CPP 202

Microorganisms

From the beginning of history, the efforts of man to feed, clothe and shelter himself have been

hampered by plant diseases. Man has used plants as source of his food. Plants also supply man with

drugs, fibres and beverages. In the new testament, references were made to the destructive effects of

pests and diseases on plants in the ancient times. In 1 Kings 8; 36, 37, 39, the Scriptures give evidence of

pests and diseases. The ancient Hebrews believed that these problems were due to their sins and that if

they repented and live righteous lives, they would be saved from them. Some 300 years before Christ,

Theophrastus (Father of Botany) wrote about plant maladies which are today known as scorch, rot, scab

and rust. The rusts of crops was so serious at that time that the early Romans worshiped a small god,

Robigus so that their plants would not be attacked by diseases. There were three reasons for the delay

in the intellectual understanding of plant diseases:

1. Superstition

2. Avoidance of logical reasons

3. Religious beliefs. During that period the theory of spontaneous generation was well established

in the minds of people (which says that living things arise from non-living things). Consequently,

scholars of middle ages were impressed by appearance of diseases while confused as touching

their causes.

Plant Disease Concept

Whetzel (1935) proposed that disease in plants consists of a series of harmful physiological

processes caused by continuous irritation of the plant by a primary agent.

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Primary agent: Bacterium, fungus, Nematode, Virus. A disease is exhibited through abnormal cellular

activities expressed by morphological or histological conditions (symptoms), invariably a plant disease is

a physiological disorder or structural abnormality that is harmful to the plant or its product that may

reduce the economic value of the crop. It must be appreciated that injuries (whether mechanical or

those caused by insects or agents) are also harmful to the plant and may impair the function of the

plant. Agents of diseases exert continuous irritation whereas agents of injury affect the plant

intermittently (temporary and transient). If the primary agent is transmissible to healthy plants,

subsequently causing disease, that agent is said to be infectious. The disease caused is said to be an

infectious disease. If the agent is non-transmissible, it is non-infectious e.g. nutrient deficiency disease.

Host Range of Pathogens

Microorganisms capable of causing plant disease are termed pathogens. Pathogens differ with

respect to the kinds of plants that they can attack, with respect to the organs and tissues that they can

infect, and with respect to the age of the same organ or tissue of the same plant on which they can

grow. Some pathogens are restricted to a single species, while others have a wide host range. Some

pathogens grow especially on roots, others in the stems, leaves or fleshy fruit or vegetables. Some

pathogens attack specifically certain kinds of tissues e.g vascular parasites. Obligate parasites are usually

very specific as to the kind of host they attack possibly because they require some nutrients that are

produced only by these plants. Non-obligate parasites may attack many different plants. Furthermore,

because of genetic changes, a pathogen may be able to attack hosts previously immune to it.

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Infectious Diseases

An infectious disease is a disease that is caused by an agent which can be transmitted from a

diseased plant to a healthy but susceptible plant and can cause a disease in the latter plant when the

environment is favorable. It means when the infectious agent enters the plant, there is an interaction

between the host plant and the agent which is influenced by the environment to produce a disease. In

other words, the environment will determine whether the disease will develop and if it does, the

severity.

Disease triangle Host (Susceptible)/ Agent (virulent)/ Environment (favorable)

Important Terminologies in Plant pathology

1. Parasite: Is an organism that depends partially or wholly on living tissues/host for its existence.

2. Saprophyte: Is an organism which thrives upon inorganic or dead organic matter.

3. Pathogen: Is an agent that causes infectious plant disease e.g. fungus, bacteria, nematode, virus.

4. Pathogenicity: Is the capacity of a pathogen to incite or cause a disease.

5. Pathogenesis: Is the period in disease development from the time of infection to the final

reaction of the host.

6. Infection: Implies the establishment of a pathogen inside the host following penetration. It does

not imply the production of symptoms.

