TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER CHAPTER NAME PAGE

1 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BODY 03-12

2 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 12-17

3 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM 17-37

4 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 38-47

5 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 47-54

6 EAR, NOSE & THROAT (ENT) 55-60

7 EYE 60-64

8 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 64-72

GENITOURINARY SYSTEM 72-76

9

10 NERVOUS SYSTEM 76-89

11 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 89-96

12 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 96-108

13 PREFIX AND SUFFIX 108-141

14 GENERAL MEDICAL ABBREVIATIONS 142-165

15 EYE ABBREVIATIONS 166-169

16 HEALTHCARE PROVIDERS/SPECIALIST- DEFINITIONS 170-171

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 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BODY
Levels of Organization
The body is organized according to levels of complexity. The lowest level of complexity is the atom. The
highest level of complexity is the organism.

The human body can be divided into two basic sections. The axial section contains the head, neck and
trunk. The appendicular section contains the arms and legs, also known as the upper and lower
extremities.

The body also contains hollow areas called cavities. There are 2 large cavities. One cavity is in the front
part of the body and is called the ventral cavity. The other is in the back and is called the dorsal cavity.

Both cavities can be subdivided into smaller cavities. The ventral cavity can be subdivided into the
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The thoracic portion is in the chest area and the abdominopelvic
portion is in the stomach area. The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are separated by a structure
known as the diaphragm.

The dorsal cavity can also be subdivided into 2smaller cavities. One cavity is called the cranial cavity and
is in the head (brain). The other is called the spinal canal and runs down the back. The cranial cavi ty
contains the brain and the spinal canal contains the spinal cord

There are also some smaller cavities in the body. These include:

Oral (teeth, tongue)

Nasal (sinuses)
Orbital (eyes and associated muscles, nerves)
Middle ear (middle ear bones)

Anatomical Regions

We will start with some regions of the body. A region is a broader area such as the upper leg.
(Femoral Region). Although a region may sound like an actual body part, it is not. It is an area.

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 Common Term Anatomical Term Region
Foot Pes Pedal
Shin Crus Crural
Calf Sura Sural
Front of knee Patella (knee cap) Patellar
Back of knee Popliteus Popliteal
Thigh Femorus Femoral
Groin Inguina Inguinal
Butt Buttock Gluteal
Stomach Abdomen/Gastro Abdominal /Gastric
Low Back Lumbus Lumbar
Chest and Middle back Thorax Thoracic
Lateral chest Pectorus Pectoral
Middle chest Sternum Sternal
Neck Cervicis Cervical
Chin Mentum Mental
Head Cephalon Cephalic
Shoulder Acromion Acromial
Arm Brachium Brachial
Elbow (front) Antecubitus Antecubital
Elbow (back) Olecranon Olecranal
Wrist Carpus Carpal
Hand Manus Manual
Forearm Antebrachium Antebrachial

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Directional Terms Used with the Body

Directional Term Meaning Example

right Toward the right side of the body The incision was made right of midline.

left Toward the left side of the body Abrasions to the lumbar region were
observed 1 cm left of midline.

anterior (ventral) Toward the front surface of the The toes are anterior to the heel of the
body foot.

posterior (dorsal) Toward the back surface of the The upper portion of the thoracic spine is
body posterior to the sternum.

medial Toward the midline or center of The inner ear is medial to the outer ear.
the body

lateral Farther from the center of the The hip is lateral to the groin.
body; pertaining to a side of the
body
superior Toward the head or upper The eyes are superior to the mouth.
portion of the body

inferior Toward the foot or lower The shoulders are inferior to the head.
portion of the body

proximal Toward or closer to the The knee is proximal to the ankle.

attachment of an extremity to
the body
distal Away from or farther from the The wrist is distal to the elbow.
attachment of an extremity to
the body
superficial Toward the surface of the body The scalp is superficial to the brain.

deep Away from the surface of the body Muscle is deep to skin.
(internal)

prone Lying face downward, or having The patient was placed in prone position
the palm of the hand facing to expose the vertebral column.
inferiorly and/or posteriorly

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supine Lying face upward, or having the
palm of the hand facing
superiorly and/or anteriorly
ulnar Pertaining to the medial side of
structures in the upper limb.
The patient was placed in supine position
with a sandbag beneath the neck.
The bacterial infection was noted along
the ulnar side of the nailbed.

radial Pertaining to the lateral side of The burn was noted on the radial aspect of
structures in the upper limb. the wrist.

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The Planes of the Body

Plane Description
Sagittal Divides the body into right and left sides.

midsagittal (median) Divides the body into equal right and left halves.

transverse (horizontal) Divides the body into an upper (superior) portion and a lower
(inferior) portion.

Frontal or Coronal Plane Divides the body into anterior (ventral) portion and
posterior (dorsal) portion.

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Movement Terms

Movement Term Meaning

adduction Movement of a body part toward the body or toward the medial plane.

adduction Movement of a body part toward the body or toward the medial plane.

abduction Movement of a body part away from the body or away from the medial
plane.
inversion Turning inward or toward the midline of the body. It can also refer to turning
inside out.

eversion Turning outward or away from the midline of the body.

flexion Movement that decreases the angle between two adjoining bones, such as
bending an elbow.
extension Movement that increases the angle between two adjoining bones, such as
straightening a bent elbow.

dorsiflexion Bending of the foot and toes upward.

plantar flexion Bending of the foot and toes downward. Also referred to as pointing the
foot.

supination Rotation toward a position in which the palm is facing upward or

anteriorly.

pronation Rotation toward a position in which the palm is facing downward or

posteriorly.

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Dividing the Abdomen

The abdomen can be divided two ways which helps to describe the locations of structures. In one
method the abdomen is divided into 9 sections. The other method is a bit simpler in that the
abdomen is divided into 4 sections.

Four planes are needed in order to divide the abdomen into 9 equal sections. There are 2
parasagittal planes (sometimes called lateral lines) and 2 transverse planes. The superior
transverse plane is called the Trans pyloric plane and the inferior plane is called the Trans
tubercular plane. The center of the 9 regions is the umbilicus. The 3 superior regions are the
epigastric, right and left hypochondriac. The middle regions are the umbilical, right and left
lumbar. The lower regions are the hypogastric and right and left inguinal .

The other method of dividing up the abdominal area consists of using a transverse and mid-
sagittal plane intersecting at the umbilicus. This results in 4 quadrants including the right and
left upper quadrants and right and left lower quadrants.

1. Umbilical
2. Epigastric
3. Hypogastric
4. Right hypochondriac
5. Right lumbar
6. Right Iliac
7. Left hypochondriac
8. Left lumbar
9. Left iliac

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Tissue and its Types:

The Basic unit of living thing is cell.

Group of cells forms Tissue

Group of tissues forms Organ
Group of organs forms Organic Systems
Group of organic systems forms Organism

The study of tissues is known as histology. There are 4 main categories of tissues in the human body:

Epithelium
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Epithelium Tissue

Epithelium is a tissue that covers the outer or superficial portion of our skin. Epithelial tissue does not
have a blood supply. Therefore, nutrients must enter the tissue by diffusion.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body. There are 5 basic types of connective tissue:
a) Loose
b) Adipose
c) Reticular
d) Dense
e) Elastic

a) Loose connective tissue is not very well-organized tissue. It contains fibroblasts, matrix, and
some fibres scattered about. It is found in the dermis and subcutaneous layers of the skin as
well as surrounding muscles. Sometimes it is called fascia.

b) Adipose connective tissue consists of cells containing lipid (fat) called adipocytes. The lipid
is used to store energy to be used by the body if needed. Adipose tissue is also found around
some organs and joints. It forms a cushion for shock absorption. Adipose tissue also insulates
the body.

c) Reticular connective tissue consists of a thin supportive network of collagen fibres. It is found
supporting the walls of the liver, spleen and lymphatic system.

d) Dense connective tissue contains thick collagenous fibres. It is found in ligaments and
tendons which have a high tensile strength. Dense connective tissue has a poor blood supply
which is why tendons and ligaments do not heal well. There are also some elastic fibres and

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 fibroblasts.

e) Elastic connective tissue contains more elastic fibres than collagen fibres. Elastic connective
tissue is found in attachments between vertebrae and in walls of some hollow internal
organs.

There is also a special category of connective tissue that contains:

• Blood
• Bone
• Cartilage

Blood is considered a liquid connective tissue. Blood contains a fluid matrix called plasma along with
cells called formed elements. Blood contains red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes) and platelets. It transports gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide and functions in
clotting and immunity.

Bone is the most rigid of connective tissues. Its hardness comes from mineral salts such as calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate. It is highly organized into units called Haversian systems. The
primary cell of bone is the osteocyte.

Cartilage is rigid and strong so it can provide support and protection. It also forms a structural model
for developing bones. There are 3 types of cartilage. These include hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage.
Cartilage contains cells called chondrocytes imbedded in a matrix. There are also elastic and
collagen fibres.

Muscle Tissue
Muscles are the only tissue in the body that can contract and therefore move the other parts of
the body. Muscle tissue is categorized into three distinct types:

• Skeletal Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle is striated also called as voluntary muscles moves all bones as well as face & eyes.

Smooth muscle is not striated also called as involuntary muscles. Under control of autonomic
nervous system moves internal organ such as digestive tract, blood vessels, secretary ducts from
glands.

Cardiac muscle is also striated in appearance but under control of autonomic nervous system.

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Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is composed of three main parts: nerves, the spinal cord and the brain. The
primary function of nervous tissue is to receive stimuli and send the impulse to the spinal cord
and brain. The brain sends back a response to the muscles via the nerves.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The skin is the largest organ of the body and has a variety of functions. It provides a protective
covering to the body that inhibits the loss of water, it helps to regulate temperature, houses
sensory receptors that send information to the nervous system and synthesizes chemicals and
excretes wastes.

The skin also contains a good deal of immune system cells that help to protect the body against
pathogens.

The skin contains 2 layers and a subcutaneous layer. The superficial layer is called the epidermis.
The epidermis consists of stratified epithelium tissue arranged in layers called strata. Deep to the
epidermis is the dermis. The dermis consists of loose connective tissue and a number of other
structures. The deepest layer is the subcutaneous layer that consists of loose connective tissue
and adipose tissue along with blood vessels and nerves.

The epidermis consists of stratified squamous epithelium arranged in layers or strata. The layers
are:

o Stratum Corneum
o Stratum Lucidum
o Stratum Granulosum
o Stratum Spinosum
o Stratum Basale

▪ The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the epidermis. It consists of cells
that have been hardened with keratin. Keratin is secreted by cells located in the deep
layers of the epidermis called keratinocytes.

▪ The stratum lucidum is an additional layer that is found only in the palms of the hands
and soles of the feet. It provides an added thickness to these layers.

▪ The stratum granulosum contains cells that have lost their nuclei. These cells remain
active and secrete keratin. The cells contain granules in their cytoplasm that harbor
keratin.

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 The stratum spinosum contains cells called prickle cells. These cells have small radiating
processes that connect with other cells. Keratin is synthesized in this layer.

The stratum basale or basal cell layer contains epidermal stem cells. This is the deepest layer
of the epidermis. This is the layer where basal cell cancer develops.

Another kind of cell found in the epidermis is the melanocyte.

This cell produces the pigment melanin that gives skin its color. Melanocytes are in the deepest
portion of the epidermis and superficial dermis.

The colour of the skin results from the activity of the melanocytes, not the number. Melanocytes
are in the deepest layer of the epidermis. They respond to ultraviolet radiation by producing more
melanin pigment which turns skin a darker colour.

Melanocytes respond to UV-B radiation. Melanocytes are also found in the hair and middle layer of
the eye. A condition known as malignant melanoma can develop in melanocytes.

The skin also helps to synthesize Vitamin D. Vitamin D is an important substance in the body. It
functions to help the body absorb calcium. It also works to help in calcium transport in the intestines.

Structures of the Dermis

The dermis contains a variety of accessory structures of the integumentary. These include:

o Hair follicles
o Arrector pili muscles
o Sweat glands
o Sebaceous glands
o Sensory receptors
o Blood vessels

Hair Follicles

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Hair is not alive and develops from old dead cells that are pushed outward by new cells. The cells
contain keratin for hardness and melanin pigment for colour.

Hair has two main sections: The shaft- superficial portion that extends out of the skin and the root-
portion that penetrates the dermis. Surrounding the root of the hair is the hair follicle. At the base
of the hair follicle is an onion-shaped structure called the bulb papilla of the hair and the matrix
within the bulb produces new hair.

A band of smooth muscle is connected to each hair follicle. This structure is called an Arrector pili
muscle and can move each follicle causing it to stand up in times of sympathetic nervous system
activity such as emotional stress.

Sebaceous Glands

A small gland surrounds each hair follicle. This gland is called a sebaceous gland. The sebaceous
glands secrete an oily substance known as sebum. The substance is secreted in response to
contraction of the Arrector pili muscle.

Sweat Glands

There are 2 types of sweat glands. Apocrine sweat glands secrete their substances into the hair
follicles. The secretions of apocrine glands can develop odour. Eccrine sweat glands secrete their
substances directly onto the surface of the skin. The eccrine sweat glands primary function is to help
to regulate body temperature. The sweat can evaporate and carry away heat.

The sweat also excretes water and electrolytes.

Nails

The nails exist at the distal portions of the fingers and toes. The visible portion of the nail is called
the nail body and it sits over the nail bed. Nails contain keratinized cells that are pushed from the
root to the distal portions.

Functions of the skin

✓ Thermoregulation - Evaporation of sweat & Regulation of blood flow to the dermis.

✓ Cutaneous sensation - Sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, pain, warmth or coolness.
✓ Vitamin D production - UV sunlight & precursor molecule in skin make vitamin D.
✓ Protection - The skin acts as a physical barrier.
✓ Absorption & secretion - The skin is involved in the absorption of water-soluble molecules
and excretion of water and sweat.
✓ Wound healing - When a minor burn or abrasion occurs basal cells of the epidermis break
away from the basement membrane and migrate across the wound. They migrate as a sheet,
when the sides meet the growth stops and this is called ‘contact inhibition’. In deep wound
healing, a clot forms in the wound, blood flow increases, and many cells move to the wound.

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 The clot becomes a scab, granulation tissue fills the wound and intense growth of epithelial
cells beneath the scab. The scab falls off and the skin returns to normal thickness.

DISEASES OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Ulcer
A skin ulcer is an open wound on the skin. It could be caused by a health problem such as infection,
by a pressure sore, or by vein problems (venous skin ulcers). Treatments will depend on the cause
of the ulcer.

Pressure Ulcer
A pressure ulcer is an area of skin that breaks down when something keeps rubbing or pressing
against the skin. Pressure on the skin reduces blood flow to the area. Without enough blood, the
skin can die. An ulcer may form. Alternative names are bedsore, pressure sore, and decubitus ulcer.

Gangrene
Gangrene occurs when tissue dies (necrosis) because its blood supply is interrupted. Gangrene may
be caused by an infection, injury, or a complication of a long-term condition that restricts blood
circulation. It most commonly occurs in the extremities - the toes, fingers, arms and legs - but
internal organs and muscles may also become gangrenous.

Scleroderma
Scleroderma is a group of rare diseases that involve the hardening and tightening of the skin and
connective tissues — the fibres that provide the framework and support for your body.

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a skin disease marked by red, itchy, scaly patches. It is a non-infectious disease. Lesions
of psoriasis (often known as plaques) are pink or red but covered with silvery-white scales. Some
arise where the skin has been damaged. Psoriatic arthropathy: Arthritis associated with psoriasis is
called as psoriatic arthropathy.

SLE (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus)

A chronic inflammatory condition caused by an autoimmune disease. An autoimmune disease
occurs when the body's tissues are attacked by its own immune system.

Onychomycosis
Fungal infections of the nails are also known as onychomycosis, as tinea unguium, and as
ringworm of the nails.

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Basal Cell Carcinoma
A basal cell carcinoma is a type of skin cancer - the most common one. It is sometimes also called
a ‘rodent ulcer’. Basal cell carcinomas are not infectious.

Contact Dermatitis
The words ‘dermatitis’ and ‘eczema’ are interchangeable and means the same. Contact
dermatitis, therefore, is same as contact eczema. Dermatitis means an inflammation of the skin.
The term ‘contact dermatitis’ is used when this inflammation is caused by contact with something
in the environment.

Cellulitis
Spreading inflammation of cellular or connective tissue, characterized by increased blood flow,
presence of white blood cells and edema, and a lack of pus formation.

Abrasion
Removal or scraping away of the superficial layers of the skin or mucous membranes.

Abscess
A cavity filled with purulent matter, usually caused by a localized infection.

Candida
A genus of yeast like fungi that can cause rashes and itching. The skin may peel and bleed easily.
Examples include diaper rash and vaginitis (an inflammation of the vagina).

Contusion

A Hemorrhage that occurs beneath unbroken skin. Also called a bruise

Cyanosis

A dark blue or purplish coloration to the skin caused by lack of oxygen.

Erythema

Reddish skin due to dilation of underlying capillaries.

Jaundice

A condition in which the skin, whites of the eyes, and associated tissues take on a yellowish colour.

Purpura
An area in which blood vessels have haemorrhaged into the skin.

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Tumor
A large nodule or swelling generally greater than 20 mm.

Xanthoma
A yellowish nodule on the skin composed of fat, most found on the eyelids.

Callus
A thickening of the skin that develops when pressure or friction is applied to it over a period. Calluses
often develop on the palms and soles and can protect the skin from damage. Callus also refers to
tissue that forms at the ends of a broken bone and eventually binds them together.

Lipoma
A benign neoplasm of fat cells.

Melanoma
A tumour of melanin-forming cells, especially a malignant tumour associated with skin cancer.

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
The Musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body. It is made
up of the bones of the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective
tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together.

Also serves as a storage area for calcium and a source of blood cells. The adult human body has 206
bones. Basically, there are 4 types of bones,

o Long bones
o Short bones
o Flat bones
o Irregular bones

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The diaphysis contains compact bone surrounding a medullary cavity containing bone marrow. On
either end is an epiphysis containing cancellous or spongy bone. The epiphyses also contain hyaline
cartilage for forming joints with other bones. Surrounding the bone is a membrane called the
periosteum. The periosteum contains blood vessels and cells that help to repair and restore bone.

There are also 2 types of bone tissue. Compact bone or cortical bone is very dense. Cancellous bone
also called spongy bone looks more like a trabeculated matrix.

Compact bone is organized according to structural units called Haversian systems or Osteon.
Haversian systems contain a central canal (Haversian canal) that serves as a pathway for blood
vessels and nerves & provides nutrients.

Bone Cells
There are 3 basic types of cells in bone,
• Osteocytes are mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts are bone-destroying cells

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Bone Marrow
There are two kinds of marrow.
Red marrow exists in the bones of infants and children. It is called red because it contains many
red blood cells.

In adults the red marrow is replaced by yellow marrow. It is called yellow because it contains a
large proportion of fat cells. Yellow marrow decreases its ability to form new red blood cells.

Bone Growth
The Process of bone growth is called Ossification. Bones begin to grow during fetal
development and complete the growth process during young adulthood.

The Axial Skeleton

The skeleton is divided into 2 sections: the axial and appendicular sections. The axial skeleton
includes the skull, spine, ribcage, and sacrum totally 80 bones.

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Bony Landmarks

A tubercle is a rounded bump or process. Most of these bumps are sites for muscle and ligament
attachments.

A tuberosity is a rounded bump that has a more gradual slope.

A styloid process is a pointy process.

A trochanter is a very large bump. These are found on the femur bones. A condyle is a large rounded
process.

A foramen is a hole for arteries, veins and nerves.

A nutrient foramen does not go all the way through a bone. This is where blood vessels enter the
bone to provide substances for maintenance, growth and repair.

A suture is a joint uniting at least 2 bones.

A sinus is a hollow cavity within a bone.

The Bones of the Skeleton

The Skull

There are 22 bones in the skull with 8 forming the cranium. The 8 bones of the cranium include:

1. Frontal

2. Occipital

3. Right Parietal

4. Left Parietal

5. Right Temporal

6. Left Temporal

7. Sphenoid

8. Ethmoid

The bones are held together by special joints called sutures. These joints are considered immovable.

The sutures include:

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 • Sagittal suture - connects the parietal bones at the top of the skull. It lies in the sagittal
plane.
• Coronal suture - connects both parietal bones to the frontal bone on the top of
the skull. It lies in a coronal plane.
• Lambdoidal suture - connects the occipital bone to the posterior portions of the
parietal bones.
• Squamosal suture - connects the parietal bones to the temporal bones.

Frontal Bone
The frontal bone is located on the anterosuperior aspect of the skull. If forms the anterior portion of
the cranium and the superior portion of the orbits. It also contains sinuses (frontal sinuses) that
secrete mucous to help flush the nasal cavity.

