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Chapter 1: Introduction to Child and Adolescent Development
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Bidirectionality of structure and function refers to

a. an organism’s being capable of using either hand or foot.
b. genetic determinism.
c. the interaction of the functional invariants of assimilation and accommodation with
cognitive
schemas.
d. structure (e.g., biological substrate) affecting function (e.g., activity) and function
affecting
structure.
ANS: D REF: 11 OBJ: Themes and Issues in Developmental Psychology
2. A hallmark of experimental studies is

a. the manipulation of time in the presentation of the materials to the subject.
b. the manipulation of only one variable as often as possible to determine the effects of that
variable.
c. the manipulation of every variable at each stage of the experiment.
d. the manipulation of one or more factors and observation of how these manipulations
change
the behavior under investigation.
ANS: D REF: 32
OBJ: Research Methods in Child and Adolescent Development
KEY: WWW
3. If a researcher found, in a correlational study, that an increase in one factor resulted in an

increase of the same magnitude in another factor, the correlation, or r, would be
a. -1.0. c. 0.5.
b. 0.0. d. +1.0.
ANS: D REF: 31 OBJ: Research Methods in Child and Adolescent
163
4. The ability to assess changes within an individual over time is a major benefit of the
____________ design.
a. longitudinal c. correlational
b. experimental d. clinical
ANS: A REF: 34
5. A _____________ is a group of people born in a specified, limited span of years whose

common experiences might influence their performances in developmental research.
a. cohort c. population
b. cross-section d. sample
ANS: A REF: 35
6. Theorists who propose that people progress through discrete, developmental stages believe in
a. an intrinsically active child. c. discontinuity of development.
b. an intrinsically passive child. d. continuity of development.
ANS: C REF: 14 OBJ: Themes and Issues in Developmental Psychology
7. Which of the following terms refers to development of the individual over the course of his or her
lifetime?
a. ontogeny c. microgenesis
b. phylogeny d. maturation
ANS: A REF: 5 OBJ: Concepts in Developmental Psychology
8. Genetic determinism implies that

a. genetic variation is the basis for determinant thinking.
b. behavior is caused by the interaction of genes and environment.
c. culture determines all of behavior.
d. genes determine behavior.
9. In naturalistic observations, the researcher

a. interviews participants one-on-one. c. sets up a specific environment.
b. intervenes as little as possible. d. begins a case study.
ANS: B REF: 26
10. The focus of developmental psychology is changes in
a. psychological characteristics that occur over a lifetime.

b. developmental theories.
c. data collection and analysis.
d. the way in which case studies are developed.
11. Many developmental psychologists believe that childhood is a(n) _______ concept.
164
a. irrelevant c. modern
b. outdated d. complicated
ANS: C REF: 7 OBJ: A Brief History of Childhood
12. Members of the Child Study Movement believed that developmental psychology should be applied to
children
a. throughout their lives. c. in a theoretical way.
b. in a practical way. d. in research studies.
ANS: B REF: 10 OBJ: A Brief History of Childhood
13. Children are said to be in a stage when their behavior is _________ different from the behavior of
children in earlier or later stages.
a. quantitively c. quantifiably
b. qualitatively d. correlationally
ANS: B REF: 14 OBJ: Themes and Issues in Developmental Psychology
14. Researchers whose principal concern is with individual differences have a(n) ________ approach.
a. idiographic c. simplistic
b. metamorphic d. rationalistic
ANS: A REF: 15 OBJ: Themes and Issues in Developmental Psychology
15. John Locke is the philosophical grandfather of

a. performationism. c. determinism.
b. empiricism. d. parsimony.
16. Which of the following is most useful for obtaining information that cannot ethically be obtained
otherwise?
a. questionnaires c. case studies
b. observational studies d. standardized tests
ANS: C REF: 28
17. _________ is the emergence of new structures and functions during the course of
development.
a. Epigenisis c. Mutation
b. Evolution d. Adaptation
18. Some human behavior appears to be “instinctive” because humans inherit _____ as well as a species-
typical genome.
a. innate behaviors c. a maternal attachment
b. gene expression d. a species-typical environment
KEY: WW
19. A ________ is the time in development when a skill is most easily attained.
a. transitional period
165
b sensitive period
b. stage
c. function
20. ____ is to the extent to which a measurement accurately assesses what it purports to measure.
a. Validity c. Parsimony
b. Reliability d. Variability
ANS: A REF: 22
21. Which of the following involves assessing children over relatively short intervals, usually days or
weeks?
a. experimental studies c. case studies
b. observational studies d. microgenetic studies
ANS: D REF: 36
22. Which of the following is not a major problem of conducting research with school-age children?
a. Researchers must comply with school schedules.
b. Researchers have difficulty formulating a research plan.
c. Researchers need approval from a number of different people.
d. Some children are unwilling to participate.
ANS: B REF: 37
23. ________ includes changes in processes involved with thinking, such as perception, attention,
consciousness, memory, intelligence, problem solving, and language.
a. Physical development c. Cognitive development
b. Psychomotor development d. Socioemotional development
ANS: C REF: 5 OBJ: Concepts in Developmental Psychology
24. During the Industrial Revolution in the U.S. and Europe, children
a. were killed as sacrifices.
b. worked long hours in factories.
c. were required to attend school.
d. were punished for crimes the same way as adults were.
ANS: B REF: 7, 8 OBJ: Concepts in Developmental Psychology
25. Many developmental psychologists today collaborate with experts in various fields of
a. biology. c. botany.
b. physics. d. orthopedics.
ANS: A REF: 10
166
OBJ: A Brief History of Developmental Psychology as a Science
26. If a characteristic is _____, a child’s rank in relation to his or her peers essentially stays the same over
time.
a. plastic c. stable
b. erratic d. innate
KEY: WW
27. A cause is endogenous if it is caused by