7. Inoculum: Is a pathogen or part of it that is capable of initiating a pathogenic attack.

8. Inoculation: Is the transfer of inoculum to or into an infection court.

9. Infection court: Is the part of susceptible plant from which the pathogen will eventually

establish a pathogenic relationship with the host plant

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Processes involved in Infection

1. Production of inoculum: The pathogen must produce an inoculum which is adapted for

transmission from disease plants to healthy susceptible plants. On getting there it penetrates

directly or indirectly to establish a pathogenic relationship with the host

Viruses - Virus particles

Fungi - spores/hypha threads

Bacteria - bacterial cells

Nematode - Eggs/ J2

2. Transportation of inoculum: The agent of inoculum transfer can be insects e.g. Cassava mosaic

virus is transmitted by whiteflies Bemisia tabaci. Wind is involved in transfer of many fungi. In

nematodes, Xiphinema and Longidorus transmit plant viruses.

3. Entrance of inoculum into the host plant: This is through (i) wounds (ii) natural openings and (iii)

broken plant surfaces.

(i) Wounds: The mechanically transported viruses enter their host through wounds which are

created by people handling the plant accidentally or deliberately or by rubbing of plants by

wind. Fruits, roots, tubers and other marketable parts may be bruised during harvesting,

packaging and transportation. Through these bruises, many destructive pathogenic agents

penetrate their host. e.g. soft rot bacteria and fungi.

(ii) Natural openings – stomata, hydathodes and lenticels. Most bacteria causing leaf spot

disease enter their host through stomata e.g. Xanthomonas malvacearum causing angular

leaf spot of cotton. Hydathode: It is penetrated by bacterium, Xanthomonas campestris

causing black rot of crucifers. Lenticels: Bacterium causing potato scab, Streptomyces

scabies.

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 (iii) Unbroken surfaces: Most plant pathogenic fungi and all plant pathogenic nematodes enter

their host by direct penetration of unbroken surfaces – two types

(a) Non-cuticularized and non-suberized surfaces

(b) Cuticularized and suberized

(a) Easily penetrated by pathogens with little effort e.g. Plasmodiophora brassicae enter the host

through root hairs.

(b) Many plant pathogenic fungi penetrate cuticularized and suberized surfaces through production

of enzymes. Under favorable conditions, the fungus spores germinate to produce germ tube

which develops into a hypha. In some fungi the tip of the hypha will enlarge to form

appresorium which produces gelatinous substances which hold it fast to the surface of the host.

From the appresoriumis produced a tiny branch called penetration/infection peg which can

break through the surfaces. When it gets into the host after penetration, the peg will increase in

diameter and develop as a hypha either inside or between cells.

Types of symptoms of plant diseases

Plant diseases are recognized in the field through symptoms which are visible changes in the

plant.

I. Necrosis/Dead tissue

a. Leaf spot: are lesions that are well defined and restricted.

b. Blight: dead area with unrestricted limit

c. Scorch: Marginal necrosis and looks like burning of marginal tissues.

d. Short hole: When a lesion or spot falls off.

II. Abnormal increase in tissue

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 a. Hyperplasia – increase in number of cells

b. Hypertrophy - increase in size of cells

III. Failure to attain normal size

(a) Stunting (b) dwarfing

IV. Change in colour – yellowing or chlorosis

V. Wilting: caused by interference with the normal movement of water in the plant by

pathogens.

VI. Unusual development/transformation of organs

-smut: corn smut: Unusual enlargement of kernel and when broken spores will be found

(Ustilago maydis)

VII. Disintegration of tissues

Rots (i) wet rot-– water comes out of the tissue (ii) dry rot especially vegetables wet rot –

tissue becomes brittle. Rot of vegetable caused by Erwinia carotovora

VIII. Excessive formation of gum – Gummosis

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Basic Principles of Pest Control

1. Measures which destroy pest or prevent it from reaching the plants including elimination of

sources of inoculum and farm sanitation.

2. Measures that reduce attack by the pathogen to varying extent e.g. growing plants that have

some level of resistance.

3. Measures in which chemicals are applied to the plant to kill the pathogen or inhibit its

development.

4. Measures in which cultivars of plants resistant or tolerant to the pathogen are selected or bred.

5. Legislative measures which seek to prevent the introduction of pathogens not already present in

a location or which forbid practices likely to encourage disease incidence (Plant quarantine).

(1) Avoidance: Is achieved by planting crops at periods when or in areas where inoculum is

ineffective, rare or absent.