Parietal Bones
The parietal bones are paired bones that form the lateral margins of the cranium.

Occipital Bone
The occipital bone forms the posterior and posteroinferior margins of the cranium. The occipital bone
articulates with the parietal, temporal, sphenoid and first cervical vertebra.

Temporal Bones
The temporal bones form the inferior-lateral margins of the cranium.

Sphenoid
The sphenoid bone forms part of the inferior portion of the cranium. It is visible on the lateral aspect
of the skull although most of the bone resides inside of the skull.

Ethmoid
The ethmoid bone is in the anterior and medial cranium. The ethmoid bone also forms the roof of the
nasal cavity and the superior portion of the nasal septum. It contains sinuses that secrete mucous to
help flush the nasal cavity.

Maxilla
The maxilla is located and the anterior aspect of the skull. It is superior to the mandible and inferior
to the frontal bone. It forms the upper jaw. The maxilla is 2 bones that have fused.

Mandible
The mandible forms the lower jaw. It is 2 bones that have fused.

Vomer
The vomer bone forms the inferior aspect of the nasal septum.

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Bones of the Orbit
The orbit is formed by the following bones
• Frontal
• Lacrimal
• Maxilla
• Zygomatic
• Palatine
• Sphenoid
• Ethmoid

Fontanels
The skeletal system does not completely ossify until the mid-twenties.
The membrane from which the skull bones form is palpable in the infant skull and is called a fontanel.
The fontanels serve a useful purpose in allowing for compression of the fetal skull during birth.

The Spine
The spine provides support for the head and trunk and houses the spinal cord. It articulates superiorly
with the head and inferiorly with the sacrum. There are 3 basic sections of the spine. The cervical
spine consists of 7 vertebrae and has 2 unique vertebrae called the atlas and axis. The thoracic spine
consists of 12 vertebrae that articulate with ribs. The lumbar spine consists of 5 large vertebrae. The
vertebrae are numbered according to their location from top to bottom. The sacrum is a triangular
curved bone located at the base of the spine. It is a series of 5 small vertebral bones that have fused.
The coccyx is another series of very small fused vertebral segments (3-5). These vertebrae do not fuse
completely.

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The Ribcage

The ribcage consists of 12 pairs of ribs. There are true, false and floating ribs. Usually ribs 1-7
are true ribs with ribs 8-10 being false ribs. Ribs 11-12 are floating ribs.

Sternum

The sternum has 3 parts. The most superior portion is called the manubrium. Just inferior to this
is the body and the most inferior portion is called the xiphoid process which consists of cartilage.
The sternum also articulates with the clavicle.

Hyoid Bone

The hyoid bone is located in the anterior region of the throat. It supports the larynx.

The Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of the arms and legs (upper and lower extremities). Totally
126 bones 64 in shoulder & upper limb, 62 in pelvis & lower limbs. The bones of the
appendicular skeleton include:

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 ▪ Ulna
▪ Carpals
▪ Metacarpals
▪ Phalanges
▪ Coxal
▪ Femur
▪ Patella
▪ Tibia
▪ Fibula
▪ Calcaneus
▪ Talus
▪ Cuboid
▪ Navicular
▪ Cuneiforms
▪ Metatarsals
▪ Phalanges
▪
The upper extremity begins with what is called the pectoral girdle (aka shoulder girdle). This
consists of the clavicle and scapula.

Bones of the Upper Extremity

The upper extremity consists of the arm, forearm, wrist and hand. The bones of the upper extremity
include:
• Humerus
• Radius
• Ulna
• Carpals
• Metacarpals
• Phalanges

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Humerus
The humerus is the proximal bone of the arm. It is a long tubular bone that articulates
proximally with the scapula and distally with the radius and ulna

Ulna
The ulna and radius both support the forearm (ante brachium). The ulna is on the medial side
of the forearm. The bump on your elbow is actually the olecranon process of the ulna.

Radius
The radius is also located in the forearm. It articulates with the ulna and carpal bones. The
radius allows for rotation of the forearm.

Carpals
The carpal bones are located in the wrist. They consist of 8 bones that articulate with the radius
and ulna proximally and the metacarpals distally .

The 8 carpal bones are:

A. Scaphoid
B. Lunate
C. Triquetrum
D. Pisiform
E. Trapezium
F. Trapezoid
G. Capitate
H. Hamate

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Metacarpals
There are 5 metacarpals numbered accordingly from the thumb (1) to the little finger (5)

Phalanges
The phalanges comprise the fingers. They are numbered the same as the metacarpals and named
for their location. The thumb has only a proximal and distal phalanx. The remaining fingers have
proximal, middle and distal ph alanges.

Bones of the hand

1. Distal phalanx

2. Middle phalanx

3. Proximal phalanx

4. Metacarpals

5. Carpals

A. First

B. Second

C. Third

D. Fourth

E. Fifth

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Bones of the Lower Extremity

The lower extremity consists of the pelvis, leg, ankle and foot. The bones of the lower extremity are
as follows:

• Coxal
• Femur
• Patella
• Tibia
• Fibula
• Talus
• Calcaneus
• Tarsals
• Metatarsals
• Phalanges

The pelvic girdle consists of the 2 Coxal bones.

Coxal Bone

The pelvis consists of the sacrum and 2 Coxal bones. The Coxal bones are 3 bones fused together. The
3 bones are the ilium, ischium and pubis. The Coxal bones articulate with the sacrum at the sacroiliac
joints and the femurs at the hip joints.

Femur

The femur is the longest bone in the body. It articulates with the acetabulum of the Coxal bone
proximally and with the patella and tibia distally.

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Tibia

The tibia is the larger of 2 bones of the lower leg. It articulates with the femur, fibula, patella and talus
bones. The medial malleolus is a rounded process on the distal medial aspect of the tibia. It is the
bump on the inside of the ankle.

Fibula

The fibula is the lateral bone in the lower leg. It forms the lateral ankle and articulates with the tibia
and talus bones. The lateral malleolus is a rounded process on the distal end of the bone. It forms
the lateral ankle.

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The Ankle

The ankle and foot consist of the tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges and has a similar construction to the
wrist and hand.

Tarsals

o Calcaneus
o Talus
o Navicular
o Cuboid
o Lateral cuneiform
o Intermediate cuneiform
o Medial cuneiform

The calcaneus or heel bone is the largest of the tarsals. The talus forms the ankle joint with the tibia and
fibula. These bones articulate with the navicular and cuboid bones.

Metatarsals and Phalanges

There are 5 tubular metatarsals that are named for their position (1-5). The phalanges are similar to
those in the fingers. The big toe only has proximal and distal phalanges while the remaining toes have
proximal, middle and distal phalanges.

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Joints

Joints connect the bones of the body and allow it to move and grow. Joints are called articulations.
There are three basic categories of joints:
1. Fibrous
2. Cartilagenous
3. Synovial

Fibrous
Fibrous joints are connected by dense connective tissue consisting mainly of collagen. These joints are
also called fixed or immovable joints because they do not move. Fibrous joints have no joint cavity and
are connected via fibrous connective tissue. The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints called
sutures.

Cartilaginous Joints

Cartilaginous joints are connected entirely by cartilage (fibrocartilage or hyaline). Cartilaginous

joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile
synovial joint.

Synovial Joints

A synovial joint, also known as diarthrosis, joins bones with a fibrous joint capsule that is continuous
with the periosteum of the joined bones, constitutes the outer boundary of a synovial cavity, and
surrounds the bones' articulating surfaces. The synovial cavity/joint is filled with synovial fluid.

There are a few types of synovial joints named for their shape. The shape of the joint determines
its movement.

Ball and socket joints consist of a rounded process and rounded socket. These include the hip and
shoulder and allow for a variety of movements.

Hinge joints consist of a convex surface and concave socket. Examples include the joint between
the humerus and ulna as well as in some of the phalanges. Hinge joints only move in one plane.

Condyloid joints consist of oval processes fitting into elliptical sockets. An example of this
joint is the metacarpal phalangeal joint.

Gliding joints consist of flattened surfaces connected. Examples include the carpal bones of the
wrist.

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Pivot joints consist of a cylinder fitting into a ring of bone. Examples include the joint between the
atlas and axis of the spine and the joint between the radius and humerus.

Saddle joints consist of two bones having both concave and convex surfaces. An example is
the carpal- metacarpal joint of the hand.

Elbow

The elbow contains two articulations. One involves the humerus and ulna. The other involves the
humerus and radius.

Hip

The hip joint consists of the femur and Coxal bones. The head of the femur fits into the acetabulum of
the Coxal bone.

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Knee

The knee is the most complex joint in the body. It is also the largest. It consists of the condyles of the
tibia articulating with the condyles of the tibia. The patella also articulates with the femur. The knee
flexes and extends as well as rotates. It forms a locked position when extended.

Knee Menisci

The knee also contains two fibro cartilage pads called menisci that helps to cushion the joint. The
medial and lateral menisci are located on top of the tibial condyles.

Tendons and Ligaments

o Muscles connect to bones through dense connective tissue structures called tendons.
o Ligaments connect bones to bones. Ligaments allow for range of motion.

Muscular System
The muscular system is an organ system which permits movement of the body, maintains posture
and circulates blood throughout the body.
Muscle tissue largely consists of protein. There are three basic types of muscle tissue. Skeletal
muscle is characterized by densely packed protein filaments. Cardiac muscle is only found in the
heart and has densely packed protein filaments. Skeletal and cardiac muscle appears striated
because of these filaments. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the arteries and digestive
system.
The muscular systems in vertebrates are controlled through the nervous system although some
muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal
system, it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human
body.

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 DISEASES OF MUSKULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

Fracture
A fracture is defined as where the continuity of bone is broken.

Types of Fracture

Closed Fracture
A closed fracture is when the bone breaks but does not come through the skin and there is no puncture
or open wound in the skin.

Open Fracture
An open fracture is one in which the bone breaks and penetrates through the skin.

Displaced Fracture
The bone breaks completely into two or more parts and moves so that two ends are not lined up
straight.

Non-Displaced Fracture
The bone cracks either part or all of the way through but does move and maintains its proper
alignment.

Some other fracture types,

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Greenstick Fracture
An incomplete fracture in which one side of the bone is broken and the other only bent. This type
occurs most often in children.

Transverse Fracture
When the broken piece of bone is at the right angle to the bone's axis.

Oblique Fracture
A bone break diagonally. It can vary in severity, depending on what bone is affected and how large the
break is. Oblique fractures tend to occur on longer bones like the tibia or femur.

Comminuted Fracture
A fracture in which the bone fragments into several pieces

Impacted Fracture
A fracture in which one broken end is wedged into the other broken end.

Pathologic Fracture
A fracture which is caused by disease that led to weakness of the bone structure. This is caused most
due to osteoporosis, cancer, infection.

Ankylosing Spondylitis
Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a form of arthritis that affects the joints in the spine, Spondylitis causes
inflammation (redness, heat, swelling, and pain) in the spine or vertebrae. AS often involves an
inflamed sacroiliac (SI) joint, where the spine joins the pelvis.

Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis affects both the cartilage, which is the tissue that cushions the ends of bones within the
joint, as well as the underlying bone.

Rheumatoid Arthritis
Inflammation most often affects joints of the hands and feet and tends to be symmetrical (occurring
equally on both sides of the body).

Fibromyalgia
Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder that causes pain throughout the tissues that support and move
the bones and joints.

Polymyalgia Rheumatica
Polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) is a syndrome with pain or stiffness, usually in the neck, shoulders,
upper arms, and hips, but which may occur all over the body. The pain can be very sudden or can
occur gradually over a period.

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Bursitis
Inflammation of the bursae, small, fluid-filled sacs that help reduce friction between bones and
other moving structures in the joints.

Tendinitis (Tendonitis)
Inflammation of the tendons. Tendons is the tissue which connect muscle to bones.

Carpel tunnel Syndrome

The carpal tunnel is a narrow passageway of ligament and bones at the base of your hand. It
contains nerve and tendons. Compression of the median nerve as it travels through the wrist at
the carpal tunnel. Also Known as Median Nerve Entrapment.

Osteomyelitis
Osteomyelitis is the infection and inflammation of the bone and bone marrow which is usually
caused by bacteria. The inflammation usually originates in another parts of the body and is
transported to the bone through the bloodstream.

Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is the thinning of bone tissue and loss of bone density due to lack of calcium &
phosphate minerals. Calcium & phosphate are the two minerals that may be reabsorbed back into
the body from the bones, which makes the bone tissue weaker. This can result in brittle and fragile
bones.

Arthralgia
Pain in a joint. Also called arthrodynia.

Ankylosis
Stiffening or fixation of a joint.

Avascular Necrosis
Death of bone tissue caused by inadequate blood supply. Can be caused by several conditions such
as trauma, fracture, osteoarthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Can be idiopathic. Also
called osteonecrosis.

Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE)

A chronic disorder of unknown etiology that primarily affects the skin. Characterized by macules,
plaques, and scales that appear on the skin.

Kyphosis
An abnormal, exaggerated posterior curvature of the thoracic spine that may result in severe body
flexion (forward leaning). Commonly called hunchback or humpback.

Lordosis
An abnormal, exaggerated anterior curvature of the lumbar spine that may result in severe body
extension.
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Multiple myeloma
Malignant bone tumor involving plasma-producing (hemopoietic) cells in bone marrow. Usually
occurs in multiple sites. Overgrowth of the plasma cells disrupts production of other blood
components, resulting in anemia, haemorrhage, and recurrent infections. May also cause pain and
necrosis (death) of the bone. Also called myeloma or myelomatosis.

Rickets
Childhood disease caused by vitamin D deficiency and lack of exposure to sunlight. Results in
softening and bending of bones with associated skeletal deformities. Also called richitis.

Scoliosis
Abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. Can be idiopathic or hereditary. May be a result of muscle
and/or bone deformity or chronic unequal muscle contraction.

Sjogren syndrome (SS)

Chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder associated with rheumatoid arthritis and characterized
by dryness of the mucous membranes. May have an autoimmune or genetic etiology.

Spondylitis
Inflammation of one or more vertebrae. Sprain Injury to a ligament that occurs when a joint is
moved outside its normal range of motion but not far enough to cause dislocation or fracture.

Spur
Abnormal bone formation at the edges of joints. Characteristic of conditions such as osteoarthritis.

INJURIES
Abrasion
Scraping of the skin on the rough surface, either from a fall or body being dragged.

Incision
Sharp cut with very clean edges, usually involving a sharp blade, as in a knife.

Laceration or open wound

Cut that involves rough edges, this type of injury might be caused by tearing of the skin by curved
portion of hammer or claw marks from a large mammal.

Puncture
Penetration of the skin by a sharp object such as thumbtack (drawing pin).

Avulsion
A chunk of the skin is being removed.

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Contusion
Another name for bruise. A Contusion is caused when blood vessels are damaged or broken as a
result of a blow to the skin.

Bunion
A type of bursitis that affects the joint at the base of the great toe.

Strain and Sprain

Injury to connective tissue, usually muscle, caused by overuse or improper use. A sprain is a stretching
or tearing of ligaments.

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 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The heart essentially has two jobs. It pumps deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs. It also
pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body. The heart then is divided into two regions
(right and left sides) with each performing one of the jobs. The right side moves blood from the
body to the lungs. The left side moves blood from the lungs to the body.
One of the two jobs is more difficult. In fact, because of the proximity of the lungs to the heart the
first job is easier. The second job is more difficult because blood must be pushed out as far as the
big toe.
Pushing blood farther makes the job more difficult. Therefore, the left side of the heart is larger
than the right.

Heart
The adult heart is in the thoracic cavity in an area known as the mediastinum. The mediastinum
contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, vessels, nerves and membranes surrounding the heart.
Dissecting the membrane known as the parietal pericardium reveals the heart.

The heart is shaped like a blunt cone and is the size of a fist. The point of the cone is called the apex
and the other end is called the base. The apex points downward. The heart is positioned centrally
with the apex pointing to the left. More of the heart resides left of the midline of the thoracic cavity
than on the right.

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Membranes of the Heart
The heart is surrounded by a double layered sac consisting of two membranes. The outer
membrane consists of fibrous connective tissue and is known as the fibrous or parietal pericardium.
The inner membrane is thinner and consists of simple squamous epithelium. It is known as the
visceral or serous pericardium.
Pericardial fluid exists between the membranes. The fluid helps to reduce friction when the heart
beats.
The visceral pericardium can become inflamed and produce extra fluid in a condition known as
pericarditis. This can result from infection or diseases of the connective tissues.
Pericarditis can also result from damage caused by radiation therapy. Pericarditis can cause severe
sharp pains in the chest and back.

Layers of the Heart

The heart consists of three layers of tissue. These include the endocardium, myocardium, and
epicardium. The endocardium is the internal layer consisting of simple squamous epithelium and
connective tissue. This layer is consistent with the valves of the heart. The middle myocardium is a
thick layer of cardiac muscle.

The outer epicardium is the visceral pericardium and consists of a thin serous membrane.

Heart Structures
The heart consists of four chambers. Two of these chambers receive blood and are called atria. The
other two chambers are larger for pumping blood outside of the heart and are called ventricles.
Each side of the heart has an atrium and ventricle. The atria are separated by a mass of tissue called
the interatrial septum. The ventricles are also separated by a thick mass of muscles known as the
interventricular septum.

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On the surface of the heart a sulcus known as the coronary sulcus separates the atria and ventricles.
The anterior interventricular sulcus divides the right and left ventricles anteriorly. The posterior
interventricular sulcus divides right and left ventricles posteriorly.

Blood Flow Through the Heart

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via two large veins called the superior and inferior
vena cava. Blood then flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle pass a one-way valve known
as the tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve has three cusps with each connected to the inter nal wall
of the right ventricle via connective tissue structures called chordae tendoneae. The chordae
tendoneae connect to finger-like projections of muscle called papillary muscles. The tricuspid valve
is driven by pressure and only allows blood to flow in one direction (from atrium to ventricle).
Contraction of the right ventricle pushes blood to the pulmonary artery and pass the pulmonary
semilunar valve on its way to the lungs. The pulmonary artery is a thick artery that splits into right
and left pulmonary arteries that serve the right and left lungs. The pulmonary semilunar valve
contains three cusps that only allow blood to flow in one direction. When pressure builds in the
ventricle the cusps open allowing blood to move into the pulmonary artery. When pressure causes
movement of blood back toward the heart the valves close.
Blood moves from the pulmonary arteries to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood is carried
by four pulmonary veins to the left atrium. Blood then moves from the left atrium to
the left ventricle passes the bicuspid valve (aka mitral valve). The bicuspid valve is a one-way valve
with two cusps that attach to the ventricle wall via chordae tendoneae and papillary muscles.
Contraction of the left ventricle causes blood to flow into the aorta pass the aortic semilunar valve.
The aortic semilunar valve has three cusps and only allows blood to flow away from the heart.
Oxygenated blood now flows through the aorta to the body.

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Arterial System
The arterial system consists of arteries, arterioles and capillaries. The largest arteries consist of
three layers.
The outer tunica externa consists of elastic and collagen fibers. The larger vessels also contain
minute blood vessels that carry nutrients to the tissue.
The middle layer or tunica media is thicker in arteries than in veins. It primarily consists of smooth
muscle with some elastic fibers. The smooth muscle in the tunica media allows for constriction
(vasoconstriction) and dilation (vasodilation) of the arteries. The nervous system has some control
over the diameter of arteries in order to control blood pressure. Also, blood vessels constrict when
damaged to reduce the loss of blood
The inner layer or tunica interna consists of an inner thin layer of simple squamous epithelium
called the endothelium.
Arteries branch to form smaller structures called arterioles. Arterioles help to control blood flow
to various parts of the body by way of vasoconstriction and vasodilation. The end of the arteriole
that connects with the capillaries narrows and becomes a metarteriole that contains a round
smooth muscle called a precapillary sphincter. The precapillary sphincters help to control the flow
of blood to the capillary beds.

One metarteriole may supply up to 100 capillaries forming what is known as a capillary bed.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body (fig. 18.12). They carry blood to the venous
system and allow for the exchange of substances between the blood and the tissues. Capillaries
form complex networks.

Venous System
Capillaries contain an arterial and venous end. The venous system begins at the venous end of
capillaries. Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange occurs in the capillaries and deoxygenated blood
is now carried into the venous vessels.
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Venules
Venules begin at the ends of capillaries and carry blood to the veins. Venules are very small and
similar in structure to capillaries. They allow for substance exchange and merge with larger
diameter veins.

Veins
Veins like arteries contain three layers. However, the middle layer or tunic media is not as thick as
in arteries. Veins have larger lumens that arteries and many veins contain valves that only allow
blood to flow to the heart. Veins can vasoconstrict and do so in situations of blood loss in order to
conserve blood. When significant blood is lost, the sympathetic nervous system stimulates veins to
constrict to return blood to the heart.