a. experience. c. nurture.
b. reinforcement. d. nature.
28. Which of the following does a developmental psychologist not try to integrate in the study of child and
adolescent development?
a. infanticide c. a sociocultural perspective
b. developmental contextualism d. evolutionary theory
ANS: A REF: 10
29. The modern concept of childhood is a(n) _____ invention.

a. Western c. abstract
b. worldwide d. African
ANS: A REF: 9 OBJ: A Brief History of Childhood
30. When was the first U.S. federal law passed regulating the minimum age and number of hours per week
that children could work?
a. in the 1850s c. in the 1930s
b. in the 1880s d. in the 1960s
31. Development always occurs within a(n) ______ context.

a. social c. objective
b. isolated d. historical
ANS: A REF: 11
32. Kagan’s belief that experience early in life is critical and nonreversible in the establishment of certain
aspects of social and intellectual behavior is called the ______ model of development.
a. genes–environment c. tabula rasa
b. tape recorder d. early childhood
33. The ability to change as a result of experience is called

a. discontinuity. c. internal validity.
167
b. attachment. d. plasticity.
34. One weakness of using _______ to collect data is that self-reporting can be biased.
a. questionnaires c. structured interviews
b. observational studies d. case studies
ANS: A REF: 24
35. Pellegrini and Long’s research into middle-school children’s “push and poke courtship” behavior is an
example of
a. structured observation. c. contextual observation.
b. naturalistic observation. d. standardized observation.
ANS: B REF: 26-27
36. Why is it that some information about children can be ethically collected only by case studies?
a. It is not acceptable to question children about painful experiences.
b. Only psychiatrists are licensed to conduct case studies.
c. Case studies often document extreme conditions that would be cruel to set up.
d. Case studies often involve punishment for children who are unwilling to participate.
ANS: C REF: 28
37. The term ______ in psychology refers to the empirical study of a topic.
a. research c. experiment
b. observation d. variable
ANS: A REF: 31
38. Truly scientific experiments require that participants be ______ assigned to the different experimental
conditions.
a. selectively c. temporarily
b. sequentially d. randomly
ANS: D REF: 33
KEY: WW
39. Which of the following would not be an example of a group case study?
a. children who survived a hurricane in a specific area
b. children who took a standardized test in a classroom
c. children who were raised in an orphanage
d. children who were sexually abused
ANS: B REF: 33
40. The greatest weakness of a cross-sectional study is

a. that it requires much time and is expensive.
b. that there is significant participant loss.
168
c. that it cannot assess change in one person over time.
d. that it does not focus on a single topic of development.
ANS: C REF: 34
41. If it is true that boys are less likely than girls to have their parents sign permission slips, this could
create the problem of ______ a psychological study.
a. obtaining a representative sample for
b. obtaining permission to conduct
c. the ethics of conducting
d. children’s compliance with the guidelines of
ANS: A REF: 37
42. For which of the following would the microgenetic method be most useful?
a. observing children in their natural environment
b. correcting behavioral problems
c. describing changes over a long period of time
d. assessing spelling strategies
ANS: D REF: 36
43. One ethical consideration that is necessary in conducting research with children is
a. making sure that incentives are generous.
b. informing children about aspects of the research.
c. including the names of all children in written research records.
d. informing children’s parents about the results of the research.
ANS: B REF: 38
44. What is the best way to obtain children as participants for research?
a. advertising in local newspapers
b. contacting relatives and friends who have children
c. contacting local schools
d. circulating flyers in different neighborhoods
ANS: C REF: 37
45. Because it is rooted biology, development is _______, but because of individual differences,
development is also ________.
a. predictable; variable c. stable; plastic
b. variable; predictable d. plastic; stable
46. What was outlawed in Europe in the 1600s?