(i) Choice of planting area

(ii) Choice of planting site in a local area

(iii) Choice of planting depth

(iv) Use of disease-free planting stock.

(2) Exclusion of pathogen: The principle aims at preventing the introduction of inoculum in planting

materials into an uninfested area. (i) chemical treatment of seeds (ii) use of certified disease

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 free seeds (iii) restrictions by quarantine to prevent introduction of pathogens to areas where

they don’t occur.

(3) Eradication of pathogens

This has to do with inactivation or destruction of inoculum at the source either from seed, soil or

plant material in which it is already established. (i) Crop rotation (ii) farm sanitation (iii) rogueing

of diseases plants (iv) Soil treatment- fumigation or heat treatment.

(4) Protection of the plant

This is done by rendering the inoculum ineffective at the site of infection.

(i) by inoculating the plant crop a mild virus to protect against a more virulent virus.

(ii) Chemical control

(5) Breeding for host Resistance

If a plant cultivar resistant to a disease/pathogen can be bred, then all crop losses resulting from

disease as well as all expenses on use of chemical could be avoided. Very applicable in the

control of viruses.

NEMATODES

They are the only plant parasitic organisms that belong to animal kingdom. They are also called

eelworm or roundworm, threadworm because they are worm–like in appearance. They are quite

distinct from other animals in that they are unsegmented. Nematodes belong to the phylum Nematoda.

They are lance shaped, bilaterally-symmetrical, and are found in virtually all ecological niches of the

universe-in soil, water, lakes etc.

Numerous spp. of nematodes attack and parasitize animals and plants on which they cause

several diseases. In our study, the Plant–parasitic nematodes are the focus.

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Characteristics of Plant–parasitic Nematodes

1. They are small and microscopic 300 – 1000 microns with some up to 4mm long and 15-35 microns

wide. 2. They are generally eel shaped and round in cross section. 3. They are without legs/ appendages

4. Male and female of same species are more or less alike in shape and appearance. The most obvious

difference occurs in the posterior end where the presence of corpulatory spicules may cause the tail of

the male to differ sharply from that of female.

Morphology

The body is covered with a colorless cuticle. It has digestive, excretory and nervous system. The

excretory system is not well developed but the nervous system is well developed and consists of many

nerves: ganglia, sensory structures and the nerve centre is the nerve ring. The digestive system is a

hollow tube extending from the buccal cavity through the esophagus to the rectum and anus. There are

no special organs for respiration. The movement of fluids in the body cavity is involved in circulatory and

respiratory processes. The reproductive system is well developed. Females have one or two ovaries

followed by an oviduct and uterus terminating in a slit–like vulva. The male has seminal vesicle and a

pair of ejaculatory duct (spicules). Reproduction is through eggs and may be sexual, hermaphroditic or

parthenogenetic. Many spp. of nematodes lack males.

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 The life cycle of nematodes

Plant parasitic nematodes are obligate parasites.

Classification

Phylum: Nematoda

Two groups

(a) Secernentea or Phasmida

(b) Adenophorea or Aphasmida

Subphylum

Phasmida

1. Phasmids (Chemoreceptors) are present 2. Chordal and hypodermal glands are absent 3. They inhabit

soil, plants and animals, rarely aquatic e.g. Meloidogyne incognita, Helicotylenchus spp., Ditylenchus spp.

Pratylenchus spp.

Aphasmida

1. Pharmids are absent

2. Primarily aquatic animals, rarely terrestrial

3. Bursa is absent 4. Chordal glands are common e.g. Longidorus spp., Xiphinema spp.

Trichodorus spp.

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Plant-parasitic nematodes can be divided into three based on their feeding habits:

1. Ectoparasitic: They feed on root surface, root hair and do not enter host tissue e.g. Xiphinema

spp. Longidorus spp.

2. Endoparasitic: Invade the root tissue and may or may not be established in the tissue

(a) Sedentary endoparasites: They invade the roots and partially attach themselves to it. e.g.

Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Tylenchulus.

(b) Migratory endoparasites: They migrate within the host or between the host and soil e.g.

Pratylenchus, Radopholus spp.