Pulmonary Circuit
Deoxygenated blood enters the right side of the heart at the right atrium. The blood moves to the
right ventricle and then exits via the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary circuit begins at the
pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk then divides into right and left pulmonary arteries. The
pulmonary arteries enter the lungs and form smaller and smaller branches. The smallest branches
consist of the pulmonary arterioles that bring oxygenated blood to the capillaries that feed the
alveoli. The alveoli are minute structures in the lung that exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Once the blood becomes oxygenated it exits the alveoli and enters venules that branch to larger
vessels called pulmonary veins. There are two pulmonary veins for each lung that carry blood to
the left atrium.

Systemic Circuit
The systemic circuit begins at the left ventricle with the aorta and ends at the right atrium at the
superior and inferior vena cava.

Aorta
As the aorta exits it is known as the ascending aorta. Near the aortic valve is an enlargement known
as the aortic sinus. The aortic sinus contains the aortic bodies. The aortic bodies are
chemoreceptors that sense changes in chemical concentration and feed this information back to
the nervous system. The aorta then curves forming the arch of the aorta and extends inferiorly to
become the thoracic aorta. It then passes below the diaphragm to become the abdominal aorta.

Cardiac Conducting System

In a normal heartbeat conduction begins with an area of special cells called pacemaker cells in the
posterior wall of the right atrium. This area is known as the sinoatrial (SA) node. It is sometimes
referred to as the pacemaker node. The SA node can generate action potentials automatically at a
rate of 60-100 beats per minute.
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The impulse from the SA node is transferred to the atrioventricular (AV) node located in the floor
of the right atrium. The impulse from the AV node travels to the atrioventricular (AV) bundle or
Bundle of His These cells are also capable of producing action potentials at a rate of 20-40 bpm.
The AV bundle connects the atria and ventricles. The AV bundle sends impulses to the right and
left bundle branches. The branches extend to the apex of the heart and distribute impulses to the
ventricles via Purkinjie fibers and to the papillary muscles.

Blood Pressure Control

Blood pressure is a measure of the force on blood vessel walls. There are two numbers associated
with blood pressure. The systolic pressure is the higher number and results from ventricular
contraction. The diastolic pressure represents the pressure in the system during ventricular
diastole.
Blood pressure can be measured with a stethoscope and a device called a sphygmomanometer.
Blood pressure is directly related to cardiac output.

DISEASES OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Angina Pectoris or Angina

Angina occurs when the heart is not getting enough oxygen-rich blood for a short time.

Types of Angina
Stable angina Stable angina is brought on by physical exertion when narrowed coronary
arteries work harder to get oxygen.

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 Unstable angina Unstable angina generally occurs in older adults and can be a sign that a
heart attack is about to happen.

Variant angina (also known as Prinzmetal's angina) Variant angina occurs when there is a
spasm in a coronary artery, which decreases blood flow to the heart.

Arrhythmias
An irregular heartbeat.
These include:

• Atrial Fibrillation
• Heart block, including first-degree AV block, second-degree AV block, and complete AV
block

•Premature atrial complex (PAC)

•Atrial flutter

•Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT)

•Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome

•Premature ventricular complex (PVC)

•Ventricular tachycardia

•Ventricular fibrillation

•Long QT syndrome

Atrial fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation is a type of abnormal heart rhythm -- also known as an arrhythmia. Atrial
fibrillation is the most common form of abnormal heartbeat.

Types of Atrial Fibrillation:

• Primary atrial fibrillation

•Chronic atrial fibrillation

•Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation

•Persistent atrial fibrillation

•Permanent atrial fibrillation

Cardiomyopathy
A disease affecting the heart muscle itself, including

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 • Dilated cardiomyopathy: Heart's main pumping chamber left ventricle becomes
enlarged(dilated), its pumping ability becomes less forceful & blood does not flow as easily
through the heart.

•Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Abnormal growth of the heart muscle affecting the

muscle of the left ventricle. As thickening occurs, the heart tends to stiffen and the size of
the pumping chamber may shrink, interfering with the heart's ability to delivery blood to
the body. Two classification of hypertrophic cardiomyopathies are
o Obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

o Non-obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

• Restrictive cardiomyopathy: It becomes rigid and less elastic. Due to this, the heart
can't properly expand and fill with blood between heartbeats.

Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)

Heart failure is a condition where the heart cannot pump enough blood throughout the body. It
does not mean that your heart has stopped or is about to stop working. It means that your heart is
not able to pump blood the way that it should.

Coronary artery disease (CAD)

Also known as heart disease, ischemic heart disease, or coronary heart disease (CHD). It is a disease
in which a plaque builds up inside the coronary arteries. These arteries supply oxygen-rich blood
to your heart muscle.

Cor pulmonale
Cor pulmonale is an abnormal enlargement of the right side of the heart as a result of disease of
the lungs or the pulmonary blood vessels.

Heart attack
It is also known as a myocardial infarction or MI. An artery that supplies blood to the heart is
blocked, there cutting off the oxygen to that area. As a result, the affected heart tissues die or
permanently damaged.

Myocarditis - which is an inflammation of the heart muscle.

Pericarditis - (inflammation of the lining that surrounds the heart), including constrictive
pericarditis sudden cardiac death

Aneurysm - An abnormal dilation or bulging out of an artery wall due to a congenital or acquired
weakness in the wall.

Aortic dissection - A tear in the innermost layer of the aorta which allows blood to surge into the
aortic wall, creating a false lumen within the aorta.

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Arteriovenous fistula - Abnormal passage of blood between an artery and a vein, bypassing
capillary beds.

Arteriosclerosis - A generic term for several conditions characterized by thickening of the walls of
arteries. The arteries lose their elasticity, making them less efficient in pumping blood. Commonly
called hardened arteries.

Atrial septal defect (ASD) - A congenital defect in which there is an abnormal opening in the
septum between the left and right atria.

Bruit - An abnormal heart sound heard on auscultation that often has a harsh or musical quality.
Bundle Branch Block (BBB) - A partial or complete interruption in the conduction of one of the
two main branches of the bundle of His.

Cardiac arrest (CA) - Failure of the systemic circulatory system due to absent or inadequate
contraction of the ventricles.

Coarctation - A constriction of a blood vessel, usually the aorta.

Flutter - Regular, rapid contractions of the atrial or ventricular muscles.
Hyperlipidemia - Several types of disorders characterized by increased plasma lipoprotein levels.
Also called hyperlipoproteinemia.

Hypertension - Abnormally high blood pressure.

Hypotension - Abnormally low blood pressure.
Hypertriglyceridemia - Abnormally high levels of serum triglycerides.
Intermittent claudication - Intense pain, cramping, weakness, and/or numbness in the lower
extremities. It is usually intermittent and indicates impaired circulation to the extremities.

Lymphedema - Swelling and localized accumulation of lymph in tissues that occur when lymphatic
channels are obstructed.

Palpitation - Unusually forceful, rapid, and/or irregular heartbeats of which the patient is aware.
peripheral arterial occlusive Disease - Blockage of the blood supply to an extremity caused by
an embolism or plaque caused by atherosclerosis.

Phlebitis - Inflammation of a vein.

Syncope - A sudden, temporary loss of consciousness. Also called fainting.
Raynaud disease - Spasms of arterioles, along with cyanosis or pallor. There is bilateral
involvement, and no underlying cause can be determined.

Thrombus - A clot formed from blood components and found in the cardiovascular system.
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Valvular heart disease - Any condition in which a heart valve improperly functions.
Valvular regurgitation - Backward flow of blood through an incompetent heart valve. Also called
valvular insufficiency or valvular incompetence.

Ventricular septal defect (VSD) - A congenital defect in which there is an abnormal opening in
the septum between the left and right ventricles.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
A digestive system is a group of organs consisting of the central gastrointestinal (GI) tract and
its associated accessory organs that break down food into smaller components so that nutrients
can be absorbed and assimilated. This provides the necessary energy to sustain the body.

The Alimentary Canal

The digestive starts from the mouth to the anus with some accessory organs attached.
The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum,
cecum, colon, rectum and anus. The accessory organs include the tongue, teeth, salivary glands,
pancreas, liver and gallbladder.

The alimentary canal contains four layers of tissue. The outer portion consists of a serous
membrane called the serosa. Deep to this layer is a muscle layer called the muscularis layer.
The next layer is known as the submucosa. Deep to the muscularis layer is a mucous
membrane called the mucosa.

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Mouth
The mouth or oral cavity is bordered by the lips anteriorly, cheeks laterally, tongue inferiorly a nd
the hard and soft palate superiorly. The mouth is lined with a mucous membrane. The upper lip
contains a groove at the midline known as the philtrum.
The cheeks also contain an outer skin and inner mucous membrane. The hard palate consists of
the two palatine bones and the palatine processes of the maxilla. The soft palate is a muscular
structure that forms two arches with the uvula in the midline.
The tongue consists of skeletal muscles covered by a mucous membrane. Parts of the tongue
include a root, tip and body. The superior surface of the tongue contains papillae. The fungiform
papillae contain taste buds.

Salivary Glands
There are three pairs of salivary glands. These are the parotid, submandibular and sublingual
glands. The salivary glands produce about 1L of saliva per day. In addition to the large glands,
small glands on the insides of the cheeks called buccal glands also secrete saliva (about 5% of
the total volume per day) which helps to keep the mouth moist. The salivary glands are
considered exocrine glands which secrete their substances into tubes. The parotid glands are
the largest salivary glands.

Teeth
A typical tooth consists of a crown, neck and a root. The crown is the visible portion. The root is
a cone shaped process that lies below the gum line. The neck is the portion surrounded by the
gums. The crown is covered by enamel which is a hard substance that protects the teeth. Deep
to the enamel is the dentin. In the crown dentin is covered by enamel. In the root the dentin is
covered by cementum. The deepest portion of the tooth consists of a pulp cavity and root canal

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that contain blood vessels and nerves 16 are found in the maxilla and the other 16 in the
mandible.

I = incisor, C = canine, B = bicuspid, M = molar

Pharynx
The pharynx is a shared passageway for the respiratory and digestive systems. Food is chewed
up and rolled in what is known as a bolus and pushed to the back of the mouth where it enters
the pharynx for swallowing.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. It lies posterior
to the trachea.
The esophagus has two circular sphincter muscles. The upper esophageal sphincter keeps the
esophagus closed during breathing to keep air from moving into the digestive tract. The lower
esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter) is located at the inferior end of the esophagus where
it pierces the diaphragm at the esophageal hiatus. The lower esophageal sphincter remains
closed until swallowing occurs.

Stomach
The esophagus empties into the stomach which is a curved pouchlike organ. There are four
major divisions of the stomach. These include the cardiac region, body, fundus and pylorus. The
cardiac region is the superior portion just after the esophagus. The fundus is an upward bulge
that is located on the left side. The body is the central portion and the pylorus the inferior
portion
The inner membrane creates folds called rugae. The rugae increase the surface area and help in
mixing the contents of the stomach.

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The gastric glands consist of mucous secreting cells, parietal cells and chief cells. Parietal cells
secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor. Chief cells secrete a precursor enzyme called
pepsinogen. Pepsinogen combines with hydrochloric acid to become an active form known as
pepsin. Pepsin digests proteins.

The combination of all the stomach secretions is known as gastric juice.

Food enters the stomach and combines with gastric juice to form a pasty substance called
chyme. Chyme then leaves the stomach by way of the pyloric sphincter and enters the
duodenum.
The stomach can mix substances and move them through. Both movements result from smooth
muscle contractions. Weaker peristaltic waves help to mix the stomach contents while stronger
waves move the contents toward the pylorus.

Small Intestine
The small intestine consists of three parts. The proximal section is the duodenum which is
followed by the jejunum and ileum. The duodenum begins at the pylorus. The small intestine is
built for absorption numerous finger-like projections known as villi helps in absorption.

Large Intestine
The large intestine begins at a pouch called the cecum. The junction between the ileum and
cecum occurs at a smooth muscle sphincter in the cecum known as the ileocecal valve or
sphincter.
Extending vertically from the cecum is the first segment of the colon known as the ascending
colon. The ascending colon takes a left turn at the liver (hepatic flexure) and continues
horizontally as the transverse colon. The transverse colon takes a downward turn at the spleen
(splenic flexure) and continues as the descending colon. As the descending colon extends
beyond the iliac crest it becomes the sigmoid colon which is S-shaped.

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The sigmoid colon becomes the rectum which runs about 7-8 inches long. The last inch or so of
the rectum is known as the anal canal.
Water and electrolytes are absorbed in the large intestine with the resulting material called
feces.

Liver
The liver is in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity close to the diaphragm. The liver
consists of four lobes including right, left, quadrate, and caudate.
The liver performs many functions and is considered a vital organ. Its functions include
detoxifying the blood, producing bile, metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins, storing
iron, blood and vitamins, recycling red blood cells and producing plasma proteins.
Bile is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile contains bile salts that are formed
from cholesterol. Bile works to break down fat by emulsification and eliminates products from
the breakdown of red blood cells.
The gallbladder contains an outer serous membrane as well as a smooth muscle layer and inner
mucous membrane. The inside of the gallbladder contains rugae much like the stomach. The
gallbladder is about 3-4 inches long. In some cases, bile can precipitate and form gallstones. The
gallbladder can become inflamed in a condition known as cholecystitis.

Pancreas
The pancreas has a dual endocrine and exocrine role. The exocrine glands secrete digestive
enzymes. The endocrine cells are called alpha and beta cells. The alpha cells secrete glucagon
and the beta cells secrete insulin.
The pancreas consists of a body, head and a tail. It is in the curve of the duodenum.

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 DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ESOPHAGITIS
An acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the esophagus, frequently involving the submucous
tissues.

ACUTE GASTRITIS
An acute inflammation of the mucous surfaces of the stomach.

GERD
It is a more serious form of gastroesophageal reflux; stomach contents rise into the esophagus.

CELIAC DISEASE
Celiac disease is a genetic autoimmune disease that damages the villi of the small intestine and interferes
with absorption of nutrients from food. People who have celiac disease cannot tolerate gluten, a protein
in wheat, rye, and barley. When people with celiac disease eat foods or use products containing gluten,
their immune system responds by damaging or destroying villi.

CIRRHOSIS
Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver slowly deteriorates and malfunctions due to chronic injury. Scar
tissue replaces healthy liver tissue, partially blocking the flow of blood through the liver. A healthy liver
can regenerate most of its own cells when they become damaged, with end-stage cirrhosis, the liver can
no longer effectively replace damaged cells.

ULCERATIVE COLITIS
Ulcerative colitis is a chronic, or long-lasting, disease that causes inflammation and sores, called ulcers,
in the inner lining of the large intestine, which includes the colon and the rectum—the end part of the
colon.

CROHN'S DISEASE
Crohn's disease causes inflammation of parts of the digestive tract. Inflammation is irritation and
swelling. The inflammation, mostly caused by sores called ulcers, can cause pain and diarrhea. Crohn's
disease can affect any area of the GI tract, but it most often affects a part of the small intestine called
the ileum.

SMALL INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION

Bowel obstruction or intestinal obstruction is a mechanical or functional obstruction of the intestines,
preventing the normal transit of the products of digestion. It can occur at any level distal to the
duodenum of the small intestine and is a medical emergency.

APPENDICITIS
Acute inflammation of the vermiform appendix.

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ASCITES
Accumulation of serous fluid in the peritoneal cavity.

CHOLECYSTITIS
Acute inflammation of the wall of the gallbladder, usually caused by calculi (gallstones) obstructing the
cystic duct.

CHOLELITHIASIS
The presence of hard deposits called calculi or gallstones in the gallbladder.

COLITIS
Inflammation of the colon.

COLORECTAL CANCER
Malignancy in the colon and/or rectum.

CONSTIPATION
Difficult, delayed, or incomplete bowel movements.
DIARRHEA
Abnormally frequent bowel movements involving fecal matter that is typically semisolid or liquid.
Diarrhea is not a disease but rather a symptom of a wide variety of conditions.

DIVERTICULUM
Small outpouching from the wall of a tubular or sac-like structure. Diverticula can occur in many areas
but are seen most in the intestines.

DYSPEPSIA
Feeling of indigestion, gaseousness, or a general burning sensation in the upper abdomen or chest.

DYSPHAGIA
A subjective feeling of difficulty in swallowing.

EMESIS
The forceful expulsion of gastric contents through the mouth. Also called vomiting

FIBROSIS
Formation of connective tissue as a reparative or reactive response to something.

HEMORRHOIDS
A varicose condition of the hemorrhoidal veins near the anus leading to itching, painful swelling, and
bleeding. Hemorrhoids can be either internal or external. Also called piles
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HEPATITIS
Inflammation of the liver. It is most commonly viral, but can be caused by bacteria, fungi, parasitic
organisms, toxins, or autoimmune disorders. Types include hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C.

HEPATOMEGALY
Enlargement of the liver.

HERNIA
A protrusion of a structure or part of a structure through the tissue that normally contains it.

HIATUS HERNIA
Protrusion of the stomach above the diaphragm. Also called a hiatal hernia.

INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE (IBD)

Various diseases characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract.

IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME

A disorder involving the motility of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause abdominal pain, constipation,
and diarrhea. Also called spastic colon.

MALNUTRITION
Lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough of the right things, or
being unable to use the food that one does eat.

MALABSORPTION
Imperfect absorption of food material by the small intestine.

OBESITY is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have
a negative effect on health.

MORBID OBESITY
It is a medical term describing people who have a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 40, or of 35 to 40 with
significant medical problems caused by or made worse by their weight. BMI of 40 amounts to
approximately 100 pounds above ideal weight. Severely overweight health risks. High blood pressure.
Diabetes.

NAUSEA
A feeling of sickness with an inclination to vomit.

BLOATING
Bloating is any abnormal general swelling or increase in diameter of the abdominal area. As a symptom,
the patient feels a full and tight abdomen, which may cause abdominal pain, and sometimes
accompanied by increased stomach growling, or more seriously, the total lack of it.
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 EAR, NOSE AND THROAT (ENT)
EAR
The ear is divided into three areas: external, middle and inner ear.

External Ear
The external ear consists of the auricle (pinna) and the external auditory meatus (canal). The
auricle is the outer portion of the ear consisting of elastic cartilage covered by skin. The external
auditory meatus is a canal that extends from the outside to the tympanic membrane.
It is lined with skin containing sebaceous glands, hair and ceruminous glands that secrete a waxy
substance called cerumen (ear wax). Cerumen traps foreign particles and helps to protect the
canal.

Middle Ear
The tympanic membrane is the boundary between the external and middle ear. It consists of a
thin layer of connective tissue. It has a layer of skin on its external surface and a mucous
membrane on its internal surface.
The middle ear resides in a hollow chamber called the tympanic cavity. The cavity is lined with
a mucous membrane. The cavity contains a canal called the Eustachian tube (pharyngotympanic
tube) that connects with the nasopharynx.
Three small bones called auditory ossicles transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to
the oval window of the inner ear. These are the malleus, incus and stapes.
The stapes is attached to the surface of the cochlea at a spot called the oval window. The cochlea
is filled with fluid and has tiny nerve endings called the hairs of Corti covering its interior surface.
When sound vibrations reach the stapes, the stapes gently presses against the oval window
causing fluid to move in the cochlea.
This in turn stimulates the hairs of Corti, causing nerve impulses to be sent to the brain through
the auditory division (cochlear component) of the vestibulocochlear nerve.

The brain then interprets these impulses as sounds.

The sound waves are transmitted within the ear in two phases: the conductive phase and the
sensorineural phase
Conductive phase: Sound waves travel through the external and middle ear by conduction.
Sensorineural phase: The sensorineural phase involves the cochlea and the vestibulocochlear
nerve.

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Inner Ear
The inner ear resides within a cavity inside of the temporal bone. It consists of the cochlea,
vestibule and semi-circular canals. The cochlea is a spiral shaped structure that connects to
the anterior portion of the vestibule.

Once the vibrations of the eardrum have been transmitted to the oval window, the sound
waves continue their journey into the inner ear.

The inner ear is a maze of tubes and passages, referred to as the labyrinth. In the labyrinth
can be found the vestibular and the cochlea.

Cochlea
In the cochlea, sound waves are transformed into electrical impulses which are sent on to the
brain. The brain then translates the impulses into sounds that we know and understand.

What is the cochlea and what is the function of the cochlea? The cochlea resembles a snail
shell or a wound-up hose and is filled with a fluid called perilymph and contains two closely
positioned membranes. These membranes form a type of partition wall in the cochlea.
However, for the fluid to move freely in the cochlea from one side of the partition wall to the
other, the wall has a little hole in it (the helicotrema). This hole is necessary, in ensuring that
the vibrations from the oval window are transmitted to all the fluid in the cochlea.