a. child labor c. child abandonment
b. child prostitution d. orphanages
169
47. Why do some researchers believe that contemporary childhood has moved backward?
a. because children today are often spoiled by their parents
b. because children today are under too much pressure to succeed
c. because children spend so much time being unsupervised
d. because TV has made children privy to adult issues
ANS: D REF: 8 OBJ: A Brief History of Childhood
48. All 192 countries that are members of the United Nations ratified The Convention on the Rights of the
Child in 1989 except Somalia and __________
a. the United States. c. Brazil.
b. France. d. China.
49. After World War I, European psychologists such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Wallon, and Werner placed the
most emphasis for child development on
a. applying it in practical ways.
b. explaining it in theoretical ways.
b. developing case studies.
c. genetic influences.
ANS: B REF: 10
50. The nature/nurture issue is essentially the interaction of

a. genetics and heredity. c. culture and family.
b. society and the individual. d. biology and experience.
KEY: WW
51. A _______ best represents qualitatively different stages in the life of a single animal.
a. monkey c. human
b. butterfly d. snake
52. The concept that change from one style of behaving or thinking to another is relatively abrupt is called
a. discontinuity of development. c. disruption of development.
b. continuity of development. d. evolution of development.
KEY: WWW
53. ____ is often viewed as the major cause of individual differences in patterns of development.
a. Personality c. Culture
b. Prenatal development d. Family structure
54. Most developmental psychologists today are
170
a. nativists. c. interactionists.
b. genetic determinists. d. creationists.
55. Gottlieb’s research showed that ducklings respond to their mothers’ calls because of _________
a. heredity c. mimicry
b. instinct d. auditory experience
56. What explains why infants and children more easily make sense of faces and sounds than other things,
such as lists of words?
a. Infants and children learn the easiest things first, and then progress to harder tasks.
b. Specific parts of the brain are limited to processing a narrow range of information.
c. The brain and learning mechanisms can perform many tasks at once.
d. There are no constraints on learning to make sense of faces and language.
57. The results of even the most interesting study might be of little use, depending on
a. how the results are interpreted.
b. whether or not the scientific community agrees with the results.
c. how the study was conducted.
d. what the independent variable were.
ANS: C REF: 21
58. Which of the following is the correct historical order of the different levels of analysis of
developmental phenomena?
a. sociohistory ? phylogeny ? ontogeny c. ontogeny ? phylogeny ? sociohistory
b. phylogeny ? sociohistory ?ontogeny d. ontogeny ? sociohistory ? phylogeny
ANS: B REF: 11
59. ______ is the extent to which a test or measurement represents all facets of a given concept.
a. Internal validity c. Face validity
b. External validity d. Content validity
ANS: D REF: 23
60. Which of the following is most useful for generating hypothesis for future experimental testing?
a. clinical interviews c. observational studies
b. questionnaires d. structured interviews
ANS: A REF: 28
171
61. In a study of aggression in preschool children, each of three groups regularly saw one of three types of
TV shows: aggressive programs (such as “Batman”), prosocial programs (“Mister Rogers’
Neighborhood”), and neutral programs (such as Disney nature films). Aggressive behavior was then
assessed. What was the dependent variable?
a. the type of TV show c. the number of groups of children
b. the children’s level of aggression d. the age of the children
ANS: B REF: 32-33
KEY: WW
62. Humans emerged as a species about _________ years ago.

a. 2 billion c. 2 million
b. 20 million d. 200,000
ANS: C REF: 11
63. In a study of the development of social skills, a group of children were tested every other year for 6
years. This was a _______ study.
a. cross-sectional study c. longitudinal study
b. horizontal study d. case study
ANS: C REF: 34
64. Modern developmental psychologists realize that development is more _____ than was once believed.
a. stable c. instinctual
b. plastic d. complicated
65. Teenagers who have been raised in severely disadvantaged homes yet have no serious problems have
the characteristic of
a. competency. c. sociability.
b. intelligence. d. resiliency.
66. Which of the following is an example of a stage in human development?

a. learning to speak
b. childhood
b. adulthood
c. puberty
67. After about 8 months, infants exhibit ______, understanding that even when an object is out of their
sight, it still exists.
172
a. object attachment c. logic
b. object permanence d. discontinuity
68. Psychologists who adopt an idiographic approach are most interested in

a. behavior that is typical. c. behavior that is individual.
b. behavior that is extreme. d. behavior that is new.
ANS: C REF: 39
69. Which of the following is most easily acquired during a sensitive time in development?
a. learning a new sport
b. learning a language
c. learning new methods of mathematical calculations
d. learning concepts of mechanics
70. Which of the following must be included for a scientific observation to be objective?
a. the observer’s personal beliefs
b. the observer’s emotions
c. the observers prior expectations
d. the observer’s skill at knowing what is clearly observable
ANS: D REF: 21
71. The time boundaries for a critical period are ______ than they are for a sensitive period.
a. closer together c. wider
b. farther apart d. narrower
KEY: WW
72. Which of the following is not likely to be included on a questionnaire designed to collect data about
children’s behavior?
a. peer nominations c. self-reporting
b. a measure of IQ d. descriptions of behaviors
ANS: B REF: 25-26
73. Non-stage theorists believe that development changes qualitatively and

a. gradually over time. c. in unpredictable ways.
b. in distinct stages. d. quantitatively.
ANS: A REF: 14-15 OBJ: Themes and Issues in Developmental Psychology
173
74. Watching what toddlers do in a daycare center when they are on their own is an example of
a. a case study. c. an observational study.
b. a cross-sectional study. d. a clinical study.
ANS: C REF: 26
75. ____ is the extent to which a measure relates to a theorized psychological concept, such as intelligence
or personality.
a. Face validity c. Content validity
b. Internal validity d. Construct validity
ANS: D REF: 23
76. Which of the following is not a problem in conducting research with children?
a. getting children to understand the nature of the research
b. obtaining children to serve as participants
c. subject loss
d. obtaining representative samples
ANS: A REF: 36-37
77. Socioemotional development includes all of the following except