(c) Semi endoparasites: Part of the body may be in and part outside the root e.g. Meloidoygne

spp.

Mode of Feeding of Nematodes

Plant–parasitic nematodes have a hollow needle–like stylet. It shoots out the stylet into the xylem and

with the sucking action of the esophagus it draws the plant juice. A fluid from the digestive gland is

secreted into the plant cell causing extra corporeal digestion prior to ingestion.

Diseases Symptoms Caused by Nematodes

Nematode infection of plants results in the appearance of symptoms on the root as well as the above

ground parts of the plant. The symptoms vary with the kind of nematode, with the kind of plant, age of

the plant and the site of attack. Symptoms of nematode attack are seldom specific.

General decline of the plant is noticed and once this decline is observed in the plant, the diagnosis of the

causal agent as to the specific nematode is done in the laboratory.

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A. Above–ground Symptoms

1. Stunting: It is often associated with large number of nematode and occur on spots or patches on

the field.

2. Abnormal foliage coloration: The foliage may be a deeper or lighter shade of green or various

shades of purple, red, yellow and bronze color. The nutritional or mineral deficiency in plants

can also have this symptom.

3. Wilting: Occurs in plants with injured root system under conditions of moisture stress.

4. Abnormal growth of foliage: This is as a result of feeding by foliar nematode e.g. bulb and stem

nematode causing distortion of leaf.

B. Below ground symptoms

1. Necrotic root lesion: The lesion may be invisible or extensive causing reduction in root system.

2. Root pruning and injured root tip: Is a reduction in root system without necrosis

3. Abnormal growth: Extensive root branching–may result from the formation of lateral roots

causing it to be stubby.

4. Galls: Cells surrounding the site of nematode injury may become enlarged (Hypertrophy) or

increase in number of cells (hyperplasia)

WEEDS AND THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY

A weed is a plant out of place or growing where it is not wanted.

Economic Importance:

1. Direct losses 2. Indirect losses

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 1. Direct losses

(a) Weeds reduce crop yield: This is done by interfering with nutrient and water absorption of

the plant. It also includes introduction of seeds into the soil that will adversely affect the growth

of plant. This effect is called ALLELOPATHY. B. Weeds reduce quality of harvest of agricultural

products. C. Weeds interfere with harvesting operations and increase cost of harvesting. D.

Weeds may poison animals e.g. Amaranthus spp. e. The cost of weed control is high compared

to the cost of managing other pests. f. The presence of weeds can impede water flow in

irrigation canals.

2. Indirect losses

(a) Weeds may serve as alternate hosts for plant diseases. (b) Presence of weeds imposes a

limit on farm size (c) Presence of weeds can reduce the economic value of lakes. (d) Weeds can

constitute fire hazards in dry seasons e.g. Imperata cylindrica. E. Some weeds affect human

health e,g, stringing nettle causes itching. f Uncontrolled weeds can reduce the value of estates

Beneficial Effects of Weeds

1. Weeds provide vegetative cover that protect soil surface against erosion.

2. They play important roles in nutrient recycling

3. Weeds are used as herbs e.g. Imperata cylindrica.

4. They serve as sources of drugs for public health.

5. Weeds could serve as sources of pesticides

6. They provide food and cover for animals

7. They could serve as hosts to beneficial insects

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 8. They also serve as important sources of genetic material for crop improvement e.g. some weeds

are resistant to diseases. This gene is isolated and introduced into susceptible crops.

Characteristics

1. They are harmful to animals/crops

2. They could become wild and uncontrollable.

3. They could become resistant to eradication and or control.

4. They reproduce very fast

5. The seeds exhibit dormancy and remain viable in the soil for many years

Types of Weeds

1. Annuals: They live and reproduce within a year

2. Biennials: They live for more than a year and less than or equal to two years.

3. Perennials: They may live for several years–almost indifinitely.

Dissemination of Seeds

1. Wind – Structural features of some weed seeds predispose them to dispersal by wind e. g.

winged fruits/seeds, parachute fruits/seeds/inflorescence, light seeds/fruit.

2. Water: Most weeds seeds float on water if they fall on surface of stream or lake e.g. winged

fruit/seeds.