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When the fluid moves inside the cochlea, thousands of microscopic hair fibres inside the
partition wall are put into motion. There are approximately 24,000 of these hair fibres,
arranged in four long rows.

Auditory nerve
The hair fibres in the cochlea are all connected to the auditory nerve and, depending on the
nature of the movements in the cochlear fluid, different hair fibres are put into motion.

When the hair fibres move, they send electrical signals to the auditory nerve which is
connected to the auditory centre of the brain. In the brain the electrical impulses are
translated into sounds which we recognize and understand. Therefore, these hair fibres are
essential to our hearing ability. Should these hair fibres become damaged, then our hearing
ability will deteriorate.

Vestibular – the balance mechanism

The vestibular consists of three ring-shaped passages, oriented in three different planes. All
three passages are filled with fluid that moves in accordance with the body's movements. In
addition to the fluid, these passages also contain thousands of hair fibres which react to the
movement of the fluid sending little impulses to the brain. The brain then decodes these
impulses which are used to help the body keep its balance.

NOSE
Nose is the most prominent feature located in the middle of the face of humans. An organ of
the upper respiratory tract, it is actively involved in inhalation.
The most important functions of nose are to filter the atmospheric air before passing it further
into the respiratory system and to provide the sense of smell.

At the time of breathing, air entering through the nostrils is led to the nasal cavity, which
further passes to the pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and finally, to the lungs.
The external feature of a nose or the type of nose depends upon the bone and cartilage the
nasal septum separates the nostrils, which in turn, continue with the nasal cavity.

The bones of the face around the nose region contain the sinuses. Anatomically, sinuses are
hollow air cavities that are lined by mucous membrane (like the nasal cavity), and they are
also known as paranasal sinuses. There are four subgroups of sinus, classified based on the
bones to which the sinuses are present. They are frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid
sinus. Among these four sinuses, ethmoid sinus is located around the area of nose bridge. An
abnormality in any of these paranasal sinuses cause sinus problems.

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 THROAT

The throat, or pharynx, is divided into three parts. The nasopharynx (1) is located behind the
nose. The oropharynx is behind the mouth (2). And the laryngopharynx (3), or lower section
of the throat, is in front of the esophagus (4); this is where the larynx, or voice box, and the
vocal cords are housed (5). The often- infected tonsils (6) and adenoids (7) are found in the
naso- and oropharynx. A few common problems can affect the throat: strep and other
infections that cause sore throats, hoarseness, laryngitis, and tonsillitis are just a few.

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 DISEASES OF ENT
Allergic Rhinitis
Allergic rhinitis is an inflammation of the nasal passages, usually associated with watery nasal
discharge and itching of the nose and eyes. Also called as Hay fever.

Laryngitis
Laryngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx (voice box), which is
in the upper part of the respiratory tract. It causes hoarseness, and possibly a temporary loss
of speech.

Otitis Externa
External otitis or "swimmer's ear" is an infection of the skin covering the outer ear and ear
canal.

Acute external otitis is commonly a bacterial infection caused by streptococcus,

staphylococcus, or pseudomonas types of bacteria. The swimmer's ear infection is usually
caused by excessive water exposure. When water collects in the ear canal (frequently trapped
by wax), the skin will become soggy and serve as an inviting culture media for bacteria.

Otitis Media
Otitis media is inflammation of the middle ear. "Otitis" means inflammation of the ear , and
"media" means middle.

This inflammation often begins with infections that cause sore throats, colds or other
respiratory problems, and spreads to the middle ear. These can be caused by viruses or
bacteria, and can be acute or chronic

Tinnitus
Tinnitus is a ringing, buzzing or other type of noise that seems to originate in the ear or head.

Sinusitis
Sinusitis refers to inflammation of the sinuses that occurs with a viral, bacterial, or fungal
infection.

Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis is inflammation (swelling) of the tonsils

Mastoiditis - Inflammation of the mastoid process, most commonly due to a bacterial

infection.

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Vertigo - The hallucinatory sensation of spinning, whirling, or dizziness that is associated with
difficulty in maintaining balance.

Acoustic Neuroma - An acoustic neuroma is a noncancerous growth that develops on the

eighth cranial nerve. Also known as the vestibulocochlear nerve, it connects the inner ear
with the brain and has two different parts. One part is involved in transmitting sound; the
other helps send balance information from the inner ear to the brain.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea - Obstructive sleep apnea is a potentially serious sleep disorder.
It causes breathing to repeatedly stop and start during sleep. This type of apnea occurs when
your throat muscles intermittently relax and block your airway during sleep. A noticeable sign
of obstructive sleep apnea is snoring.

EYE
The eye consists of three layers or tunics. These are the outer fibrous tunic, the middle
vascular tunic and the inner tunic.

The outer fibrous tunic consists of the cornea and sclera. The sclera (white portion) consists
of dense connective tissue containing blood vessels and nerves.
The cornea is the transparent portion on the anterior aspect of the eye extends over the
pupil. Pupil is present directly in front of the lens and focuses light through the l ens onto
the retina at the back of the eye. The lens is held in place by special muscles called the ciliary
body
The middle vascular tunic consists of the choroid coat, ciliary body and iris. The choroid coat
is a pigmented (dark) layer just deep to the retina & provides the eye’s blood supply.

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The ciliary body is an extension of the choroid coat. It surrounds the lens and contains smooth
muscles that attach to the lens via suspensory ligaments. The ciliary body secretes a watery fluid
called aqueous humor. The iris contains smooth muscle that controls the diameter of the pupil.
The iris contains chromatophores that contain melanin that gives the iris its color. The iris
surrounding the pupil controls how much light enters through the pupil by dilating the pupil in dim
light and constricting it in bright light. Light enters each eye through the pupil, the dark centre of
the eye. The pupil is an opening into the eye itself.

The inner layer contains the retina and a portion of the optic nerve.
The retina is the innermost layer in the eye. It converts images into electrical impulses that are sent
along the optic nerve to the brain where the images are interpreted
The retina has two types of visual receptors, rods and cones. Cones function in bright light and
can produce color vision. Rods work in dim light and can produce only black and white vision,
including various shades of gray.
The optic nerve enters the eye at an area called the optic disk. The centre of the optic disk is
referred to as the blind spot because there are no rods or cones in this area. Lateral to the optic
disk is an oval area of the retina called the macula.
The macula is in the back of the eye, in the center of the retina. Within the macula is an area
called the fovea centralis. The fovea centralis is a slight depression in the center of the macula,
where the retina is very thin. This is the area in the eye where vision is most perfect. This area
contains the highest concentration of cones, produces the sharpest vision, and is used to see
details clearly.
Additional structures of the eye are humor, lens, and vitreous body (humor).

The aqueous humor is a watery serous fluid secreted by the ciliary body into a space between
the iris and lens called the posterior chamber. The aqueous humor is contained in the aqueous
body, which is the part of the eye in front of the lens. The iris divides the aqueous body into an
anterior chamber and a posterior chamber. The posterior chamber continually produces aqueous
humor. This fluid is drained into the vascular system from the eye by a duct named the canal of
Schlemm, which is located near the anterior chamber.
The other major humor is the vitreous humor and is contained in the vitreous body, the part of
the eye behind the lens. Both the aqueous humor and the vitreous humor, along with the lens,
are capable of refracting light
The lens connects to the ciliary body by means of a series of fibers called the suspensory ligament.
The suspensory ligament changes the shape of the lens. When the ligament is taught the lens
flattens. Likewise, when the ligament relaxes the lens retains its spheroid shape

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The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane that begins at the edge of the cornea and lines the inside
surface of the eyelids and sclera, which serves to lubricate the eye. The lid’s eyelashes protect
the eye from dust and other small airborne particles
The lacrimal glands, which are superior and slightly lateral to the center of the eye, produce tears,
which bathe and lubricate the eye. Lacrimal ducts transport the tears to the superolateral portion
of the conjunctiva. Most of this fluid evaporates, but some of it collects at the medial angle of
the eye, also called the medial canthus. The fluid then travels through pinpoint openings called
the lacrimal puncta into the lacrimal canals
The lacrimal canals empty into the lacrimal sac, which forms the superior portion of the
nasolacrimal duct. The nasolacrimal duct empties into the nasal cavity, and this process accounts
for why crying leads to congestion.

DISEASES OF EYE

Cataract
A cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye leading to a decrease in vision.

Diabetic Retinopathy:
Diabetic retinopathy is a diabetes complication that affects eye. It's caused by damaged to the
blood vessels of the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye(retina), which can eventually lead
to blindness.

Types:
1.Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (NPDR)

2. Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy.

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Non-proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy (NPDR):
• Mild NPDR
• Moderate NPDR

• Severe NPDR

Vitreous Haemorrhage:
Leakage of blood into the areas in and around the vitreous humor of the eye. The vitreous humor
is the clear gel that fills the space between the lens and the retina of the eye.

Age-related Macular Degeneration (ARMD)

Age-related macular degeneration causes a gradual loss of central vision. Central vision is needed
for detailed work and for things like reading and driving.
The disease does not lead to complete blindness. Visual loss can occur within months, or over
many years, depending on the type and severity of ARMD.
There are two main types of ARMD - 'wet' and 'dry'. 'Wet' ARMD is most severe but more
treatable. Visual loss caused by ARMD cannot normally be reversed.

Glaucoma
Optic nerve is damaged due to high intraocular pressure.

Amblyopia
Amblyopia is poor vision in an eye that did not develop normal sight during early childhood. It is
sometimes called "lazy eye."

Astigmatism
Astigmatism occurs when the front surface of your eye (cornea) or the lens inside the eye is
slightly irregular in shape, resulting in vision being blurred at all distances. Astigmatism is not a
disease but is a vision condition that is quite common.

Conjunctivitis
This term describes a group of diseases that cause swelling, itching, burning, and redness of the
conjunctiva, the protective membrane that lines the eyelids and covers exposed areas of the
sclera, or white of the eye. Conjunctivitis can spread from one person to another .

Blepharitis:
Blepharitis is an ocular condition characterized by chronic inflammation of the eyelid.

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Chalazion
A chalazion, also known as a meibomian gland lipogranuloma, is a cyst in the eyelid that is caused
by inflammation of a blocked meibomian gland, usually on the upper eyelid.

PVD (Posterior Vitreous Detachment)

A posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) is a condition of the eye in which the vitreous membrane
separates from the retina. It refers to the separation of the posterior hyaloid membrane from
the retina anywhere posterior to the vitreous base.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

There are essentially two types of respiration. External respiration is the movement of gases
into the body and blood. Cellular respiration is the use of oxygen and production of carbon
dioxide by the cells.

The respiratory system can be divided into the upper and lower respiratory systems. The
upper respiratory system consists of the nose and nasal cavity, the sinuses and the pharynx.
The lower respiratory system consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and
alveoli.

Air moves into the upper respiratory system through the nose at the nostrils or external
nares and enters the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is also known as the nasal vestibule and is
lined with epithelium containing hairs

The epithelium contains columnar and mucous secreting goblet cells. Beneath the epithelium
is a highly vascular area known as the lamina propria. The vascularization helps to provide
heat and humidity to the air of the nasal cavity.

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The nasal cavity contains bony protuberances called conchae. There are superior, middle and
inferior conchae. The purpose of the conchae is to create turbulent flow of air. This works to
warm the air and to provide more contact with the nasal mucosa and hairs so that particles
can be picked up by the mucosa. The turbulent air can also reach the upper nasal cavity
containing sensory receptors for smell.

Located between the conchae are the superior, middle and inferior meatuses which are small
grooves that allow air to flow between the nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal
ducts.

The nasal cavity is divided into right and left portions by the nasal septum. The nasal septum
is formed by two bones. The superior portion consists of the perpendicular plate of the
ethmoid bone and the inferior portion consists of the vomer bone. The anterior portion of the
nasal septum consists of cartilage.

The floor of the nasal cavity consists of the hard palate. The hard palate is formed by the
maxilla (anterior) and palatine (posterior) bones. The hard palate separates the nasal and oral
cavities. Just posterior to the hard palate is the soft palate and uvula.

Air exits the nasal cavity to the nasopharynx by way of a passage known as the internal nares.

Pharynx
Air passing through the internal nares enters the upper portion of the pharynx known as the
nasopharynx. The nasopharynx begins posterior to the conchae and extends inferiorly to
the soft palate.
The soft palate raises to close off the nasopharynx during swallowing to prevent
substances from moving into the nasopharynx.
The nasopharynx is lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet
cells that secrete mucous.

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The cilia move substances through the nasopharynx so that they can be swallowed. The
nasopharynx also contains connections from the Eustachian tubes. The pharyngeal tonsil
(adenoid) is also located in the nasopharynx.

Inferior to the nasopharynx is the oropharynx which extends from the soft palate to the
epiglottis. The oropharynx is a shared passageway for air and substances on their way to
the digestive tract. The palatine and lingual tonsils are in the oropharynx.

The most inferior portion of the pharynx is the laryngopharynx which extends from the tip of
the epiglottis to the larynx.

Larynx
The larynx begins at the base of the tongue and extends to the trachea. The pharynx
consists of nine cartilages that are interconnected with muscles and ligaments. The largest
of the cartilages is the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple).

The epiglottis is an elastic cartilage flap that closes during swallowing to keep substances from

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moving into the trachea and air passages.

The vocal cords reside in the larynx. When the vocal cords are relaxed, they form a triangular
space called the glottis. Different pitches in the voice are produced by vibrations of the vocal
cords. Vibration of smaller areas of the vocal cords results in higher pitches.

Trachea
Air travels from the larynx to the trachea. The trachea is a tubular structure consisting of dense
connective tissue and rings of hyaline cartilage. The inferior end of the trachea divides into
right and left bronchi at an area known as the carina. The carina is the last tracheal cartilage
and forms a cartilage division between the two bronchi.

Bronchial Tree
The trachea ends at the carina and divides into two tubular structures called the right and left
primary bronchi. The bronchi then divide into smaller branches called secondary or lobar bronchi
and then even smaller branches called tertiary or segmental bronchi.

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The bronchi continue to branch and form small bronchioles which divide to form terminal
bronchioles. The terminal bronchioles divide to form respiratory bronchioles that connect
with alveolar ducts. The alveolar ducts give rise to alveoli. Alveoli are considered the
functional unit of the lung and consist of small hollow areas for gas exchange.

Lungs
The lungs are two cone shaped structures residing in the thoracic cavity. The inferior
portion of each lung reaches to the diaphragm. The superior portion extends about one
inch above each clavicle. The right lung contains three lobes (superior, middle and inferior)
and is larger than the left lung which contains two lobes (superior and inferior). The lobes
are separated by fissures.

The medial surface of each lung contains an area known as the hilum where vessels enter and
exit. The left lung also contains the cardiac notch which is an indentation for the heart.

The lungs are surrounded by two pleural membranes. The surface of each lung contains a visceral
pleural membrane that closely adheres to the lung’s surface. Lining the interior of the
thoracic wall is the parietal pleural membrane. Both are serous membranes

A fluid known as pleural fluid is secreted by each membrane that reduces friction and helps
to hold the membranes together.

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Inhalation and Exhalation

One cycle of inspiration and expiration is called a respiratory cycle. The movement of air in
and out of the lungs is known as pulmonary ventilation. Air moves into the lungs and to the
alveoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the alveoli and blood. The normal
adult respiratory rate is about 12 to 18 breaths per minute.

DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Asthma:

Condition in which breathing is impaired by constriction of bronchi and bronchioles, cough, and
thick mucus secretions. The severity and incidence of asthma has risen dramatically in recent years,
especially in children. May be fatal if not treated.

Bronchitis:

Bronchitis is a condition in which the airways in the lungs, called bronchial tubes, become inflamed
and cause coughing, often with mucus. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic.

Pneumonia:

Pneumonia is an infection in one or both lungs. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi cause it. The
infection causes inflammation in the air sacs in your lungs, which are called alveoli. The alveoli
fill with fluid or pus, making it difficult to breathe.

Emphysema:

Permanent and irreversible destruction of alveolar walls, resulting in loss of lung elasticity and
gas exchange surface.

COPD:

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes
obstructed airflow from the lungs.

It's caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most often from
cigarette smoke. People with COPD are at increased risk of developing heart disease, lung
cancer and a variety of other conditions.

Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions that contribute to
COPD.

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Bronchiectasis:

Bronchiectasis is a condition in which damage to the airways causes them to widen and become
flabby and scarred. The airways are tubes that carry air in and out of your lungs.

Lung Cancer:

Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma, is a malignant lung tumor characterized by
uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung.

Epistaxis:

Hemorrhage from the nose, arising in the cavity or in sinuses leading into it.

Tuberculosis:

An infectious disease caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis and characterized by

the formation of nodular lesions (tubercles) in the tissues.

Ventilator Dependence:

Dependent upon mechanical life support (Ventilator) because of inability to breathe effectively.
A ventilator is used when a patient cannot breathe well enough to maintain normal levels of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. Synonym: respirator dependent.

Pulmonary Embolism:

A pulmonary embolism is a sudden blockage in a lung artery. The cause is usually a blood clot
in the leg called a deep vein thrombosis that breaks loose and travels through the bloodstream
to the lung. Pulmonary embolism is a serious condition that can cause:

• Permanent damage to the affected lung

• Low oxygen levels in your blood
• Damage to other organs in your body from not getting enough oxygen

If a clot is large, or if there are many clots, pulmonary embolism can cause death.

Acute Respiratory Failure:

Respiratory failure is inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, with the result that
levels of arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide or both cannot be maintained within their normal
ranges. A drop in blood oxygenation is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide
levels is called hypercapnia.

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Hypoxia:

Decreased oxygen level in tissues.

Hypoxemia:

Decreased oxygen level in Blood.

Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS):

Acute respiratory failure that appears following pulmonary injury, such as direct chest trauma,
sepsis, or inhalation of toxic gas. Hypoxemia, respiratory distress, and pulmonary edema are
some of the signs.

Anoxia:

Complete or nearly complete absence of oxygen from the blood and/or tissue.

Asbestosis:

A type of lung disease caused by the long-term inhalation of asbestos dust. A type of
pneumoconiosis.

Atelectasis:

An absence of air from all or part of the lungs which can lead to a collapsed lung. It can be acute
(for example, when there is bronchial obstruction due to a foreign object) or chronic (such as
obstruction by a tumor).

Cystic Fibrosis:

A disease in which the secretions of the exocrine glands are thick, causing obstruction of various
passageways in the respiratory and digestive systems It is an inherited disease in which
symptoms typically first appear during childhood.

Dyspnea:

An unpleasant sensation of shortness of breath along with a subjective feeling of not being able
to breathe normally. It can occur with diseases of the heart or lungs. It also can occur in healthy
individuals during strenuous exertion or when at high altitudes.

Edema:

An accumulation of excessive amounts of fluid in cells, tissues, or in a body cavity.

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Empyema:

Pus in a body cavity. This term is most used to refer to pus in a pleural cavity (pyothorax).

Malignant Mesothelioma:

A cancerous growth of the pleural lining.

Orthopnea:

The situation in which breathing is easier in an upright position and becomes more difficult
when lying flat.

Pleural Effusion:

Increased amount of fluid in the pleural cavity.

Pneumoconiosis:

An occupational lung disease causing inflammation of the lungs due to the inhalation of dust
particles.

Pulmonary Abscess:

A collection of pus in the lungs as a product of the destruction of lung tissue.

Pneumothorax:

The presence of air or gas in the pleural cavity.

GENITOURINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. The urinary
system is also a purification system for the blood. The system functions to maintain fluid,
electrolyte and pH balance and remove toxins from the blood.

Blood flows into the kidney and urine & blood flow out of the kidney. The blood enters via the
renal artery and exits via the renal vein. The urine exits by way of the ureters and flows to the
bladder, urethra and out of the body.

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Urinary System Functions
Besides maintaining fluid, electrolyte and pH balance the kidneys also monitor blood oxygen levels.
They secrete the hormone erythropoietin in response to low oxygen levels. The hormone travels
to the bone marrow to stimulate the production of red blood cells. The kidneys also work to control
vitamin D synthesis.

Kidneys
The kidneys are paired organs located behind the peritoneal membrane(retroperitoneal).

A layer of adipose tissue called perirenal fat surrounds each kidney. The outer layer of the kidneys
consists of a layer of fibrous connective tissue called the renal capsule.

Each kidney has an indentation called a hilum that opens to a renal sinus where the renal artery, vein
and ureters enter and exit the kidney.

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The kidney is divided into an outer cortical region and an inner medulla. The medulla contains
conical structures called the renal pyramid.

Areas of the cortex called renal columns extend between the pyramids. The distal tip of the pyramid
ends at the renal papilla. The renal papillae connect with minor calyces. The minor calyces combine
to form larger major calyces that combine to form the renal pelvis that extends to form the ureter

A renal artery supplies each kidney with blood. The renal artery branches extends into the hilum of
the kidney. The kidneys also have a nerve supply.