a. self-esteem. c. intelligence.
b. personality. d. morality
78. One-fourth of infants born in Paris in the 1700s

a. died. c. participated in developmental studies.
b. became foundlings. d. were sold as slaves.
ANS: B REF: 6-7 OBJ: A Brief History of Childhood
79. Who was an ardent advocate of childhood, believing that children are important in their own right and
are not merely a means to the end of being adults?
a. Piaget c. Freud
b. Vygotsky d. Rousseau
ANS: D REF: 7 OBJ: A Brief History of Childhood
80. What is the significance of the United Nations’ approval of The Convention on the Rights of the Child?
a. It acknowledges the special nature of childhood.
b. It enforces protection of children worldwide.
c. It coordinates how children are treated worldwide.
d. It creates a new definition of “childhood.”
81. The _______ of psychology recognizes the centrality of the social environment for human
development.
174
a. developmental contextualism c. sociocultural perspective
b. evolutionary theory d. developmental systems theory
ANS: C REF: 11
82. According to Schaffer, the answer to the question of whether or not extreme childhood trauma causes
irreversible damage is
a. “Yes.” c. “There is no way to know.”
b. “No.” d. “It depends.”
83. Which of the following is not a bidirectional influence on development?

a. prenatal care c. environment
b. behavior d. neural activity
84. What is the most important aspect of a study that has external validity?
a. It allows researchers to make cause-effect statements abut the variables studied.
b. It can be generalized to other people who were not involved in the study.
c. It reflects what it is supposed to measure.
d. It measures all concepts of a given aspect.
ANS: B REF: 22
85. Regarding ethics in psychological studies, the consideration of jeopardy is important because it
a. provides guidelines that make sure that children will not be harmed.
b. ensures that any assistance necessary for the child as a result of such studies will be
provided.
c. ensures that children understand what will be involved in the course of such studies.
d. provides assurance to parents that information related to such studies will be confidential.
ANS: B REF: 38
86. Children’s social, intellectual, and physical skills develop mainly as a result of
a. chronological age.
b. encouragement of parents and other family members.
c. interactions between physical changes in the child and his or her environment.
d. interactions between the child and his or her peers.
KEY: WWW
87. Is it possible for any two individuals on Earth to have the same set of genes?
a. no c. yes, brothers and sisters do
b. yes, parents and their children do d. yes, identical twins do
ANS: D REF: 15-16 OBJ: Themes and Issues in Developmental Psychology
175
88. Which term is essentially antithetical to a bidirectional perspective?
a. genetic determinism c. socialism
b. nativism d. universalism
89. What brought the study of child development into the academic mainstream and made developmental
psychology a first-level discipline within university psychology programs in the mid-19th century?
a. the practical application of developmental research
b. the increasing scientific rigor practiced in developmental research
c. advances in communication between U.S. and European researchers
d. the collaboration of psychologists with scientists in other fields of study
ANS: B REF: 10
KEY: WW
90. Middle childhood is generally considered to be the ages from
a. 2 to 7. c. 7 to 12.
b. 4 to 10. d. 12 to 16.
91. Most modern American parents are likely to view their children as being
a. competent. c. in need of protection.
b. innocent. d. dependent.
92. ____ are examples of areas of physical and psychomotor development.

a. Memory and problem solving c. Sensory systems
b. Self-esteem and love d. temperament and personality
93. Developmental psychologists who take the normative approach are most interest in studying
a. discontinuous development. c. individual differences.
b. developmental function. d. unusual behavior.
94. Which of the following is an aspect of nature, not nurture?

a. culture c. experience
b. learning d. biology
95. The behavior of ducklings that follow the first moving thing or animal that they see and stay with that
thing or animal after hatching is called
a. determinism. c. imprinting.
b. nativism. d. a cohort effect.
96. In _________ studies, the assignment of participants to groups cannot be made randomly.
176
a. correlational studies c. experimental studies
b. quasi-experimental studies d. clinical studies
ANS: B REF: 33
97. Which of the following is a combination of a cross-sectional approach and a longitudinal approach?
a. a cross-sequential approach c. a normative approach
b. a microgenetic approach d. an ideograhic approach
ANS: B REF: 35
TRUE/FALSE
1. Human experiences begin at birth.
ANS: F REF: 20
2. Reliability is the extent to which a measurement accurately assesses what it purports to.
ANS: F REF: 23
3. Subject loss is a problem in conducting research with children.
ANS: T REF: 37
4. One drawback to the cross-sectional approach is its inability to evaluate cohort effects.
ANS: F REF: 35
5. It is ethical to offer incentives for participants in research.
ANS: T REF: 38
6. John Locke’s view that children’s minds are like blank slates is widely accepted today.
ANS: F REF: 7
7. Developmental psychologists often collaborate with geneticists and neuroscientists.
ANS: T REF: 10
8. Development of psychological processes over an individual’s lifetime.
ANS: T REF: 5
9. Stability refers to the ability to change as a result of experience.
177
ANS: F REF: 12
10. Stage theorists believe that changes from one stage to another, reflect discontinuity of development.
ANS: T REF: 14
ESSAY
1. Analyze the ongoing debate about nature versus nurture. Explain whether or not you think this debate
can ever be resolved and whether or not it needs to be resolved.
ANS: Answer not provided
2. Describe the use of observational studies as a research method. In what types of situations would you
choose observational studies over structured interviews? Explain why.
3. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-sequential research
designs.
4. Explain how an experimental study of child development is designed. Provide an example of an

