwork sites and state one intervention
measure
Question 3
Road planning is the first step in road cycle development

Road Construction

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Road Construction & Plants

Road Construction and Plant

This is an open way, route or path for public travel or transportation

General road terms

Transport Systems in Uganda’s' Economy

History of road development

Roads are known to have started as trails by hunters.

Roles of great Engineers in road development

19th Century Roads

ROLE OF TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTORE

PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF ROADS

b) To provide coordinated development of all modes of transport without prompting unhealthy

c) To phase the road development programme for financial considerations.

d) To conserve scarce resources such as oil fuels, coal and electricity.

PRINCIPLES OF ROAD PLANNING

c) The road should be free to all.

f) All roads should have statutory provision for traffic regulations.

Objectives of a good Transport plan

h) Environmental impact of transport plans should be established.

THE ROAD PROJECT CYCLE PLANNING

 An urban development study (or master plan)

Feasibility (quality of being doable)

Contents of a feasibility study report

Economic analysis and comparison of alternatives

The straights would be aligned between adjacent tangent points.

Location Surveys in Non-Built-Up Areas

 Telecommunications – Information on concerned authorities and existing lines.

d) Road location in built up areas

ROAD CLASSIFICATION IN UGANDA

ROAD NETWORK AND ITS ADMINISTRATION

District road network

URBAN ROAD NETWORK

Networks of higher order

Networks of medium order

It‟s subdivided into internal and external ring networks

Internal ring network

a) Favourable connection to surroundings

a) High traffic concentration in central area

External ring network

a) easy implementation of road accompanying sidewalks and bicycle lanes

a) long distances for local traffic

Here the main transport axes form a grid.

a) Short ways for all nodes

e) Even transport distribution

a) High share of through traffic

a) Easy implementation of road-accompanying sidewalks and bicycle lanes

a) Long distances for vehicles travelling within the road network

a) Direct street course

d) Separation effect of collector roads on urban construction and non-motorised traffic

Design Controls and Criteria

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

d) Design Vehicle Dimensions

The driver workload and Expectations:

 Navigation: trip planning and route following;

(a) HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

k) Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to a broken-back

The Circular Curve

Super elevation Run-off

Let; M = mass of the vehicle;

v = speed of the vehicle in m/s;

R = radius of the curve in metres;

g = acceleration due to gravity (=9.81m/s2);

μ = coefficient of lateral friction;

e = rate of super-elevation, normally given as a percentage (= tanα)