The Nephron
The functional unit of the kidney is a microscopic structure known as the nephron. The nephron
consists of a renal tubule and a renal corpuscle.

The renal corpuscle is a spherical structure that consists of a capillary network called the glomerulus
surrounded by a fibrous capsule called the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule). The glomerulus
and glomerular capsule is where filtration occurs.

The filtrate from the glomerular capsule flows through the first part of the renal tubule known
as the proximal convoluted tubule. Fluid then moves through the nephron loop. After flowing
through the nephron loop the fluid flows through the distal convoluted tubule.

Fluid (urine) then drains from the distal convoluted tubule into the collecting duct. Urine from many
nephrons drains into one collecting duct.

The collecting duct merges with other collecting ducts at the renal papilla. Urine flows from the
renal papilla to the minor calyces which combine to form major calyces which combine to form the
renal pelvis. Urine now flows into the ureter and to the urinary bladder, urethra and out of the
body.

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The Ureters, Bladder, Urethra
The ureters carry the urine from the kidney to the bladder. The urinary bladder is a hollow organ
that resides in the pelvic cavity

The ureters connect at the posterolateral surface. The urethra carries the urine from the bladder
out of the body. The area on the inside of the bladder between the two ureter connections and the
urethra is called the trigone.

Urine continuously flows from the kidney to the bladder. The bladder acts as a storage reservoir for
urine and can store up to 1 liter.

DISEASES OF GENITOURINARY SYSTEM

Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer occurs when there are abnormal, cancerous cells growing in the bladder.

Cystocele

Cystocele is the name for a hernia-like disorder in women that occurs when the wall between the
bladder and the vagina weakens, causing the bladder to drop or sag into the vagina.

Erectile Dysfunction

Impotence, or erectile dysfunction, is the inability to achieve an erection, and/or dissatisfaction

with the size, rigidity, and/or duration of erections. Erectile dysfunction affects millions of men.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

BPH (also referred to as benign prostatic hypertrophy) is a condition in which the prostate gland
becomes very enlarged and may cause problems associated with urination. An increased PSA level
does not indicate cancer, but the higher the PSA level, the higher the chance of having cancer.
Cystitis

Description: Cystitis is an inflammation or infection of the urinary bladder.

Chronic kidney Disease (CKD)

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), also known as chronic renal disease, is progressive loss in kidney
function over a period of months or years. The two main causes of chronic kidney disease are
diabetes and high blood pressure. CKD has stage 1,2,3,4,5 or ESRD.

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Edema

The presence of extracellular water and sodium in cells, tissues, or cavities.

Erectile dysfunction

The inability to achieve and/or maintain an erection adequate for sexual intercourse.

Nephrolithiasis

Stones or crystalline structures in the urinary tract. Also called urinary calculi a nd kidney stones.

Nocturia

The condition of being awakened at night by the need to urinate.

Polycystic kidney disease

A group of inherited disorders characterized by multiple fluid-filled sacs both within and on the
surface of the kidneys. These cysts reduce the ability of the kidneys to function properly.

Renal failure

The inability of the kidneys to function properly. Renal failure can be acute or chronic.

Uremia

The excessive accumulation in the blood of the byproducts of protein metabolism, especially urea.
This is a toxic condition.

Urinary tract infection (UTI)_Uropathy

Any condition that blocks a part of the urinary tract, such as a ureter.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The most complex systems in our body. The nervous system is divided into two large units. The
central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system
consists of nerves and a group of neurons known as the autonomic nervous system.

The impulses from the sensory receptor then travel to the central nervous system via afferent
pathways. These pathways generally consist of sensory nerves that attach to the receptors. The
pathway continues to the spinal cord which is part of the central nervous system.
The impulse then travels upward toward the brain via a special pathway in the spinal cord called
a spinal tract.
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The sensation of touch, heat and pain are first processed by sensory receptors located in skin.
All sensory receptors take information from the environment and convert it into a form that can
be processed by the nervous system.

The impulse then travels upward toward the brain via a special pathway (afferent) in the spinal
cord called a spinal tract. The impulse then travels to the brain. A decision is made in the brain.
The impulse is now a motor impulse and it travels down the spinal cord following a spinal tract and
moves along an efferent (away from) pathway consisting of a motor nerve(s).

Nervous System is responsible for sense & response stimulus.

All nerve tissue, regardless of where it occurs in the body, is comprised of nerve

cells called neurons. Each neuron consists of:

• a cell body

• dendrites

• an axon

Each nerve cell body has a single nucleus and several dendrites. Dendrites are processes that
branch from a cell body. The ends of dendrites have receptors that receive information from other
neurons or sensory receptors. An axon is a single long fiber that extends from a cell body. It
conducts impulses either away from or toward the cell body. Axons are typically covered by an
insulating layer of fatty tissue called a myelin sheath. Myelin is a body tissue that allows impulses
to travel more rapidly. A synapse is a communication between two neurons. The word also refers
to the junction where one neuron transmits an impulse to another neuron or to an effector cell.
Effector tissue is tissue that receives nerve impulses and reacts by secreting or contracting.
Neurons communicate by sending chemical messages from one neuron to another. These
chemicals are called neurotransmitters Chemicals called neurotransmitters help transmit impulses
across synaptic junctions. The neurotransmitter is released by the axon and travels across the
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junction to a receiving cell.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord begins at the foramen magnum of the occipital bone and extends to the second
lumbar vertebra. It ends in a cone-like structure called the conus medullaris. A structure known
as the cauda equina extends from the inferior end of the spinal cord. The cauda equina (horse’s
tail) consists of nerves that extend downward to exit the foramen of the lumbar and sacral
vertebrae. The spinal cord consists of cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral segments.

The spinal cord is covered by a connective tissue covering called the meninges. The meni nges
also cover the brain. The meninges consist of three layers. The dura mater is the most superficial
layer.

The space between the dura mater and the vertebrae is called the epidural space. Anesthetics are
sometimes injected into this space

The middle layer of the meninges is known as the arachnoid mater. This is a thin layer consisting
of simple squamous epithelium. The arachnoid mater adheres to the inner portion of the dura
mater

The pia mater is the innermost membrane. It is closely attached to the spinal cord as a thin membrane.

The space between the arachnoid and pia mater is known as the subarachnoid space. This space

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is filled with cerebral spinal fluid.

The central structure of the spinal cord consists of an area of white matter surrounding a core
of gray matter White matter consists of myelinated axons. Myelin is a lipid substance that helps
to insulate the axons.

One major function of the spinal cord is to carry information to and from the brain. This
information is carried by areas in the white matter called spinal tracts. Sensory information is
carried to the brain by ascending tracts and motor information is carried from the brain by
descending spinal tracts. So, the right side of the brain processes sensory information and sends
motor information to the left side of the body and vice versa.

Nerves
Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers. The outer layer of a nerve consists of the epineurium. The
epineurium consists of dense connective tissue that surrounds and protects the nerve. Next layer
is surrounded by a sheath perineurium & neurons are covered by thin layer of connective tissue
endoneurium.

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Spinal Nerves

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. They are named after their attachment point in the spine. For
example, cervical nerves are named C1-C8, thoracic T1-T12, lumbar L1-5, and sacral S1-S5 & one
pair of coccyx. All spinal nerves are mixed nerves and carry both sensory and motor information

Spinal nerves consist of two nerve roots that exit the spine. The dorsal root carries sensory
afferent information. The ventral root carries motor information to muscles.
Spinal nerves carry sensory information from the surface of the body.

The Brain

The brain consists of four major structures. These include the cerebral cortex, diencephalon,
brainstem and cerebellum.

The developing brain can be divided into three main region forebrain, midbrain & hindbrain

The Brainstem

The brainstem lies between the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain,
pons and medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is the most inferior portion of the brainstem
and contains a few centers for controlling heart rate, respiration, swallowing, vomiting and blood
vessel diameter.

The pons is the middle section of the brainstem help to control respiration and sleep.

The midbrain is the most superior portion of the brainstem, vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located posterior and inferior to the cerebrum. The cerebellum contains both
gray and white matter. The cerebellum contains a few different types of neurons but one in
particular; the Purkinjie cell is the largest cell in the brain.

The cerebellum functions in processing information related to complex movements, coordination and
unconscious proprioception(Proprioception is the process by which the body can vary muscle
contraction in immediate response to incoming information regarding external forces, by utilizing
stretch receptors in the muscles to keep track of the joint position in the body).

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Diencephalon
The diencephalon lies between the brainstem and cerebrum. It consists of the thalamus,
hypothalamus, subthalamus and epithalamus. The thalamus is sometimes referred to as a relay
station for sensory information.

The hypothalamus lies inferior and anterior to the thalamus. The hypothalamus also regulates body
temperature, thirst, hunger and sexual drive and is involved in processing emotions, mood, and
sleep.

The epithalamus is located posterior and superior to the thalamus. It is a small area that works
to process the sense of smell and emotional responses. The pineal body (gland) is also located in
this area. It is a pine shaped structure that helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles by secreting the
hormone melatonin.

The subthalamus is located inferior to the thalamus. It contains nuclei that are involved in
controlling motor information.

The Cerebrum
The cerebrum is largest portion of the nervous system. The cerebrum consists of two
hemispheres (right and left) connected by a white matter bridge called the corpus callosum. On

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the surface of the cerebrum are folds called gyri and grooves called sulci (surface of the cerebrum
is marked by numerous ridges or convolutions, called gyri, which are also separated by grooves).
Deep grooves are known as fissures. Each hemisphere is divided into lobes. The lobes are the
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.

The frontal lobe processes information involving motor movements, concentration, planning and
problem solving as well as the sense of smell and emotions. The parietal lobes process sensory
information apart from hearing, smell and vision. The temporal lobes process information related
to hearing, smell and memory as well as abstract thought and making judgments. The occipital lobe
processes visual information.

Cerebral Spinal Fluid

Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) is derived from the plasma of the blood. It contains none of the large
elements of the blood such as plasma proteins. It acts as a shock absorber and cushions the brain and
spinal cord.

Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Eleven of these originate in the diencephalon or br ainstem while
one pair originates in the frontal lobe of the brain. The cranial nerves can carry sensory information,
motor information or both. The sensory information consists of touch, pain and vision. Motor
information controls skeletal muscles. Some cranial nerves also carry information for the
parasympathetic nervous system.

Cranial Nerve I Olfactory

The olfactory nerve is a sensory nerve. It carries the information for the sense of smell. The olfactory
nerve is the only nerve that originates in the frontal lobe of the brain.

Cranial Nerve II Optic

The optic nerves are sensory nerves. They carry information relating to vision from the retina of the
eyes.

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Cranial Nerve III Occulomotor
The occulomotor nerves also carry information for the autonomic nervous system that changes the
pupil size. When these nerves are damaged patients will experience and inability to tract objects with
their eyes (strabismus) which can lead to double vision (diplopia).

Cranial Nerve IV Trochlear

The trochlear nerves are motor nerves that innervate the superior oblique muscles of the eyes

Cranial Nerve V Trigeminal

The trigeminal nerves originate in the pons. The superior ophthalmic branch carries sensory
information from the upper portion of the face above the eyelids. The middle maxillary branch carries
sensory information from the middle portion of the face from below the lower eyelid to the upper lip.
The lower mandibular branch carries sensory information from the mandible. The mandibular branch
also carries motor information to the muscles of mastication.

Cranial Nerve VI Abducens

The abducens nerves are motor nerves carrying information to the lateral rectus muscles of the eyes.
If the abducens nerve is damaged the eye will move inward.

Cranial Nerve VII Facial

The facial nerves are mixed nerves. They carry motor information to the muscles of the face and are
responsible for producing facial expressions. The sensory information consists of taste from the
anterior two-thirds of the tongue along with proprioception of the facial muscles and deep pressure
in the face.

Cranial Nerve VIII Vestibulocochlear

The vestibulocochlear nerves are sensory nerves. They carry sensory information regarding hearing,
balance and equilibrium from the inner ear.

Cranial Nerve IX Glossopharyngeal

The glossopharyngeal nerves are mixed nerves. They carry sensory information regarding taste from
the posterior one-third of the tongue as well as motor information to the muscles in the pharynx for
swallowing.

Cranial Nerve X Vagus

The vagus nerves are mixed nerves. They carry sensory information from the viscera of the esophagus,
respiratory tract and abdomen. They carry motor information to the heart, stomach, intestines, and
gallbladder. The vagus nerves also carry information for coordination of swallowing. The vagus nerves
are important autonomic nervous system nerves.

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Cranial Nerve XI Spinal Accessory
The spinal accessory nerves are motor nerves. They carry information to the muscles of the neck and
upper back including the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.

Cranial Nerve XII Hypoglossal

The hypoglossal nerves are motor nerves. They primarily carry motor information to the muscles that
move the tongue.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system can be thought of as an “automatic” system because it works to
maintain homeostasis in the body even when it is in an unconscious state. The autonomic nervous
system (ANS) can control respiratory, cardiovascular, urinary, digestive and reproductive functions. It
works to maintain balance of fluids, electrolytes, blood pressure, nutrients, and blood gasses. The ANS
does this by sending motor impulses to viscera, cardiac and smooth muscle.

The ANS is divided into two subdivisions

The sympathetic is often referred to as the “fight or flight” system. It is in the thoracic and lumbar
spines. The sympathetic nervous system works to increase heart rate, dilate air passages, increase
activity of sweat glands, increase glucose levels in the blood, dilate the pupils, and decrease digestive
activity. It can increase the amount of blood moving to the cardiac and skeletal systems while
decreasing blood flow to the skin. It also decreases urinary activity. The parasympathetic division
begins in the cervical and lower lumbar spines.
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Adrenal gland plays important role in Sympathetic Nervous system. The adrenal glands are pyramid
shaped glands that sit on top of the kidneys. They consist of two parts; an outer cortex and an inner
medulla. The adrenal medulla contains neurons that secrete epinephrine, norepinephrine and
dopamine.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically have the opposite effect on organs and
thus work to maintain balance based on the body’s needs. For example, the sympathetic system
can increase heart rate while the parasympathetic system decreases it.

DISEASES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Parkinsonism
A progressive nervous disease occurring most often after the age of 50, associated with the
destruction of brain cells that produce dopamine and characterized by muscular tremor, slowing
of movement, partial facial paralysis, peculiarity of gait and posture, and weakness. Also called
paralysis agitans, shaking palsy.
Parkinson's disease is not due to a single but rather a combination of both genetic susceptibility
and environmental stresses causing brain cell death.

Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a slowly progressive disease of the brain that is characterized by
impairment of memory and eventually by disturbances in reasoning, planning, language, and
perception.

Multiple sclerosis-
Multiple sclerosis an inflammatory disease in which the fatty myelin sheaths around the axons of
the brain and spinal cord are damaged, leading to demyelination and scarring.

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Cerebrovascular Accident
A stroke, also known as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is the rapid loss of brain function(s) due
to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia (lack of blood flow)
caused by blockage (thrombosis, arterial embolism), or a hemorrhage (leakage of blood).[1] As a
result, the affected area of the brain cannot function.
Neuropathy
Neuropathy is a collection of disorders that occurs when nerves of the peripheral nervous system
(the part of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord) are damaged. The condition
is generally referred to as peripheral neuropathy, and it is most commonly due to damage to nerve
axons
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a brain disorder that causes people to have recurring seizures. The seizures happen
when clusters of nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain send out the wrong signals. People may have
strange sensations and emotions or behave strangely. They may have violent muscle spasms or
lose consciousness.
Myasthenia gravis
Myasthenia gravis abbreviated MG is an autoimmune neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating
muscle weakness and fatiguability
Cerebral palsy
Cerebral palsy (CP) is an umbrella term for a group of disorders affecting body movement, balance,
and posture. Loosely translated, cerebral palsy means “brain paralysis.” Cerebral palsy is caused by
abnormal development or damage in one or more parts of the brain that control muscle tone and
motor activity (movement).
Ataxia
Ataxia is a lack of muscle coordination which may affect speech, eye movements, the ability to
swallow, walking, picking up objects and other voluntary movements.
Paresis
Paresis is a condition typified by partial loss of voluntary movement or by impaired movement.
When used without qualifiers, it usually refers to the limbs, but it also can be used to describe the
muscles of the eyes (ophthalmoparesis), the stomach (gastroparesis), and the vocal cords (Vocal
cord paresis).
Types
•Monoparesis — One leg or one arm
•Paraparesis — Both legs
•Hemiparesis — One arm and one leg on either side of the body
•Tetraparesis — All four limbs
•Gastroparesis -- Impaired stomach emptying

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Plegia
paresis means weakness but plegia means paralysis or no movement at all.
Apraxia
The inability to perform skilled or purposeful motor acts that were previously learned, despite the
willingness and physical ability to perform them. Due to cerebral disorders.
Aphasia
The inability to comprehend or express words due to injury or degeneration of language centres in
the cerebral cortex. May affect speech, writing, or sign communication.
Amnesia
Disturbance in long-term memory, characterized by a partial or total inability to recall past
experiences.
Bell palsy
Sudden onset of facial paralysis that is typically unilateral and without any known cause. It is
believed to be caused by immune disorder or viral disease that affects cranial nerve VII.
Brain tumor
Any intracranial neoplasm. Can be benign or malignant. Symptoms include headaches, vomiting,
and changes in mental status typically caused by increased intracranial pressure. Also called
intracranial neoplasm.
Cerebral contusion
A more severe injury to the head than a concussion. It is typically associated with a loss of
consciousness. The skull may be fractured, and intracranial bleeding may occur.
Convulsion
A severe spasm or jerking of the arms, legs, body, head, or face. Commonly occurs with various
types of seizures.
Encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain. Most caused by a virus. Can be caused by a bacterium.
Hemiparesis - Weakness or paralysis affecting only one side of the body.
Huntington disease
An inherited disorder that affects movement and causes progressive intellectual degeneration.
Usually appears from age 35 to 50 years. Also called Huntington chorea.
Hydrocephalus
The presence of excess cerebrospinal fluid resulting in abnormally high intracranial pressure and
cerebral ventricular enlargement. May lead to atrophy of the brain and an enlarged cranium.
Insomnia
A sleep disorder in which it is difficult to fall asleep or to remain asleep, resulting in inadequate
sleep.

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Intracerebral hemorrhage
Bleeding within the brain. If sudden, such as the bursting of a blood vessel, the result can lead to
greatly increased intracranial pressure, coma, and death. Causes include head trauma, aneurysms,
arteriosclerotic vessels exposed to hypertension, or thrombotic ischemia.
Meningitis
Inflammation of the meninges (membranes) of the brain or spinal cord. Can be caused by a
bacterial or viral infection. Severe cases can lead to paralysis, coma, and death.
Migraine
A headache lasting 4 to 72 hours with throbbing, intense, unilateral pain. Frequently associated
with nausea, vomiting, and unusual sensitivity to light, sound, or smell.
Muscular dystrophy
A general term for a group of inherited progressive muscle disorders, resulting in selective muscle
weakness. Symptoms typically appear from age 3 to 20 years.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by sudden, involuntary episodes of sleep that occur during normal
waking hours. Rare version of hypersomnia.
Neuralgia - Severe, throbbing or stabbing pain along the path of a nerve.
Neurofibromatosis
A genetic disorder characterized by growth of neurofibromas (benign tumors) anywhere along
peripheral nerves. May cause substantial disfigurement, bone erosion, and nerve compression.
Paralysis
Loss or impairment of motor function due to injury or disease affecting nerve supply. May also
involve sensation and autonomic functions.
Spina bifida
A congenital defect in which the vertebral column has not properly closed during embryological
development. In some instances, a sac containing meninges and part of the spinal cord (myelocele)
may protrude from the lower thoracic, lumbar, or sacral area. It typically causes varying degrees of
paralysis below the involved area. Hydrocephalus and genitourinary problems are common
associated conditions.
Spinal cord compression
Any excessive pressure on the spinal cord. May be caused by trauma, bony protrusions into the
spinal canal, or a neoplasm. Can cause pain, weakness, numbness, and paralysis.
Spinal cord injury
Any damage to the spinal cord. May be temporary or permanent. Causes include hemorrhage, any
injury that severs or damages the spinal cord, or any injury or condition that causes swelling ar ound
the spinal cord. Can result in partial or complete motor and sensory loss. Depending on the level
of involvement, can cause paraplegia or quadriplegia.