experimental study that you might conduct, and identify the factors involved in your study.
5. Describe each of the three major areas that are the focus of the study of child development.
178
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WHAT IS GOOD MORTAR?
To a casual observer mortar is mud, but to a builder who
understands the chemistry of mortar it is a compound of water, lime
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cement. Fresh slacked lime, when brought in contact with clean,
sharp sand, adheres strongly to the surface of each grain, and forms
the silicate of lime.
At the same time the drying mortar absorbs carbonic acid from the
atmosphere, forming with it lime-stone, which in time becomes a
rock in solidity. Now, all mortar is good or bad in proportion to the
purity of the ingredients and their relative affinity for each other. The
adhesive properties of mortar are nullified by loam or clay in sand, or
the stale condition of lime used.
Loam mortar adheres freely to the surface of walls or ceilings. So
does mud if thrown against an upright surface; but water dissolves it.
It dries quickly, but does not harden with age. The foundation of
many frame, and the entire walls of many brick houses are built with
poor mortar, when the materials for good could be had at the same
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Water, lime, sand and hair are the ingredients for plasterers’
mortar in about the following proportions: One bushel unslacked lime
and four bushels sharp sand; (to this add twenty-four pounds of dry
hair for every one hundred yards, when used for “scratch” or first
coat,) and water sufficient to make it of proper consistency. After
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is the keys formed by pressing the mortar against the lathing on the
ceiling that holds it to its place, there should be a relative width of
lath and key space to insure strength sufficient to prevent its falling.
Ignorance of this, and poor mortar, is the cause of falling ceilings.
Lath one inch wide, 7/16 inches thick, placed 7/16 inches apart will
insure good strong work.
The second coat needs but a very small quantity of hair. Fifty
bushels sand, and twelve and one-half bushels unslacked lime, will
make mortar enough to cover one hundred square yards. If mortar
freezes before it is dry it loses its cementing properties and becomes
in common phase rotten, but if the sand used is clean, and it remains
frozen without thawing until it is dry, it is not injured. The best way to
treat a house in which the plastering is not dry, and cannot be kept
from freezing before it dries, is to throw the house open, and let it
freeze for eight or ten days, or until the plastering freezes dry.
Cisterns should be plastered inside with mortar made of equal
parts of hydraulic lime and clean sand. For brick work above
foundations use one part unslacked lime to four parts sand.
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October 28th, 1889.
Gentlemen:—The shingles from your respected concern
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flooded by the water under their (want of) protection, and we
could not stop the leaks. Noah in the ark I am sure was,
fortunately, not troubled with leaks such as we endured for
years; if he had been all would have been drowned. Now,
under your protection, we are all right and still alive.
Faithfully,
HENRY C. BOWEN,
Chandler.
TO ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS.
There is no detail of house building more important than the roof.
Upon it depends to a great degree the durability and preservation of
the whole structure. The number of good houses with mottled
ceilings and cracked plastering, to be seen all over the country, are
reminders of the necessity of securing the best material and faultless
construction for this important part of your dwelling.
The advantages we claim for our Tin Shingle, over the ordinary
mode of applying sheet metal for roofing purposes, consists in its
Superior Strength, Freedom from Wrinkles and Cracking, (which
cannot at all times be prevented where sheet metal is put on in
continuous sheets); and in being the Most Ornamental and
Durable of all sheet metal roof coverings. Now, in answer to this last
assertion you may say, How can this be? Is not the same quality of
tin as durable when applied in one form as another? We answer, By
no means. The writer—and we presume the reader—has seen tin
roofs worked, and walked over in the necessary finishing up, to such
an extent as to seriously damage the roof. The Tin Roofers’ mallets,
seamers, tongs, and sliding over the roof, do more real damage to
the surface of tin plate than several years’ wear. We entirely
overcome this difficulty, as no part of the exposed surface of our Tin
Shingles are struck with a mallet or hammer in applying them. Again,
where metal plates are put together in continuous sheets, moisture,
which condenses underneath for want of ventilation, settles in the
cross-seams and causes decay, and the ordinary metal roof when
removed invariably shows this to be the case, while the other part of
the plate shows no perceptible wear. Our form of metal roofing has
no cross-seams, and has sufficient ventilation to prevent the
condensation of moisture underneath, making it by many years the
most durable form of metal roofing ever offered to the American
people.
Our object is to furnish the building public with a better form of
roofing material, attractive in appearance, without the objections of
the heavy slate, the clumsy shingle, or the plain ribbed metal roof;
and at a price that claims the attention of Architects and Builders of
the whole country.
THE NATIONAL SHEET METAL ROOFING CO.,
510 to 520 East Twentieth St.,
New York City.
CHIMNEYS.
We will not moralize on the evils of smoky chimneys,
but just tell you in plain language how to construct them
so they will not smoke. Make the throat of the fire-place
not more than half the size of the flue; carefully smooth
the inside of the flue, and have it of the same area all
the way to near the top of the chimney, when it should
be gradually tapered inward to about half the area of the
flue. At the extreme top, the cap stone should slant from
the opening in all directions downward at an angle of
about twenty degrees. This will insure a good draught
and prevent the smoke blowing downward. No two fire-places should enter
the same flue; neither should a stove-pipe enter a flue unless the fire-place is
closed. Each stove and fire-place should have its own flue. The size
necessary for a flue depends on the fuel to be used.
Soft or Bituminous coal requires a flue nearly double the size of one where
Anthracite is to be used; an open fire-place for wood, larger flues than either.
For instance, an 8 × 8 inch flue answers for Anthracite, because it makes but
little soot, while if Bituminous coal is used, 8 × 12 is none too large.
You will find in houses all over the country flues smaller than the above, and
a corresponding number of smoky chimneys, which it is impossible to remedy
without re-building from the bottom up.
The carelessness displayed in chimney construction is astonishing. As the
work is hid from view on completion, be watchful during the process of
construction from the ground up. All chimneys should, if possible, extend
above the apex or comb of roof, and should be built of good hard burnt brick,
and no woodwork should be allowed to enter within five inches of inside of
flue, and not within twelve inches anywhere near the fire-place.
Design H.—Front Elevation.
EIGHT-ROOM, TWO-STORY HOUSE.