3. Animals: Both wild and domesticated animals assist in dispersal of seeds. The viability of many

seeds is unaffected by passage through I digestive tract of animals e.g. sticky seeds, seeds with

hooks.

4. Man: He is probably the most active agent of dissemination of weeds.

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Principles of Weed Control

Weed control refers to those actions that seek to restrict the spread of weeds, and destroy or reduce

their population in a given location. The effectiveness of weed control is affected by the following:

1. Type of crop grown

2. Timing of weeding operation

3. The nature of weed problems.

4. The method of weed control available e.g. chemical or mechanical

5. The cost of operation

6. Available labor and cash resource

7. Type of weeds to be controlled

8. Environmental conditions before, during and after the operations.

Weed eradication in food production is difficult to achieve and uneconomic in most cases. It

involves the removal of all weeds and their propagules from the habitat. Weed management is the

better option and it encompasses all aspects of weed control. It is a functional unit of interrelated

control measure consisting of cultural, chemical, biological and preventive measures.

(a) Cultural control: This includes hand weeding, mechanical weeding, burning, flooding, crop

rotation and mulching.

(b) Biological control involves the use of parasites and domestic animals, insects, fungi and man.

This control method cannot solve the entire weed problem but it is effective for some weeds.

(c) Chemical control: Is the use of chemical to control weeds e.g. Herbicides.

Herbicides can be classified into several groups by:

1. Time of application e.g. Primextra – post emergent, selective herbicide.

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 2. Point of application

3. Type of application e.g. broadcast

4. How they move in plants i.e. Systemic or contact

5. Type of plants killed- either selective or non-selective

6. The chemical structure or composition of active ingredient

7. The physiological action.

(d) Preventive control: Is another weed control method and is done by preventing the movement

of weeds to your field e.g. animal quarantine (preventing animals from getting to your field),

sanitation, cleaning of seeds.

ABIOTIC DISEASES

Plants grow best in optimum level of certain environmental conditions – temperature, moisture

(rainfall, dew), soil pH, light, air composition and soil composition. Abiotic diseases are referred to as

non-infectious diseases.

Characteristics of Non-Infectious Diseases

1. They are caused by lack or excess of any of the conditions supporting life.

2. They occur in the absence of pathogens

3. They cannot be transmitted from diseased to healthy plants.

4. The severity of symptoms depends on the degree of variation from the optimum.

The characteristic symptoms known to be caused by a lack of excess of a particular factor is

mostly used as the diagnostic tool. Also to distinguish among environmental factors causing the same

symptoms we may have to cure the diseased plants (if possible) by growing them under conditions in

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which the amount of suspected environmental factor involved has been adjusted to normal. The disease

can be controlled by avoiding extreme environmental condition responsible for such disease.

1. Temperature: Plants normally grow at a temperature of 1-400C. Most grow best at 15-30OC. The

ability to withstand minimum and maximum temperature vary with plant species and age.

Seedlings may be killed by high temperatures. At low temperatures, frost killing of buds,

flowers, and seedlings occur.

2. Moisture: Is the most important factor in the tropics. Plants suffering from lack of moisture are

usually stunted, pale green or light yellow, they have few small drooping leaves, flowers and

fruits. The plant may eventually wilt and die. Flooding for more than three days can also result in

death of plants as a result of poor gaseous exchange. Flooding can cause decay, by allowing soft

rot organism to penetrate.

3. Light: A lack of light deters chlorophyll formation and promotes etiolation (Plants become very

thin and tall). Etiolated plants appear in the field when plants are growing too close together.

4. Air Pollution: This results from the activities of man due to generation of energy, manufacturing

of goods and disposal of wastes, thereby releasing a number of pollutants which may alter plant

metabolism and induce diseases.

5. Nutritional Deficiency – Plants require several mineral elements for normal growth which

include N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S (Major elements) Mn, Fe, B, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl (Minor elements). The

major elements are required in higher concentration. The kind of symptoms when certain

nutrients are deficient depends on the functions of that particular element e.g. Nitrogen-

deficient plants grow poorly, and light green or yellowish. Phosphorus deficiency–leaves

become bluish green with purple coloration.

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