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Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH)
Sudden bleeding into the subarachnoid space, the open area filled with CSF located between the
arachnoid membrane and pia mater. Most caused by head trauma or rupture of a congenital
aneurysm.
Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
A temporary neurologic abnormality caused by sudden and brief loss of blood flow to the brain due
to emboli, thrombi, or stenosed artery. Symptoms are like stroke but are transient.
Tremor
Rhythmic movement of a body part produced by alternating contraction and relaxation of opposing
muscles. Usually involuntary.
Trigeminal neuralgia
Severe lancing pain in the face. Lasts from seconds to 2 minutes. Typically follows distribution of
one or more branches of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). Also called tic douloureux.
Subdural hematoma
Blood gathers between the dura mater, and the brain. Subdural hematomas are usually caused by
severe head injuries. The bleeding and increased pressure on the brain from a subdural hematoma
can be life-threatening.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the hormones that help cells talk
to each other. They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and function in your body.

Hormones are secreted by the glands of the endocrine system

A gland is any organized collection of cells that secrete or excrete a substance. The body contains
two types of glands: endocrine glands and exocrine glands. The endocrine glands secrete chemical
substances directly into the bloodstream. On the other hand, the exocrine glands send their output
through ducts.
Hormones are largely proteins. Hormones are very powerful in that they can invoke major changes
in the body in very small amounts. Hormones travel via three major routes. Hormones can travel
through the bloodstream, to nearby cells or even to other locations within the same cell.

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Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland sits in the Sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is positioned near the
hypothalamus and is connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk-like structure called the
infundibulum.
The pituitary gland is divided into 2 sections. The anterior pituitary (aka adenohypophysis) and the
posterior pituitary (aka neurohypophysis) each secrete different hormones.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Growth hormone (GH) promotes growth of the entire body by affecting protein formation, cell
multiplication, and cell differentiation.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) controls the rate of secretion of triiodothyronine (T3) and
thyroxine (T4) by the thyroid gland, which in turn controls the rate of metabolism in cells
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) acts on the adrenal glands to secrete other hormones that
control metabolism.
The gonadotropic hormones are sent from the anterior pituitary gland to the gonads and include
follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
The anterior pituitary also releases prolactin, which regulates breast growth, milk synthesis, and
some reproductive functions in males.

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Antidiuretic hormone is secreted by the posterior pituitary. The action of ADH is to cause the
kidneys to conserve water
Oxytocin (OT)
Oxytocin helps to stimulate uterine contractions during labor by causing the smooth muscles in the
uterine wall to contract. During pregnancy, the uterus becomes more sensitive to oxytocin.
Oxytocin also helps to stimulate release of milk from mammary glands.

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is in the anterior portion of the throat just inferior to the thyroid cartilage It
secretes three hormones, thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin.
T3 and T4 increase the rates of chemical reactions in almost all cells of the body, thus increasing
metabolism.
Calcitonin promotes the uptake of calcium in the bones and thereby decreases calcium
concentration in blood.

Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are four small masses of glandular tissue located on the posterior surface
of the thyroid gland They produce and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), also known as
parathormone. PTH controls the calcium concentration in the blood by regulating calcium
absorption from the intestines, excretion of calcium by the kidneys, and release of calcium from
the bones.

The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are two small pyramid shaped glands located on top of the kidneys (superior
aspect). They consist of 2 functional areas: an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
The adrenal cortex is the outer part of the adrenal gland and synthesizes aldosterone and cortisol,
both of which are corticosteroids, as well as androgens.
Aldosterone regulates sodium, potassium, and acid excretion by the kidneys. Cortisol affects
metabolism, stress response, and the immune system.
The androgens produced by the adrenal cortex (such as testosterone) are less potent than the
androgens from the testes. Androgens stimulate activity of the male secondary sexual organs,
encourage development of male characteristics,
The adrenal medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland and secretes two hormones, epinephrine
and norepinephrine, also known as catecholamines. These catecholamines act as
neurotransmitters for sympathetic nerves, but are considered hormones because they are released
into the blood

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The Pancreas
The pancreas is in the abdominal cavity at the flexure of the proximal portion of the small intestine
called the duodenum
Islets of Langerhans are collections of endocrine cells within the pancreas that secrete insulin and
glucagon.
Insulin, a hormone essential for life, converts glucose to glycogen for storage in the liver and
muscles, thus lowering the amount of glucose in the blood and controlling the rate of metabolism
of most carbohydrates

The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a small pinecone shaped gland located between the cerebral hemispheres. It
attaches to the posterior portion of the thalamus which secretes a substance called melatonin that
is believed to influence the onset of puberty and affect the wake-sleep cycle of humans.

The Thymus Gland

The thymus gland is located posterior to the sternum. It is larger at birth and shrinks throughout
adulthood.
It secretes thymosin, which promotes the development and functioning of the immune system in
new-borns. This gland is relatively large in a child but shrinks as one ages.

The Reproductive Glands

The ovaries and placenta in the female as well as the testes in the male secrete hormones that
have a role in the endocrine system.
The ovaries and placenta secrete estrogen and progesterone. The placenta also secretes a
gonadotropin. The testes secrete testosterone.

Kidneys
The kidneys are important in regulating fluids, electrolytes, and plasma pH and are also considered
part of the endocrine system because of the three hormones they release. Renin is released by the
kidneys to stimulate aldosterone production and to increase blood pressure. Erythropoietin is
produced by the kidneys and released into the blood where it promotes the production of
erythrocytes, or red blood cells. Vitamin D is made in the kidneys and increases calcium absorption
by the intestine.

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 Major Hormones
Hormone Endocrine gland Major function

Adrenocorticotropic hormone Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones

anterior pituitary
(ACTH) that control metabolism.

Regulates sodium, potassium, and acid excretion by

aldosterone adrenal cortex
kidneys.

Stimulates activity of the male secondary sexual

organs, encourages development of male
androgen adrenal cortex
characteristics, and plays a role in the sex drive in
both sexes.

antidiuretic hormone (ADH or secreted by Regulates amount of fluid in body tissue by

vasopressin) posterior pituitary controlling water excretion by the kidneys.

Promotes uptake of calcium by bones, thereby

calcitonin thyroid
lowering calcium level in the blood.

Regulates blood sugar, stress response, and the

Cortisol adrenal cortex
immune system.

Regulates cardiovascular function and responses to

epinephrine adrenal medulla
physical stress.

erythropoietin kidney Stimulates red blood cell production.

follicle-stimulating hormone Stimulates development and maturation of ovarian
anterior pituitary
(FSH) follicles so ova can be released.
Glucagons pancreas Raises blood glucose concentration.
growth hormone (GH) or
anterior pituitary Stimulates body and bone growth.
human growth hormone (hGH)
pancreas (islets of Controls the rate of carbohydrate metabolism and
insulin
Langerhans) lowers blood glucose concentration.
luteinizing hormone (LH) anterior pituitary Stimulates ovaries to ripen and release ova.
Believed to affect onset of puberty and the wake-
Melatonin pineal
sleep cycle.
Regulates responses to physical stress; acts as a
Norepinephrine adrenal medulla
vasopressor.
secreted by Stimulates milk release so that breast feeding can
oxytocin (OXT, OXY)
posterior pituitary occur; increases uterine motility.

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parathyroid hormone (PTH or
parathyroid Regulates calcium level in blood.
parathormone)
prolactin (PRL) anterior pituitary Promotes breast growth and milk synthesis.

releasing hormones (RH) hypothalamus Causes secretion of hormones by the pituitary.

Stimulates aldosterone production and increases blood
renin kidney
pressure.

DISEASES OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Type I Diabetes Mellitus

Type I diabetes is a chronic illness characterized by the body's inability to produce insulin due to
the autoimmune destruction of the beta cells in the pancreas.
Most often type I diabetes occurs in childhood, but the disease can also develop in adults in their
late 30s and early 40s.

Type II Diabetes mellitus

Type II diabetes is a long-term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar due to
lack of insulin, Insulin resistance.

Hypothyroidism:
Thyroid gland- A gland which produces a hormone that controls how your cells use energy.
Hypothyroidism means that the thyroid gland can't make enough thyroid hormone to keep the
body running normally.

Grave's Disease
Graves’ disease is a type of autoimmune problem that causes the thyroid gland to produce too
much thyroid hormone, which is called hyperthyroidism. Graves’ disease is often the underlying
cause of hyperthyroidism.

Cushing's Syndrome:
Cushing syndrome occurs when your body is exposed to high levels of the hormone cortisol for a
long time.
Addison's disease
Addison's disease occurs when the adrenal cortex is damaged, and the adrenal glands do not
produce enough steroid hormones called cortisol.

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Hyperparathyroidism
Hyperparathyroidism is excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone in the blood, resulting in
weakening of the bones through loss of calcium.

Hashimoto's Thyroiditis:
Thyroiditis refers to inflammation of the thyroid gland. Hashimoto's disease is a condition in which
your immune system attacks your thyroid gland. Also known as Chronic Lymphocytic Thyroiditis.

Diabetes insipidus
Chronic excretion of large amounts of dilute urine, usually due to inadequate vasopressin (ADH).

Diabetic ketoacidosis
Acute, life-threatening emergency in type 1 diabetes characterized by increased plasma glucose
and ketones, high urinary loss, and metabolic acidosis, which may lead to coma and death. Also
called diabetic acidosis or diabetic coma.

Adenoma - A benign neoplasm of cells that may function as a gland.

Acromegaly - Hypersecretion of pituitary growth hormone in adults whose growth is complete,

leading to thickening of skull bones and peripheral body parts.

Hypercalcemia - Excessive calcium in the serum, almost always caused by hyperparathyroidism

or malignancy.

Hypocalcemia - Low total serum calcium, which may result in muscle spasms, lethargy, and acute
confusion. May also be chronic.

Hypolipidemia - A below normal level of plasma lipoprotein. May be associated with

cardiovascular disease. Also called hypolipoproteinemia.

Hyperlipidemia - Several types of disorders characterized by increased levels of lipoproteins in

the plasma. Can lead to cardiovascular disease. Also called hyperlipoproteinemia.

Hyperglycemia - Plasma glucose concentration increased above normal levels, which is the
common feature of diabetes mellitus, and can lead to organ and tissue damage.

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Hypernatremia - High plasma sodium that may lead to thirst, weakness, fatigue, neurological
deficits, and occasionally coma or death.

Hypoglycemia - Plasma glucose concentration is below normal levels.

Hyponatremia - Low plasma sodium. Acutely it may cause coma, seizures, and death.

Thyrotoxicosis - A disease caused by excessive quantities of thyroid hormones.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

For life to have an on-going process, there must be the process of creating new life. This process is
called reproduction. Human beings reproduce in much the same way as other mammals. There is
need for both male and female to be involved in the human reproductive process. Human
reproduction takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive anatomy includes internal and external structures.

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The function of the external female reproductive structures (the genital) is twofold: To enable
sperm to enter the body and to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms. The
main external structures of the female reproductive system include:

▪ Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs.
Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are relatively large and fleshy, and are
comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting
glands. After puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair.
▪ Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small or up to
2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina
(the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra
(the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body).
▪ Bartholin’s glands: These glands are located next to the vaginal opening and produce a fluid
(mucus) secretion.
▪ Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is
comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce,
which is like the foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive
to stimulation and can become erect.

Urethra
The opening to the urethra is just below the clitoris. Although it is not related to sex or
reproduction, it is included in the vulva. The urethra is used for the passage of urine. The urethra
is connected to the bladder. In females the urethra is 1.5 inches long, compared to males whose
urethra is 8 inches long.

Perineum
The perineum is the short stretch of skin starting at the bottom of the vulva and extending to the
anus. It is a diamond shaped area between the symphysis pubis and the coccyx. This area forms
the floor of the pelvis and contains the external sex organs and the anal opening. It can be further
divided into the urogenital triangle in front and the anal triangle in back.
The perineum in some women may tear during the birth of an infant and this is apparently natural.
Some physicians, however, may cut the perineum pre-emptively on the grounds that the "tearing"
may be more harmful than a precise cut by a scalpel. If a physician decides the cut is necessary,
they will perform it. The cut is called an episiotomy.

The internal reproductive organs include:

• Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside
of the body. It also is known as the birth canal.

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 • Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a
developing fetus. The uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part
that opens into the vagina, and the main body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus
can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix allows sperm to
enter and menstrual blood to exit.
• Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the
uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.
• Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus
and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus.
Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes.
The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants to the uterine wall.

Ovary
This is the name for the sex gland that is similar in function to the male testicle. They are two in
number and are located on either side of the uterus (womb). Each ovary is covered by a tough
protective capsule and contains many follicles. A follicle-sound is an egg cell surrounded by one or
more layers of follicle cells. It is estimated that about 400,000 eggs (ovum) are stored in each ovary
at birth. However, only one egg becomes ripe each month, once puberty begins, and departs from
the ovary and travels into the fallopian tubes (oviduct). They also manufacture the female
hormones estrogen and progesterone which is instrumental in the onset of the menstrual cycle.

Ovum(ova) egg cell

A microscopic egg cell is released from one of the two ovaries at an average cycle of once every 28
days. When sperm cells encounter an ovum in the fallopian tube, they swarm around it like bees
around honey. Once one sperm cell breaks through the outer membrane of the ovum by using
hydrolytic enzymes, the egg immediately produces a wall that blocks a second sperm from
entering. When fertilization of an ovum occurs, menstruation stops, and no other ovum can be
discharged until the fetus has left the uterus.

Luteinizing hormone (LH)-sound

This hormone is responsible for triggering the release of the ripe egg from the ovary.

Corpus Luteum-sound
After the ovum (egg) is released from the ovary, a small temporary gland forms in the ovary and
begins to produce the hormone progesterone.

Progesterone-sound
Progesterone is secreted to help prepare the endometrium to receive a fertilized ovum. Once
menstruation occurs, progesterone levels decrease and slowly rise again to form a new
endometrium.
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Fallopian tube (oviduct)-sound
The ovum is transported from the ovary to the uterus over a period of one to five days via the
fallopian tube. They are two in number and lead directly to the uterus. As the egg travels down the
tube, hair-like cilia move the egg toward the uterus by a swaying motion. If one fallopian tube
becomes blocked and an egg attempts to travel down to the uterus through it, the egg will not be
able to contact a sperm cell. Occasionally, an egg will implant on the fallopian tube wall. When this
happens, the tube painfully ruptures as the egg matures into an embryo. The embryo is expelled
from the body and the fertilization process must begin again.

Fertilization (conception)
Fertilization occurs when one sperm unites with an egg. This usually happens in the fallopian
tubules of the female. The cell formed through fertilization is called a zygote.

Ovulation
Ovulation is a period when a female becomes fertile and can conceive (when a sperm cell and an
egg can unite). It usually occurs two weeks before the onset of the female menstrual cycle and lasts
for one to five days; the amount of time it takes for an egg to travel down the fallopian tube.

Blastula-sound
The name for a zygote after the process of cleavage, cell division. The blastula is a hollow ball of
cells and travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus. During this stage the growing egg implants
itself into the endometrium.

Zygote-sound
The fertilized ovum that can divide into a group of human tissue cells and becomes an embryo is
called the zygote. A zygote usually forms in the fallopian tubules.

Menstrual cycle
Females of reproductive age (anywhere from 11-16 years) experience cycles of hormonal activity
that repeat at about one-month intervals. (Menstru means "monthly"; hence the term menstrual
cycle.) With every cycle, a woman’s body prepares for a potential pregnancy, whether or not that
is the woman’s intention. The term menstruation refers to the periodic shredding of the uterine
lining.
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The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases: the follicular phase, the
ovulatory phase (ovulation), and the luteal phase.
There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs)
involved in the menstrual cycle: follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and
progesterone.

Follicular phase
This phase starts on the first day of your period. During the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle,
the following events occur:

• Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are
released from the brain and travel in the blood to the ovaries.
• The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15-20 eggs in the ovaries each in its own
"shell," called a follicle.
• These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase in the production of the female
hormone estrogen.
• As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the production of follicle-stimulating
hormone. This careful balance of hormones allows the body to limit the number of follicles
that complete maturation, or growth.
• As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes dominant and
continues to mature. This dominant follicle suppresses all the other follicles in the group.
As a result, they stop growing and die. The dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.

Ovulatory phase
The ovulatory phase, or ovulation, starts about 14 days after the follicular phase started. The
ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle, with the next menstrual period starting
about 2 weeks later. During this phase, the following events occur:

• The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a surge in the amount of luteinizing
hormone that is produced by the brain.
• This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary.
• As the egg is released (a process called ovulation) it is captured by finger-like projections
on the end of the fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The fimbriae sweep the egg into the tube.
• Also, during this phase, there is an increase in the amount and thickness of mucus
produced by the cervix (lower part of the uterus.) If a woman were to have intercourse
during this time, the thick mucus captures the man's sperm, nourishes it, and helps it to
move towards the egg for fertilization.

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Luteal phase
The luteal phase begins right after ovulation and involves the following processes:

• Once it releases its egg, the empty follicle develops into a new structure called the corpus
luteum.
• The corpus luteum secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone
prepares the uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.
• If intercourse has taken place and a man's sperm has fertilized the egg (a process called
conception), the fertilized egg (embryo) will travel through the fallopian tube to implant in
the uterus. The woman is now considered pregnant.
• If the egg is not fertilized, it passes through the uterus. Not needed to support a
pregnancy, the lining of the uterus (endometrium) breaks down and sheds, and the next
menstrual period begins.
Two weeks, on the average, after ovulation, if the egg is not fertilized, it dies and the blood rich
cells of the membrane of the uterus and the microscopic unfertilized ovum pass through the uterus
out through the vagina in a process called menstruation..

Uterus (womb)-sound
The uterus is a thick, muscular organ in the reproductive system shaped like an upside-down pear
located within the abdomen of a female. It is the place where the membrane lining of the uterus
endometrium becomes thicker as it amasses blood and nutrients to accommodate the embryo
which will develop and grow into a fetus. It is also the origin of the bloody discharge that usually
occurs monthly during the reproductive years of a female. The unique arrangement of the When it
is time for the fetus to be born, the uterus will contract to expel its contents.

Cervix
An opening at the top end of the vagina leading to the uterus is called the cervix. After an embryo
has favorably been implanted in the uterus, the cervix is sealed off to stop infection and allow
amniotic fluid (the fluid that surrounds the fetus) to fill the uterus. During the first stage of labor,
expulsion of the fetus from the uterus, the cervix dilates (increases in size) to form a passageway
for the fetus into the vagina.

Endometrium-sound
This is the lining of the uterus that is prepared to receive the fertilized ovum. The rich endometrium
is equipped with blood vessels which attach to the growing embryo and nourish it.

Vagina-sound
This tubular female sex organ serves many functions. It is the place where menstrual discharges
pass out of the body. It also stretches to function as a birth canal when it is time for the fetus to be
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expelled from the uterus. It is the channel through which the sperm in the semen travel up toward
the fallopian tube to fertilize an egg. Although its muscular tissue is much thinner than the uterus,
the walls are strong enough to contract to hold a penis or allow passage of a baby’s head.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The human male reproductive system (or male genital system) consists of a number of sex organs
that are a part of the human reproductive process. In this type of reproductive system, these sex
organs are located outside the body, around the pelvic region.

The main anatomically male sex organs are the penis and the testes which produce semen and
sperm, which as part of sexual intercourse fertilize an ovum in an anatomically female person's
body and the fertilized ovum (zygote) gradually develops into a fetus, which is later born as a child

The male reproductive system consists of the urethra, prostate gland, testicles, scrotum, vas
deferens, seminal vesicle, and penis.

The organs of the male reproductive system are specialized for the following functions:

• To produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid
(semen)

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• To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
• To produce and secrete male sex hormones.

External reproductive structures

Most of the male reproductive system is located outside of the man’s body. The external structures
of the male reproductive system are the penis, the scrotum and the testicles.

Penis — The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root, which
attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped
end of the penis. The glans, which also is called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer
of skin called foreskin. (This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called circumcision.) The
opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the glans penis.
The penis also contains a few sensitive nerve endings.

The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three internal chambers. These
chambers are made up of special, sponge-like erectile tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large
spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes
rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose
and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection.

at Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the
man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the
urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated orgasm.

Scrotum — The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It contains
the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum has a
protective function and acts as a climate control system for the testes. For normal sperm
development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the body temperature.
Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles closer
to the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the body to cool the temperature.

Testicles (testes) — The testes are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum,
secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The
testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for generating
sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are
responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis.

Epididymis — The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It

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functions in the transport and storage of the sperm cells that are produced in the testes. It also is
the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the
testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force the
sperm into the vas deferens.

Internal reproductive organs

The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also called accessory organs, include the
following:

• Vas deferens — The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into
the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the
urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
• Ejaculatory ducts — These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles.
The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
• Urethra — The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body. In
males, it has the additional function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when the man reaches orgasm.
When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only
semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
• Seminal vesicles — The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near
the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides
sperm with a source of energy and helps with the sperms’ motility (ability to move). The fluid of the
seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man’s ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
• Prostate gland — The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that is located below the urinary
bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate.
Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be
expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the prostate gland.
• Bulbourethral glands — The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, are pea-sized structures
located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear,
slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to
neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.