Estimated Cost, with Bath and Furnace, $3,500 to $4,000.
Roof covered with 10 × 14 No. 1 Standard Tin Shingles; gables with Queen
Anne; second story, sides, with 7 × 10 Standard Tin Shingles; and porches
with Broad Rib Tin Roofing; use No. 2 Five-foot Finial on tower.
First Floor. Second Floor.
Design H.—(Elevation, page 18.)
A retired plumber thus gives a point for the gratuitous relief of householders:
“Just before retiring at night pour into the clogged pipe enough liquid soda lye
to fill the ‘trap’ or bent part of the pipe. Be sure that no water runs in it until the
next morning. During the night the lye will convert all the offal into soft soap,
and the first current of water in the morning will wash it away and clear the
pipe clean as new.”
THE WALTER’S PATENT, AND WHAT
IT IS.
Previous to the granting of a patent to John Walter, in 1882, there
were no tin shingles manufactured for the trade in the United States,
with the exception of those which covered more than two-thirds of
their surface to get one-third exposed to the weather; the same is
commonly done with wood shingles. This made them too expensive
for general use. The Walter’s patent made it practical to expose five-
sixths of the surface and only conceal one-sixth of the shingle. This
great saving at once reduced the cost of metal shingles over one-
half, and enabled the National Sheet Metal Roofing Co., which
controls this patent, to put on the market the best metal roofing in the
world, at prices that compete with ordinary wood shingles. (See
“Comparative Cost,” pages 26 and 27.)
How this was done is best expressed in the claim granted the
patentee, copied from the United States Official Gazette:
“A metal roofing plate having a gutter formed by

corrugations at one side, and a perforated flange at the side
of the gutter, whereby it shall be nailed to the roof of a house;
a broad corrugation at the other side adapted to form a seam
with the adjoining edge of a corresponding plate, substantially
as shown and described.”
The advantage of this lock is that it makes a water-tight seam

without soldering or hammering down. The plates are joined as easy
as crossing two sticks, with ample provision for expansion and
contraction. This lock is the perfection of simplicity; there is no
exposed seam where water is liable to lodge and cause rust; no
cleats are used, and no tin springs are necessary to hold the side
edges of connecting plates to prevent water seeping through.
PAINTING SHEET-METAL ROOFS.
The subject of painting sheet-metal roofs is one of great
importance, says the Builder, Decorator and Wood-Worker, not only
on account of the protection afforded, but because the material,
when properly colored, can be made pleasant to the eye when
placed in exposed positions. While many kinds of paint have been
discovered and patented, composed of a great variety of materials, it
is a question if there is a substance used that is an effective
substitute for linseed oil, regarding the effectiveness of which an
authority on the subject says: “By consulting experienced and
unbiased painters you will learn the fact that there is no vehicle
pigments at all approaching linseed oil in effectiveness and
durability, especially for exposure to the weather. A good paint must
be both hard and elastic. It requires hardness to prevent abrasion
and wear, and elasticity to prevent cracking from expansion and
contraction. Nothing but linseed oil will give these qualities, for,
strange as it may seem to many in these days of novelties, the
pigments really add but very little to the effectiveness of paints.
Mark, we say the best of pigments, for many pigments are the
reverse of protective, and are really destructive to both the vehicles
and the material which they are supposed to protect. For example,
coal tar and all its products, whether called dead oil, asphalt, rubber,
etc., are of the class just described, and their use at any price,
especially for covering sheet-metals, is a wanton waste of money.
Extended experiments have demonstrated that there is no better
pigment for metal than a good iron ore ground to an impalpable
powder. To be most thoroughly effective the pigment must be
intimately incorporated with the vehicle, which can best be done only
by grinding them together in a stone mill by steam power.” It is of the
greatest importance that sheet-metal roofs, especially those made of
iron, should be protected from the action of the elements, as when
so protected there is hardly any limit to the time they will last. In
order that the paint should be effective, it should be applied before
the iron has had an opportunity to rust, and the first coat should be of
the best quality and applied in the best manner; or if it is defective it
is plain that it will not only require repainting far sooner than it
should, but no matter how good the subsequent coatings of paint
are, they cannot be effective if founded on an original coating which
has commenced to crack or peel, as it certainly will if not prepared
with the best methods and materials. Another important point to be
observed in the painting of sheet-metal is that the paint should not
be too thick, as it is the linseed oil that is to be depended on to
furnish protection, and as the action of the air on the surface of the
exposed oil gives it a particularly hard surface, two thin coats of paint
are much more durable than one thick one.
Remember, it is the rust-preventing qualities of linseed oil,
combined with the oxide of iron, that makes steel or iron sheets
resist the corrosive action of oxygen, which is ever present in the
atmosphere. (See page 101.)
THE CELLAR.
The cellar under a dwelling house has many advocates. It is a
convenient, cool place, and nineteen times out of twenty is a damp,
dark, musty, foul-smelling place. It cannot well be otherwise and be a
cellar. It is a store-room for all sorts of vegetables; odds and ends of
most everything are laid away in that dark retreat. It is the favorite
resort of spiders, toads and other creeping things; it is the
unrelenting enemy (?) of the family physician, the breeding-place of
malaria, which unceasingly sends its poisonous vapors into every
part of the dwelling above it. It would be suicide for one to make it
their sleeping room.
But if you insist upon having a cellar under your house, and will
not put it under the corn-crib or carriage-house, see that it is properly
constructed. This is more important than most of the other parts of
the house, for upon it in a great measure depends the health of your
entire family.
The floor of the cellar should be hard and dry, with no woodwork in
its construction. To obtain this result, cover the floor about three
inches deep with coarse gravel, or broken stone, well pounded to a
level surface. Fill this with a thin mortar, composed of one part
hydraulic cement and two parts sharp sand, smoothing it off with a
trowel or plasterer’s level. When we mention sharp sand, we mean
coarse, clean sand.
Build a flue, say 8 × 12 inches (with an opening next to the floor of
the cellar fully that size), from the bottom of cellar foundation
alongside of and extending to top of kitchen chimney, the heat of
which will create a constant, upward current of air from the cellar. On
the opposite side of cellar from this ventilating flue make an air inlet
near the ceiling for the purpose of supplying fresh air to the cellar.
This will keep the cellar dry and the atmosphere healthy. Put a wire
netting over the opening to prevent the entrance of rats and mice. If
from the nature of the location, or other causes, a cellar is damp, dig
a trench all around a little below and outside of the foundation wall;
this trench should be covered with flat stones and earth filled in a
little above the surface line, so that surface water will flow from, and
not settle next to, the foundation walls. When the cellar is completed
whitewash the walls and ceiling.
OUR “QUEEN ANNE” VALLEY,
FOR SLATE, TIN OR WOOD SHINGLES.
Patented October 30th, 1883.

This cut fairly illustrates our improvement. The
corrugations at the side keep the edges rigid, and
prevent the edges from dipping into any space that may
be between the roof boards where they are not laid
close. Besides this, they dispense with the necessity of
chalk lines, and hold the shingle or slate from lying
close upon the metal, preventing decay both of wood
and metal. A convenience and benefit to every builder.
To be used where the pitch of the roof is equal to that
necessary in using the ordinary shingle.
Design G.—Front Elevation.
EIGHT-ROOM, TWO-STORY HOUSE.

Estimated Cost, with Bath and Furnace, $3,000 to $3,500.
Roof to be covered with 10 × 14 No. 1 Standard Tin Shingles; gables with 7
× 10, same quality; and porches with Broad-Rib Tin Plate Roofing.
Smithtown Branch, L. I., November 27th, 1886.

Dear Sirs:—During the recent very heavy storms—wind and rain—
the roof on my house, put on with Walter’s Patent Tin Shingles, stood
the test; not a single leak has ever been discovered, not even around
the chimneys, valleys, nor where the roof of the wing butts up against
the main building. The work was done in April last, and never leaked,
and I think never will, as long as the material lasts.
You will remember how reluctant I was to try the shingles, but I am
now glad that I did so, for I not only have a good first-class roof—fire-
proof—but I also have the handsomest roof in our town. I promised
you I would come in and see you, and tell you how I liked the shingles,
but not having done so, I write you this.
Yours very truly,
COE D. SMITH.
First Floor. Second Floor.
Design G.—(Elevation, page 24.)
New Bedford, Mass., June 24th, 1887.