The male reproductive system function

The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones, which are chemicals that
stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs. The primary hormones involved in the
functioning of the male reproductive system are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing
hormone (LH) and testosterone.

FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. FSH is necessary
for sperm production (spermatogenesis), and LH stimulates the production of testosterone, which

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is necessary to continue the process of spermatogenesis. Testosterone also is important in the
development of male characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone
mass and sex drive

Hormone Regulation

Hormones which control reproduction in males are:

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH):

• The hypothalamus secretes this hormone into the pituitary gland in the brain.
• There are two gonadotropic hormones, FSH and LH. Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
• The pituitary gland secretes this hormone after receiving a GnRH signal from the hypothalamus.
• LH stimulates Leydig cells, in the testes, telling them to produce testosterone.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):

• The pituitary gland also secretes this hormone.
• Testosterone helps FSH run through the bloodstream to make Sertoli cells, located in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes, to make immature sperm to mature sperm.

Testosterone:
• Also known as "the male hormone" and "androgen".
• Testosterone is vital to produce sperm.

DISEASES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Dysfunctional uterine bleeding (DUB)

DUB is abnormal bleeding from the vagina that is due to changes in hormone levels. It is bleeding
that is not caused by Pregnancy or Miscarriage. Dysfunctional bleeding can also be associated with
obesity, excessive exercise, or emotional stress.

Vulvitis
Vulvitis is an inflammation of the Vulva (entrance of the vagina). Vulvitis may be caused by parasitic
infection, poor personal hygiene, chemical irritations, allergic reactions or retention of a foreign
body. Symptoms include mild to severe inflammation, edema, redness, burning, pruritus, painful
urination. Vulvitis may occur at any age and affects most women at some time.

Atrophic Vaginitis
Inflammation of the Vagina due to the thinning and shrinking of the tissues, as well as decreased
lubrication.
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Cervicitis
Cervicitis is an inflammation of the cervix. Cervicitis are mostly caused by three sexually transmitted
diseases, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and trichomonas. Symptoms include pronounced vaginal discharge
following menstruation, profuse vaginal discharge with an unpleasant odor, irritation of the
external genital area, intensive vaginal itchiness, a burning sensation during urination, lower back
pain. Cervicitis affect half of all women at some point in their lives.

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

Pelvic inflammatory disease is an infection caused by bacteria such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae and
Chlamydia trachomatis. Usually the infection starts in the vagina, moves up through the cervix, gets
into the uterus, up the fallopian tubes and into the ovaries. Because pelvic inflammatory disease is
an illness affecting a variety of inner reproductive organs, there is a risk that it cause a permanent
damage to these organs.

A urinary tract infection (also referred to as a UTI)

UTI is a bacterial infection affecting the urinary tract.

Cystitis
It is an infection of the bladder and is also commonly referred to as a urinary tract infection (UTI).
Cystitis occurs when bacteria enters the bladder via the urethra (the tube that goes from the
bladder out of the body).

Uterine Fibroids:
Non-cancerous growths in or on walls of uterus, sometimes on a stalk and varying in size from a
pea to a large plum; tend to occur severally rather than singly and may take a few or many years to
develop; small fibroids are often symptomless, but large ones can give rise to heavy, prolonged
periods); they may also prevent conception, cause Miscarriage or pain during pregnancy, or
obstruct delivery; if stalk of fibroid becomes twisted, cutting off blood supply, result is severe pain
in lower abdomen.

Ovarian cysts (PCOD):

An ovarian cyst is a collection of fluid within the ovary. Small cysts, measuring between 3 and 5
cm, commonly develop as a complication of the menstrual cycle and normally do not require any
treatment because they go away on their own.

Toxic shock syndrome

It is caused by toxins released into the body during a type of bacterial infection that is more likely
to develop if a tampon is left in too long. It can produce high fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and shock.
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Cancer of Female Reproductive System`

▪ Breast Cancer
▪ Ovarian Cancer
▪ Uterus Cancer
▪ Cervix Cancer

Ectopic pregnancy - The situation in which a fertilized ovum becomes implanted in some area
other than the uterine cavity. The most common site is a fallopian tube. Can cause severe pelvic
pain. The ectopic site commonly ruptures after the first missed menstrual period following
conception. Can be life threatening to the mother.

Endometrial cancer - A malignancy of the endometrium.

Breast cancer - A malignancy of the breast. The malignancy can be in the ducts and/or lobes and
can spread to surrounding tissue.

Amenorrhea - Absence of menstruation.

Menopause - Cessation of menses and end of a woman’s reproductive capabilities. Attributed to

decreased ovarian function and decline in estrogen production.

Infertility - The inability to conceive.

DISEASES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Erectile dysfunction

E.D. is the inability to get or keep an erection firm enough for sexual intercourse. This can also call
impotence. The word "impotence" may also be used to describe other problems that can interfere
with sexual intercourse and reproduction, such as problems with ejaculation or orgasm and lack
of sexual desire. Using the term erectile dysfunction clarifies that those other problems are not
involved.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

It is common for the prostate gland to become enlarged as a man age. Doctors call this condition
benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or benign prostatic hypertrophy.

Testicular Cancer

It occurs when cells in the testicle divide abnormally and form a tumor. Testicular cancer can
spread to other parts of the body, but if it's detected early, the cure rate is excellent.
Page | 107
 Prostate cancer:

Prostate cancer is disease which only affects the men. Cancer cell begins to grow in the prostate
(a gland in the male reproductive system)

Sexually transmitted disease (STD)

Any contagious disease that is spread during sexual contact, primarily sexual intercourse.
Examples include syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia. Also called venereal disease.

PREFIX & SUFFIX

Prefix
A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning.

Suffix
A suffix (also sometimes called a postfix or ending) is an affix which is placed after the stem of a
word.

Prefix & Root Word

a- no; not; without

an- no; not; without

away from
ab-

abdomin/o Abdomen

a/c prescription

acanth/o spiny; thorny

Page | 108
acetabul/o acetabulum (hip socket)

acous/o Hearing

acr/o extremeties; top; extreme point

acromi/o acromion (extension of shoulder bone)

Light
actin/o

acu/o sharp; severe; sudden

ad- toward

aden/o gland

adenoid/o adenoids

adip/o fat

adren/o adrenal gland

aer/o air

af- toward

agglutin/o clumping; sticking together

alb/o white

Page | 109
albin/o white

albumin/o albumin (protein)

alges/o sensitivity to pain

all/o other

alveol/o alveolus; air sac; small sac

ambi- around, on both sides, about

ambly/o dim; dul

amphi- around, on both sides

A/v
Atrioventricular

ammon/o ammonium

amni/o amnion (sac surrounding the embryo)

amyl/o Starch

an/o Anus

ana- up; apart; backward; again; anew

andr/o Male

Page | 110
aneurysm/o aneurysm (widening of blood vessel)

angi/o vessel (blood)

anis/o Unequal

ankyl/o Stiff

ante- before; forward

anter/o Front

anti- Against

anxi/o uneasy; anxious

aort/o aorta (largest artery)

aphth/o Ulcer

apo- off; away

append/o Appendix

aque/o Water

arter/o Artery

arteri/o Artery

Page | 111
arteriol/o arteriole (small artery)

arthr/o Joint

articul/o Joint

asbest/o asbestos

aspir/o removal

astr/o star, star-shaped

aque/o water

atel/o incomplete

ather/o plaque (fatty substance)

atri/o atrium (upper heart chamber)

atmo- steam, vapor

audi/o hearing

audit/o hearing

aur/o ear

auricul/o ear

Page | 112
auscult/o to listen

aut/o self; own

aux/o growth, acceleration

axill/o armpit

azot/o urea; nitrogen

balan/o glans penis

Bartholin glands
bartholin/o

bi- two

bi/o life

bil/i bile; gall

bilirubin/o bilirubin

blephar/o eyelid

brachi/o arm

brachy- short

Page | 113
brady- slow

bronch/o bronchial tube

bucc/o cheek

bunion/o bunion

burs/o bursa (sac of fluid near joints)

cac/o bad

calc/o calcium

calcane/o calcaneus (heel bone)

calci/o calcium

capillar/o capillary (tiniest blood vessel)

caps/o, capsul/o capsule, container

carcin/o cancerous; cancer

cardi/o heart

carp/o wrist bones (carpals)

cata- Down

Page | 114
caud/o tail; lower part of body

cauter/o heat; burn

cav/o, cavit/o hollow, cavity

cec/o cecum (first part of colon)

celi/o belly; abdomen

centr/o Center

cephal/o Head

cerebell/o cerebellum (posterior part of the brain)

cerebr/o cerebrum (largest part of the brain)

cervic/o neck; cervix (neck of uterus)

cheil/o Lip

chem/o drug; chemical

chlor/o Green

chlorhydr/o hydrochloric acid

chol/e bile; gall

Page | 115
cholangi/o bile; vessel

cholecyst/o Gallbladder

choledoch/o common bile duct

cholesterol/o Cholesterol

chondr/o Cartilage

chorion/o Chorion

choroid/o choroid layer of eye

chrom/o Color

cirrh/o orange yellow

cis/o to cut

clavicul/o clavicle (collar bone)

coagul/o coagulation (clotting)

coccyg/o coccyx (tail bone)

cochle/o cochlea (inner part of ear)

colon/o colon (large intestine)

Page | 116
colp/o Vagina

comat/o deep sleep

comi/o to care for

con- together; with

conjunctiv/o conjuctiva (lines of eyelids)

consci/o awareness, aware

contra- against; opposite

contus/o to bruise

cor/o Pupil

corne/o Cornea

coron/o Heart

cortic/o cortex, outer region

cost/o Rib

cox/o Hip

crani/o Skull

Page | 117
cras/o mixture; temperament

crin/o Secrete

critic/o crisis, dangerous

cry/o Cold

crypt/o Hidden

cubit/o elbow, forearm

culd/o cul-de-sac

cutane/o Skin

cyan/o Blue

cycl/o ciliary body of eye; cycle; circle

cyst/o urinary bladder; cyst; sac of fluid

dacry/o Tear

dactyl/o fingers; toes

dent/i Tooth

derm/o Skin

Page | 118
dextr/o right

dia- complete; through

diaphor/o Sweat

dilat/o to enlarge, expand

dipl/o Double

dips/o Thirst

dis- apart, to separate

dors/o back (of body)

duct/o to lead; carry

duoden/o Duodenum

dur/o dura mater

dys- bad: painful: difficult: abnormal

eal pertaining to

ecto- out; outside

ectro/o congenital absence

Page | 119
eight octa-, octi-

embolo/o Embolus

embry/o Embryo

en- in; within

encephal/o Brain

enter/o intestines (usually small intestine)

eosin/o red; rosy; dawn-colored

epi- above; upon; on

erythem/o flushed; redness

erythr/o Red

eschar/o Scab

estr/o Female

eti/o Cause

eu- good; normal

Page | 120
exo- out; away from

febr/i fever

femor/o femur (thigh bone)

ferr/i, ferr/o Iron

fet/o Fetus

fibr/o Fiber

fibul/o Fibula

five pent-, penta-, quinque-

flav/o yellow

flex/o to bend

fluor/o Luminous

follicul/o follicle; small sac

fore- before, in front

four quadri, tetra-

Page | 121
galact/o Milk

ganglion/o ganglion; collection of nerve cell bodies

gastr/o Stomach

genit/o reproduction

gest/o Pregnancy

gigant/o Huge

gingiv/o Gum

glauc/o Gray

gli/o glial cells; neuroglial cells

glomerul/o Glomerulus

gloss/o Tongue

gluc/o glucose; sugar

glyc/o glucose; sugar

gnath/o Jaw

gnos/o Knowledge

Page | 122
gonad/o sex glands

gravid/o Pregnancy

gynec/o woman; female

half demi, hemi, semi

hallucin/o Hallucination

hem/o Blood

hemi- Half

hemoglobin/o Hemoglobin

hepat/o Liver

heredo- Heredity

herni/o Hernia

hidr/o Sweat

hirsut/o Hairy

hist/o Tissue

home/o sameness; unchanging; constant

Page | 123
hydr/o Water

hyper- above; excessive

hypn/o Sleep

hypo- deficient; below; under; less than normal

hypsi- high

hyster/o uterus; womb

ia Condition

ichthy/o dry; scaly

ile/o Ileum

ili/o Ilium

infra- below; inferior to; beneath

inguin/o Groin

inter- Between

intra- within; into

irid/o iris (colored portion of eye)

Page | 124
jaund/o Yellow

Jejunum
jejun/o

kary/o Nucleus

kel/o tumor, fibrous growth

kerat/o cornea; hard, horny tissue

kyph/o Humpback

labi/o Lip

lacrim/o tear; tear duct; lacrimal duct

lact/o Milk

laryng/o larynx (voice box)

lepr/o Leprosy

leth/o Death

leuk/o White

lingu/o Tongue

lip/o fat; lipid

Page | 125
lith/o stone, calculus

lumb/o lower back; loin

lute/o Yellow

macro- Large

mal- Bad

mamm/o Breast

mast/o Breast

melan/o Black

meta- change; beyond

metacarp/o metacarpals (hand bones)

metatars/o metatarsals (foot bones)

micro- Small

mon/o one; single

morph/o shape; form

mort/o Death

Page | 126
multi- Many

mutagen/o causing genetic change

my/o Muscle

myc/o Fungus

mydr/o Wide

myel/o spinal cord; bone marrow

myocardi/o myocardium (heart muscle)

myom/o muscle tumor

myring/o tympanic membrane (eardrum)

narc/o numbness; stupor; sleep

nas/o Nose

necr/o Death

neo- New

nephr/o Kidney

neur/o Nerve

Page | 127
noct/o Night

nulli- None

nutri/o, nutrit/o to nourish

nyct/o Night

obstetr/o pregnancy; birth

ocul/o Eye

odont/o Tooth

odyn/o Pain

olecran/o olecranon (elbow)

olig/o Scanty

one mono, uni

onych/o nail (of fingers or toes)

oophor/o Ovary

ophthalm/o Eye

orchi/o Testis

Page | 128
ot/o Ear

ovari/o Ovary

ox/o Oxygen

palp/o, palpat/o to touch gently

pan- All

par- other than; abnormal

para- near; beside; abnormal; apart from; along the side of

path/o Disease

peri- Surrounding

phleb/o Vein

phot/o Light

pneum/o lung; air; gas

poly- many; much

proct/o anus and rectum

primi- First

Page | 129
pre- before; in front of

pseudo- False

psych/o Mind

py/o Pus

pyel/o renal pelvis

quadri- four, square

re- back; again; backward

rect/o Rectum

ren/o Kidney

respir/o Breath

retin/o Retina

retro- behind; back; backward

rhin/o Nose

salping/o fallopian tube; auditory (eustachian) tube

sarc/o flesh

Page | 130
scoli/o crooked;

semi- Half

seven hepta-, sept-, septi-

six hex-, hexa-, sex-

sperm/o spermatozoa; sperm cells

spondyl/o vertebra (backbone)

stomat/o Mouth

sub- under; below

super- above, beyond

supra- above; upper

sym- together; with

syn- together; with

tachy- Fast

ten Deca

test/o Testis

Page | 131
therapeut/o Treatment

thromb/o Clot

thyr/o thyroid gland; sheild

toxic/o Poison

trans- across; through

tri- Three

trich/o Hair

ungu/o nail

uni- one

ur/o urine; urinary tract

ureter/o ureter

urethr/o urethra

uter/o uterus

vas/o vessel; duct; vas deferens

ven/o vein

Page | 132
 vertebr/o vertebra (backbone)

vesic/o urinary bladder

vit/o life

viv/o life

xanth/o yellow

xer/o dry, dryness

zo/o animal life

zyg/o union, junction, pair, yoke, tied together

Suffix & Root Word

ac pertaining to

-agra excessive pain

-al pertaining to

-algesia sensitivity to pain

Page | 133
-algia pain

-amine nitrogen compound

-an pertaining to

-apheresis removal

-arche beginning

-ase enzyme

-assay to examine, analyze

-asthenia lack of strength

-ation process; condition

blast embryonic; immature cell

-blastoma immature tumor (cells)

capnia carbon dioxide

cele hernia

-centesis surgical puncture to remove fluid

-chalasis relaxation

Page | 134
-chezia defacation; elimination of wastes

-chroia skin coloration

-cidal pertaining to killing

-clast to break

-coccus berry-shaped bacterium

-coma deep sleep

-constriction narrowing

-crine to secrete; separate

-cyesis pregnancy

-cytosis condition of cells; slight increase in numbers

desis to bind; tie together

dilation widening; stretching; expanding

-dynia pain

ectasia dilation; dilatation; widening

-ectomy removal; excision; resection

Page | 135
edema swelling

ema condition

-emesis vomiting

-emia blood condition

-eurysm widening

ferent to carry

genesis producing; forming

globulin protein

gram record

-gravida pregnant woman

graphy process of recording

ia condition

-iac pertaining to

-iasis abnormal condition

itis inflammation

Page | 136
kinesis movement

labile unstable, perishable

lapse to slide, fall, sag

-lepsy seizure

lexia word; phrase

listhesis condition of stones

-lithotomy incision (for removal) of a stone

-logist specialist

-logy study (process of)

-lysis breakdown; separation; destruction; loosening

-lytic to reduce, destroy, separate; breakdown

malacia softening

mania obsessive preoccupation

-masesis mastication, chewing

megaly enlargement

Page | 137
mnesia memory

noia mind, will

oma tumor; mass; fluid collection

opia vision condition

opsy view of

-orexia appetite

-osis condition, usually abnormal

-ostosis condition of bone

paresis weakness

-pareunia sexual intercourse

-partum birth; labor

-pathy disease; emotion

-penia deficiency

-pepsia digestion

-pexy fixation; to put in place

Page | 138
-phagia eating; swallowing

-phasia speech

-phobia fear

-phonia voice; sound

-phor/o to bear

-phoresis carrying; transmission

-phylaxis protection

-plakia plaque

-plasia development; formation

-plasm formation; structure

-plasty surgical repair

-plegia paralysis; palsy

-pnea breathing

-poiesis formation

-poietin substance that forms

Page | 139
-porosis condition of pores (spaces)

-prandial meal

-praxia action

-ptysis spitting

-puncture to pierce a surface

rrhagia bursting forth (of blood)

-rrhaphy suture

-rrhea flow; discharge

-rrhexis rupture

sclerosis hardening

scope instrument for visual examination

-scopy visual examination

-somnia sleep

-spasm sudden contraction of muscles

-stasis to stop; control; place

Page | 140
-stenosis tightening; stricture

-sthenia strength

-stomy new opening (to form a mouth)