Gentlemen:—The Metallic Shingles, which were put on by you on
the roof of the New Bristol County Jail and House of Correction at this
place, are entirely satisfactory in every respect, the manner in which
the plates are rolled overcoming all objections to the expansion and
contraction of the metal. Those that were put on here were of hard
rolled copper, and have now turned a beautiful bronze color, and is
very much admired by all who have seen it. The roof cannot but be an
extremely desirable roof, and I do not see that it can need repairs of
any kind for years to come.
Yours very truly,
ROBERT H. SLACK, Architect.
WOOD AND METAL SHINGLES.
COMPARATIVE COST.
We are often asked if our
metal shingles are as cheap as
wood shingles. While we cannot
consistently say they are not;
still, if we say they are, they
refer to our price list, which
necessitates an explanation
something like this:
We will suppose a dwelling is
to be built to cost, say $2,500.
Such a house will usually require about 20 squares of roof covering,
which, if done with wood shingles, fixes the cost of fire insurance
about one-quarter of one per cent. higher than a metal roof during its
existence. This extends not only to the house, but all contained in
such roofed houses. And this is the case, no matter how good the
wood shingles are.
In making this comparison, we will consider such shingles as are
generally used in the older settled portions of the country. We are
aware that shingles made from well-matured timber, straight-grained,
free from sap and wind-shakes, full length, hand drawn to five-
eighths of an inch at the butt, four inches wide, and carefully put on
make a good, durable roof. But shingles of that kind are only to be
had in the thinly settled portions of the country.
It is the broad, thin, split or sawed shingles, found in all markets,
which we contend are more expensive than our metal shingles.
These do not last, on an average, more than fifteen years, and after
ten years the repairs are a continual expense until removed and
replaced with new material, which is not often done until some of the
woodwork is badly damaged, and ceiling cracked and stained from
frequent leakages. On the other hand, tin shingles will last for any
length of time, if painted once in every five or six years, and show no
perceptible wear.
Cost of a TIN SHINGLE Roof for a period of

Fifteen Years.
Twenty squares of Tin Shingles, at $6.75 per square $135 00

Labor of putting on same 10 00
One coat of paint after roof is laid 8 00
Total cost of same $153 00
One coat of paint at expiration of five years 10 00
One coat of paint at expiration of ten years 10 00
One coat of paint at expiration of fifteen years 10 00
Insurance on $2,500 for fifteen years, at one-half of one
per cent. per annum 187 50
Total cost at expiration of fifteen years $370 50
Cost of a WOOD SHINGLE Roof for a Period of

Fifteen Years.
Twenty squares of Wood Shingles, at $3.75 per square $65 00

Putting on same 20 00
Expense of five years’ repairs, after expiration of ten
years; damage to roof and ceiling caused by leakage
not counted 15 00
Insurance on $2,500 for fifteen years, at three-quarters of
one percent. per annum 281 25
Expense of covering at expiration of fifteen years 85 00
Total $466 25
Making a difference in favor of Tin Shingles in a
period of fifteen years of $95.75

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Child and Adolescent Development

1. Bidirectionality of structure and function refers to

2. A hallmark of experimental studies is

3. If a researcher found, in a correlational study, that an increase in one factor resulted in an

5. A _____________ is a group of people born in a specified, limited span of years whose

8. Genetic determinism implies that

9. In naturalistic observations, the researcher

10. The focus of developmental psychology is changes in

a. psychological characteristics that occur over a lifetime.

15. John Locke is the philosophical grandfather of

27. A cause is endogenous if it is caused by

29. The modern concept of childhood is a(n) _____ invention.

31. Development always occurs within a(n) ______ context.

33. The ability to change as a result of experience is called

40. The greatest weakness of a cross-sectional study is

46. What was outlawed in Europe in the 1600s?

50. The nature/nurture issue is essentially the interaction of

54. Most developmental psychologists today are

62. Humans emerged as a species about _________ years ago.

66. Which of the following is an example of a stage in human development?

68. Psychologists who adopt an idiographic approach are most interested in

73. Non-stage theorists believe that development changes qualitatively and

77. Socioemotional development includes all of the following except

78. One-fourth of infants born in Paris in the 1700s

83. Which of the following is not a bidirectional influence on development?

92. ____ are examples of areas of physical and psychomotor development.

94. Which of the following is an aspect of nature, not nurture?

1. Human experiences begin at birth.

3. Subject loss is a problem in conducting research with children.

5. It is ethical to offer incentives for participants in research.

7. Developmental psychologists often collaborate with geneticists and neuroscientists.

8. Development of psychological processes over an individual’s lifetime.

9. Stability refers to the ability to change as a result of experience.

ANS: Answer not provided

ANS: Answer not provided

ANS: Answer not provided

4. Explain how an experimental study of child development is designed. Provide an example of an

ANS: Answer not provided

ANS: Answer not provided

“THE INDEPENDENT,” 251 Broadway, New York,

EIGHT-ROOM, TWO-STORY HOUSE.

Design H.—(Elevation, page 18.)

“A metal roofing plate having a gutter formed by

The advantage of this lock is that it makes a water-tight seam

Patented October 30th, 1883.

EIGHT-ROOM, TWO-STORY HOUSE.

Smithtown Branch, L. I., November 27th, 1886.

Design G.—(Elevation, page 24.)