-suppression to stop

therapy treatment

thorax chest; pleural cavity

tomy process of cutting

tripsy to crush

trophy nourishment; development

volemia
blood volume

zyme
enzyme

Page | 141
 GENERAL MEDICAL ABBREVIATIONS

AAA Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm

AACG Acute-angle closure glaucoma

AAAO Alert, awake, & oriented

AAO x 3 Alert, awake and oriented to time, place, and person

Abd Abdomen

ABG Arterial Blood Gas

Artery Bypass Graft

ABI Ankle/Brachial Index

ABN Abnormality

ACCU Acute coronary care unit

ACLR Anterior cruciate ligament repair

ACLS Advanced cardiac life support

ACN Acoustic Neuroma

ACS Acute Coronary Syndrome

ACTH corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

ACU Ambulatory care unit

Page | 142
ADDH Attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity

ADHD Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

ADHF Acute decompensated heart failure

ADL Activities of daily living

AE Acute exacerbation

AECOPD Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

AF-AFI Atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter

AFIB Atrial fibrillation

AGE Acute gastroentertitis

AHD Atherosclerotic Heart Disease

AIDS Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

AKA Above-knee amputation

AKI Acute kidney injury

ALOC Altered level of consciousness

ALZ Alzheimer disease

AMI Acute myocardial infarction

AML Acute myelogenous leukemia

Page | 143
AOD Adult-onset diabetes

AOM Acute otitis media

ARDS Adult respiratory distress syndrome

ARF Acute renal failure

ARF Acute respiratory failure

ARI Acute renal insufficiency

ARMD Age-related macular degeneration

AS/AI Aortic stenosis/aortic insufficiency

ASCVD Arteriosclerotic cardiovascular disease

ASDH Acute subdural hematoma

ASHD Arteriosclerotic heart disease

ATR Achilles tendon reflex

AVB Atrioventricular block

AVF Arteriovenous fistula

AVM Arteriovenous malformation

AVR Aortic valve replacement

B Bx breast biopsy

Page | 144
BCC basal cell carcinoma

bd twice daily

BDR background diabetic retinopathy

BID twice daily

BMI body mass index

BMP basic metabolic profile

BMT bilateral myringotomy and tubes

bone marrow transplant

BP blood pressure

BPAD bipolar affective disorder

BPH benign prostatic hypertrophy

BPM beats per minute

BPV benign paroxysmal vertigo

BRAO branch retinal artery occlusion

BRBR bright red blood per rectum

BSE breast self-examination

BTKA bilateral total knee arthroplasty

Page | 145
CA cancer

CABG coronary artery bypass graft

CACB chronic angle closure glaucoma

CaP cancer of the prostate

CBC complete blood count

CC chief complaint

CCU coronary care unit

critical care unit

CEA carotid endarterectomy

Chief Compliant, History, Examination, Details, Drugs, Assessment,

CHEDDAR
and Return

CHF Congestive heart failure

CHI closed head injury

chol cholesterol

CICU cardiac intensive care unit

carcinoma in situ
CIS

CKD chronic kidney disease

Page | 146
CLBP chronic low back pain

CLD central lung distance

chronic liver disease

chronic lung disease

CLE centrilobular emphysema

CLL chronic lymphocytic leukemia

cm centimeter

CMA Certified Medical Assistant

CMD congenital muscular dystrophy

CMRI cardiac magnetic resonance imaging

CNA Certified in Nursing Administration

Certified Nursing Assistant

CNS central nervous system

CP cerebral palsy

CPA cardiopulmonary arrest

CPK creatine phosphokinase

CPT Current Procedural Terminology

Page | 147
CRI CHRONIC RENAL INSUFFICIENCY

COPD CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE

CT Computed Tomography

CRT cadaver renal transplant

C&S Culture and sensitivity

C/S cesarean section

CSD celiac sprue disease

CSF cerebrospinal fluid

CTA computed tomographic angiography

CTS Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

C/W consistent with

CXR chest x-ray

D&C dilatation and curettage

D/C disconnect

discontinue

DDD degenerative disk disease

DDx differential diagnosis

Page | 148
decub decubitus

DES dry-eye syndrome

DIP diphtheria toxoid vaccine

DJD degenerative joint disease

DK diabetic ketoacidosis

DLE Discoid Lupus Erythematosus

DM diabetes mellitus

DME diabetic macular edema

DOA date of admission

DOB date of birth

DPN diabetic peripheral neuropathy

DOE Dyspnea on excretion

DPT Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus

Dr doctor

DRE digital rectal examination

DS Down syndrome

DTR deep tendon reflex

Page | 149
DTs delirium tremens

DUB Dysfunctional uterine bleeding

DVT deep vein thrombosis

Dx diagnosis

ECG electrocardiogram

ECHO echocardiogram

ED erectile dysfunction

ED emergency department

EDD expected date of delivery

EENT eyes, ears, nose, and throat

EF ejection fraction

EGD esophagogastroduodenoscopy

EKG electrocardiogram

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

E/M Evaluation and Management

EMG electromyograph

EP ectopic pregnancy

Page | 150
ER emergency room

ER+ estrogen receptor-positive

ER- estrogen receptor-negative

ERCP endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreato graphy

ESRD end-stage renal disease

ESWL extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

ETA endotracheal airway

ExB excisional biopsy

EXP expired

FBG fasting blood glucose

FBS foreign body sensation

F. cath. Foley catheter

FCBD fibrocystic breast disease

FCD fibrocystic disease

FDA Food and Drug Administration

FH family history

FHT fetal heart tone

Page | 151
FLU influenza

FmHx family history

FNA Fine Needle Aspiration

FNP Family Nurse Practitioner

FROM full range of motion

F/U follow-up

FUB functional uterine bleeding

FX fracture

GAD generalized anxiety disorder

GB Gallbladder

GDM gestational diabetes mellitus

GERD gastroesophageal reflux Diseasese

GH growth hormone

GIB gastrointestinal bleeding

GSW gunshot wound

GTT Glucose Tolerance Test

G-tube gastrostomy tube

Page | 152
GU Genitourinary

GFR Glomerular Filtration Rate

HA headache

HB heart block

hCG human chorionic gonadotropin

HCM Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

HD hemodialysis

HEENT head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat

HEP hepatitis

HF heart failure

H flu Haemophilus influenza

HFM hand-food-and-mouth

Hgb Hemoglobin

Hgb S sickle cell hemoglobin

HGH human growth hormone

HIV human immunodeficiency virus

HL Hodgkin lymphoma

Page | 153
HLD herniated lumbar disk

HLD hyperlipidemia

HNP herniated nucleus pulposus

H/O history of

HOC hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy

H&P history and physical

HPI history of present illness

HRT heart rate

HRT hormone replacement therapy

HSV herpes simplex virus

HTN hypertension

HTX hemothorax

HTx heart transplant

HV hallux valgus

Hyst hysterectomy

HZ herpes zoster

IBS irritable bowel syndrome

Page | 154
ICA internal carotid artery

ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator

ICU intensive care unit

I&D incision and debridement

incision and drainage

IDDM insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

IFG impaired fasting glucose

IgA immunoglobulin A

IHD ischemic heart disease

IMP Impression

INR international normalized ratio

IOL intraocular lens

IPD idiopathic Parkinson disease

inflammatory pelvic disease

IPD idiopathic Parkinson disease

inflammatory pelvic disease

IPJ interphalangeal joint

Page | 155
ITP idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura

IUD intrauterine device

IUP intrauterine pregnancy

IV intravenous

IVC inferior vena cava

IVR interventional radiology

JA juvenile arthritis

JDM juvenile diabetes mellitus

JT jejunostomy tube

K Potassium

KCl potassium chloride

KUB kidney, ureter, and bladder

LAB Laboratory

LAD left anterior descending

lb Pound

LBB left bundle branch

LBP low back pain

Page | 156
L&D labor and delivery

LDL low-density lipoprotein

LFT liver function tests

LH luteinizing hormone

LLQ left lower quadrant

LMP last menstrual period

LOC loss of consciousness

LP lumbar puncture

LPN Licensed Practical Nurse

LUE left upper extremity

LUL left upper lid

LUT lower urinary tract

LVH left ventricular hypertrophy

MAD major affective disorder

MCA middle cerebral artery

MD Medical Doctor

MDD major depressive disorder or Manic Depressive Disorder

Page | 157
MDM Medical Decision Making

MDS Myelodysplastic Syndrome

ME macular edema

MG myasthenia gravis

MI myocardial infarction

MM Multiple Myeloma

MMR measles, mumps, and rubella

MMS Mini-Mental State (exam)

MPD myeloproliferative disorder

MPJ metacarpophalangeal joint

MR mitral regurgitation

MRA magnetic resonance angiography

MRI magnetic resonance imaging

MS multiple sclerosis

MVP Mitral Valve Prolapse

MVR mitral valve replacement

MVS mitral valve stenosis

Page | 158
NaCl sodium chloride

NEC not elsewhere classified

NED no evidence of disease

NHL non Hodgkin's lymphoma

NIDD noninsulin-dependent diabetes

NKDA No known drug allergies

NP Nurse Practitioner

NPO nothing by mouth

NPDR Non proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy

NSAID Non steroid Anti Inflammatory Drug

NSR normal sinus rhythm

NVD nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea

OA Osteoarthritis

OAB overactive bladder

OAG open angle glaucoma

OBG obstetrics and gynecology

OPD outpatient department

Page | 159
OU
both eyes

PAD peripheral artery disease

PAF paroxysmal atrial fibrillation

PAS Physician Assistants

PAT paroxysmal atrial tachycardia

PBC Primary Biliary Cirrhosis

PCKD polycystic kidney disease

PCTA percutaneous transluminal angioplasty

PD Parkinson's disease

peritoneal dialysis

PE Physical Exam

pulmonary embolism

PEG Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy

PERL pupils equal, react to light

PET pancreatic endocrine tumor

Page | 160
 Positron Emission Tomography

PFT pulmonary function tests

PHI patient/personal health information

PID pelvic inflammatory disease

PFSH Past Family Social History

PHT portal hypertension

PMR Polymyalgia Rheumatica

PN peripheral neuropathy

PO per oral (by mouth)

PPD purified protein derivative

PSA prostate-specific antigen

PSBO partial small bowel obstruction

PST paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia

PT Prothrombin time

PTCA Percutaneous Transluminal CoronaryAngioplasty

PTH parathyroid hormone

PTSD posttraumatic stress Disorder

Page | 161
PUD peptic ulcer disease

PVC premature ventricular contraction

PVD peripheral vascular disease

PVI peripheral vascular insufficiency

QID four times a day

RA rheumatoid arthritis

RAD reactive airway disease

RAS renal artery stenosis

RBB right bundle branch

RBC red blood cell

RBS random blood sugar

RLQ right lower quadrant

RLS restless legs syndrome

RN Registered Nurse

R/O rule out

ROM range of motion

ROS review of systems

Page | 162
RRR regular rate and rhythm

RSD reflex sympathetic dystrophy

RX prescription

SHL sensorineural hearing loss

SIRS systemic inflammatory response synd

SLE Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

SLE slit-lamp examination

SNF Skilled Nursing Facility

SOB shortness of breath

S/P status post

SQ subcutaneous

SSS sick sinus syndrome

S/SX signs/symptoms

STD sexually transmitted disease

SZ schizophrenia

SZ seizure

TAA thoracic aortic aneurysm

Page | 163
TKA total knee arthroplasty

TURP transurethral resection Prostate

TX treatment

UDS urine drug screen

URI upper respiratory tract infection

URT upper respiratory tract

US ultrasound

UTI urinary tract infection

VAOD visual acuity (right eye

VAOS visual acuity (left eye

V&D vomiting and diarrhea

VHD valvular heart disease

VS Vital Signs

VSD ventricular septal defect

Page | 164
 MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

❖ T.I. D - Thrice Daily.

❖ P. O - Per Oral.
❖ P53 - Protein 53 Or Tumor Protein 53
❖ Corpus - Body
❖ Subq - An Area Between Muscle and Bone
❖ Hepatologist - Physicians Specializes in Treating Patients with Diseases of the Liver.
❖ Antepartum - Before Birth.
❖ Postpartum - After Birth.
❖ Dysuria - Difficult, Painful Urination.

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 COMMON OPHTHALMIC ABBREVIATIONS
DSEK Endothelial Keratoplasty HSV Herpes Simplex Virus
dVA Distance Visual Acuity HZV Herpes Zoster Virus
E Esophoria HVF Humphrey Visual Field
E Endolaser I Indirect Laser
E (Circled) Erythromycin i.c. Between Meals
E(T) Intermittent Esotropia Distance I.P.D. Interpupillary Distance
E’ Esophoria at Near I0 Inferior Oblique
E’(T) Intermittent Esotropia at Near IMG Inspissateed Meibomian Glands
E’(t) Intermittent Esotropia at Near INT-REQ Interpreter Requested
ECP Endoscopic Cyclophotocoagulation IO Inferior Oblique (Muscle)
EDTA Chemical Removal of Calcium Deposits IOAI Intraocular Avastin Injection
EOM Extraocular Movement IOFB Intraocular Foreign Body
EOM Extraocular Muscle IOLI Intraocular Lucentis Injection
EOMB Extraocular Muscle Balance IOOA OU Inferior Oblique Over Action Both Eyes
ERM Epiretinal Membrane IOP Intraocular Pressure
ET Esotropia for Distance IOSI Intraocular Steroid Injection
ET` Esotropia for Near IR Inferior Rectus Muscle
EUA Exam under Anesthesia J1,J2,J3 etc. Test Types for Reading Vision

F+F Fix and Follow JRA Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis

F/U Follow-up KC Keratoconus
FA Fluorescein Angiography KCS Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
FB Foreign Body KP Keratic Precipitates
FHx Family History L&A Light and Accommodation
Flt Flat L Hypo Left Hypotropia
FTMH Full Thickness Macular Hole L/M Left Message
Fuchs Fuchs Endothelial Corneal dystrophy LGS Lissamine Green Stain
GDX Diagnostic Glaucoma Test LH Lid Hygiene
gl Glasses LH Left Hyperphoria
GLC Glaucoma LHT Left Hypertropia
GLREF Glasses Refraction LIO Laser Indirect Ophthalmoscopy
GRREM Growth Removal LKP Lamellar Keratoplasty
GT Glasses trouble LMTCB Left Message to Call Back
gtt(s) Drop(s) LOE Loss of Eye
GVF Goldman Visual Field LOV Loss of Vision
H/O History of LP Light Perception
HFH Holy Family Hospital LPI Laser Peripheral Iridotomy
HM Hand Mo vements or Hand Motion LR Lateral Rectus (Muscle)

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LR Lateral Rectus OAG Open Angle Glaucoma
LTG Low Tension Glaucoma OCT Ocular Coherence Tomography
LTP Laser Trabeculoplasty oculent Eye Ointment
LWLID Lower Lid Evaluation OD Right Eye
M Membrane Dissection OHT Ocular Hypertension
MACCK Macular Degeneration Check ON Optic Nerve
MACEV Macular Degeneration Evaluation ONH Optic Nerve Head
MDF Map Dot Finger Print Corneal Dystrophy Or, Orx Over-Refraction
MH Macular Hole ORB Orb Scan
Mod. Moderate OS Left Eye
MR Medial Rectus Muscle OT Ocular Tension
MVA Motor Vehicle Accident p.c. After Meals
N Spokane Eye Clinic - North Clinic Office P.D. Pupillary Distance
N5, N6etc. Test Types for Near Vision PBK Pseudophakic Bullous Keratopathy
NAG Narrow Angle Glaucoma PC haze Posterior Capsular Haze
ne rep. Do Not Repeat PCP Primary Care Physician
ni No Improvement PCT Prism Cover Test
Nl, nl Normal PD Prism Diopter
NLD Nasolacrimal Duct PDG Pigment Dispersion Glaucoma
NLD Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction PDR Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
NLDO Obstructed Nasolacrimal Duct PDS Pigmentary Dispersion Syndrome
NP New Patient PDT Photodynamic Therapy
NPA Near Point of Accommodation PED Pigment Epithelial Detachment
NPC Near Point of Convergence PFO Perfluoron
NPDR Non-proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy PG Pigmentary Glaucoma
NR Non-reactive PH Pinhole
NRC Normal Retinal Correspondence PI Peripheral iridectomy/iridotomy
NS Nuclear Sclerosis, Cataract PK Corneal Graft (Penetrating Keratoplasty)
NTG Normal Tension Glaucoma PMF Premacular Fibrosis
NV Neovascularization PO or per os Orally, by Mouth
NV or nVA Near Vision POAG Primary Open Angle Glaucoma
NVD Neovascularization of Disc PP Pars Planitis
NVE Neovascularization Elsewhere PPV Pars Plana Vitrectomy
NVG Neovascular Glaucoma PPVD Painless Progressive Decrease of Vision
NVI Neovascularization of Iris PR Pneumatic Retinopexy
OU Both Eyes PRN As Needed
O2 Oxygen PRP Pan Retinal Photocoagulation

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PSC Posterior Subcapsular Cataract sc Without Correction
PV Preservision SCH Subconjunctival Hemorrhage
pvtoric PureVision Toric SEC Spokane Eye Clinic
PXE Pseudoexfoliation SESC Spokane Eye Surgery Center
PXF Pseudoexfoliation SHMC EXM Sacred Heart Laser Exam
PXFG Pseudoexfoliative Glaucoma Sihi Silicone Hydrogel
q.2h. Every 2 Hours Sihy Silicone Hydrogel
q.h. Every Hour SiO Silicone IOL
q.i.d. Four Times Daily sl Slight
q.s. Quantity Sufficient sl66 Soflens 66
qd Daily, Once a Day SLE Slit Lamp Exam
qhs Nightly SLT Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty
qo Every Other SN Snellen Letters
R Hypo Right Hypotropia SO Superior Oblique Muscle
R/B/MO Risk/Benefits/Management Options SOC Spokane Optical Company
r/o Rule Out sol Solution
R/S Reschedule SPK Superficial keratitis
RA Rheumatoid Arthritis SR Superior Rectus Muscle
RAPD Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect SRF Subretinal Fluid
RD Retinal Detachment SRN Sub Retinal Neovascularization
RECK Recheck SS Scleral Spur
RECKO Recheck and Orthoptic Exam ST Schiotz tension
REF Refraction stat. At Once
RH Right Hyperphoria STK Subtenons Kenalog Injection
RHT Right Hypertropia Sub heme Subconjunctival Hemorrhage
RK Radial Keratotomy Sx Surgery
Rnd Round T Tension (Pressure)
ROP Retinopathy of Prematurity T &C Thin and Clear
RP Retinitis Pigmentosa t.i.d. Three Times Daily
RPE Retinal Pigmentary Changes TAC Teller Acuity Cards
RPE Retinal Pigment Epithelium Tapp Pressure by Applanation
RT Retinal Tear TBU Tear Break Up
RUSRI Rust Ring TEARDUCT Tear Duct Evaluation
RWC Rockwood Clinic TM Trabecular Meshwork
S Spokane Eye Clinic - South Clinic Office (Main Office) Tono Tonometer Pressure Check
S/P Status Post topo Topography
SB Scleral Buckle Tr, tr Trace

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Trab Trabeculectomy
TRD Traction Detachment
Ttono Pressure by Tonopen
Tx Treatment
U/S Ultrasound
um Micron
Ung Ointment
UPLID Upper Lid Evaluation
US Ultrasound
V Spokane Eye Clinic - Valley Clinic Office
V, Va,VA Vision or Visual Acuity
V, Vit Vitrectomy
V2 Vigamox Vexol
VA COMP VA Comp & Pension
VAc or VAcc Visual Acuity with Correction
Vas or VAsc Visual Acuity without Correction
VF Visual Field
VM Voicemail
VMC Valley Medical Center
VMT Vitreomacular Traction
W Wearing
W/U Systemic Workup
W4D Worth 4 Dots
WAVE Wave Scan
WC Warm Compress
X Exophoria for Distance
X(T) Intermittent Exotropia Distance
X(t) Intermittent Exotropia Distance
X’ Exophoria at Near
X’(t) Intermittent Exotropia at Near
X’T Exotropia at Near
XP Exophoria
XT Exotropia
YAG Yytrium Aluminum Garnet Laser

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 HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS/PROFESSIONALS

S No SPECIALIST DEFINITION

1. Physicians Diagnosis and medical treatment as distinct from surgery

2. Nephrologist Care and Diseases of the kidney

3. Cardiologists Heart and blood vessels

4. Gastroenterologist Gastrointestinal tract and liver

female reproductive systems (Vagina, uterus and ovaries)

5. Gynaecologist/Obstetrician
and the breasts

6. Chiropractor Neuromuscular disorders; especially the spine

7. Hematologist Diseases related to blood

8. Optometrist Eye doctor

9. Oncologist Cancer Treatment

Physician who provides both the first contact for a person

with an undiagnosed health concern as well as continuing
10. Primary care physician (PCP)
care of varied medical conditions, not limited by cause,
organ system, or diagnosis.

Who is trained to manage a broad spectrum of surgical

11. General Surgeon
conditions affecting almost any area of the body

Diagnosis and surgical management of diseases affecting

12. Vascular surgeon all parts of the vascular system except those of the heart
and brain

Trained in anesthesia and perioperative

13. Anesthesiologist/ Anesthetist
medicine

14. Dermatologist Diagnosis and treatment of skin problems

15. Neurologist Treating diseases of nervous system

Diseases of the urinary tract and the male reproductive

16. Urologist
system
17. Pulmonologist Pulmonary (Lung) conditions and diseases

18. Psychiatrist Mental illness

19. Pediatrician Children and their diseases

Specially trained to meet the unique healthcare needs of

20. Geriatrician
older adults

21. Allergist Diagnosis and treatment of allergies

22. Ophthalmologist Specializes in medical and surgical eye problems

Use of assessment and treatment to develop, recover, or

23. Occupational Therapist maintain the daily living and work skills of people with a
physical, mental, or cognitive disorder

Ear, nose, throat (ENT), and related structures of the head

24. Otolaryngologist
and neck

A social worker trained in psychotherapy who helps

25. Licensed Clinical Social Worker individuals deal with a variety of mental health and daily
living problems to improve overall functioning

A physician who specializes in the care of critically ill

26. Critical care physicians
patients most often in the ICU (Intensive care Units)

Surgical procedures of the heart, lungs, esophagus, and

27. Cardiothoracic surgeon
other organs in the chest

28. Infectiologist: Diagnosis and treatment of infectious disease

29. Oncologist Treats cancer

Treats the cancer by focussing on the surgical

30. Surgical oncologist
management of tumours, especially cancerous tumours

31. Radiation oncologist Uses ionizing radiation in the treatment of cancer

Treat disease, injury, or deformity by physical methods

32. Physiotherapist:(PT) such as massage, heat treatment, and

exercise rather than by drugs or surgery

33. Podiatrist Medical and surgical care of the foot and ankle

34. Hepatologist Liver diseases

Treating disorders of the endocrine system such as

35. Endocrainologist
diabetes, Hyperthyroidism