Introduction:

What are Lymphocytes?

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cells usually found in the blood and lymph of our body.
Lymphocytes are developed in bone marrow and once they get matured, they enter into blood
stream. When they move to thymus, they turn into T-cells and when they move to lymph
structures, they turn into B-cells.

Function of Lymphocytes:
The primary function of lymphocytes is to protect the body from foreign invaders to limit or
avoid the infection. They perform the following functions:

 The lymphocytes directly kill the infected cells when cells get infected through an
antigen. It is known as cell mediated immunity.
 They Produce antibodies to neutralize the foreign invaders. It is known as humoral
immunity.
 They distinguish the normal cells from cancerous cells by MHC class I surface molecules.
 They kill cancerous cells by identifying non-self-proteins. These non-self-proteins are not
actually a part of the cell and are a sign of an abnormal growth. It is necessary to kill
these cancerous cells before they proliferate further leading to the formation of a
tumor.
 They play a role in innate and adaptive immunity. B-cells and T-cells play their role in
adaptive immunity and natural killer cells play their role in innate immunity.

Types of Lymphocytes:
On structural and functional basis they are of three types:

i. B-lymphocytes
ii. T-lymphocytes
iii. Natural Killer cells

B-lymphocytes:
 B cells get their name from the site of maturation in the birds, where they were first
discovered, i.e. bursa of Fabricius. In humans and some other mammals, the main
site of B lymphocytes maturation is the bone marrow.
 Their formation is antigen-independent.
 Their activation is antigen-dependent. They directly activate upon exposure to the
antigen when it binds to B-cells surface receptors. These surface receptors are
mainly antibodies involved in recognizing and capturing the antigen.
 They are activated indirectly when they are induced by T-helper cells to produce
antibodies.

 They are involved in humoral immune response or antibody production.

 They play their role in adaptive immunity and also in secondary immune response by
producing memory upon second exposure to antigen.
Types of B-Lymphocytes:

There are following different types of B-cells:

i. Naive B-cell:
It is an inactive B-cell before any exposure to an antigen or foreign invaders. It continues
moving in blood or lymph until it gets bound to an antigen through its surface receptors.

ii. Memory B-cells:

Memory B cells are produced following an initial encounter with an antigen. They
provide immunological memory because they are long-lived and stay in the body for a
considerable amount of time. When exposed to the same antigen again, memory B cells
divide quickly and become plasma cells in order to produce antibodies giving faster and
effective immune response.

iii. Plasma Cells:

Activated B cells are the source of plasma cells. Their main job is to create and release
immunoglobulins, another name for antibodies, into the tissues and bloodstream to
counteract infections. The effector phase of the humoral immune response is carried
out by plasma cells.

iv. Regulatory B-cells:

Regulatory B cells, often known as "Bregs," are a subpopulation of B cells that are
involved in immunological tolerance and control. By generating anti-inflammatory
cytokines like interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), they
can reduce excessive immune responses and inflammation. Bregs play a critical role in
immunological homeostasis maintenance and the prevention of autoimmune disorders.

v. Follicular B-cells:
Specialized B cells called follicular B cells are located in lymphoid follicles in secondary
lymphoid organs including the spleen and lymph nodes. They have a role in the
development of germinal centers, which are sites of B cell proliferation, somatic hyper
mutation, and class switching in the adaptive immune response. Depending on the
signals they get in the germinal center, follicular B cells have the ability to develop into
either memory B cells or plasma cells.
Working of B-cells:

B-cells are a critical component of the immune system, playing a central role in the
adaptive immune response. Here's how B-cells work:

Antigen Recognition

Activation

Antigen Processing

Antigen Presentation

Activation by Helper T-cells

Clonal Expansion

Differentiation

Memory Cells Plasma Cells

 i. Recognition of Antigens:
B-cells recognize specific antigens through their unique B-cell receptors (BCRs), which
are membrane-bound immunoglobulin molecules. Each B-cell typically expresses a
single type of BCR with a unique specificity for a particular antigen.
ii. Activation:
When a B-cell encounters its specific antigen, typically on the surface of an invading
pathogen such as a bacterium or virus, the antigen binds to the BCR, initiating signaling
cascades within the B-cell.
iii. Internalization and Processing of Antigen:
Upon binding to the antigen, the B-cell internalizes the antigen through endocytosis.
Within the B-cell, the antigen is processed into smaller peptide fragments.
iv. Antigen Presentation:
Processed antigen peptides are then presented on the surface of the B-cell bound to
major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) molecules. This allows the B-cell to
display the antigen to helper T-cells.
v. Activation by Helper T-cells:
Helper T-cells recognize the antigen-MHC-II complex presented by the B-cell. Upon
binding, helper T-cells provide co-stimulatory signals to the B-cell, which are necessary
for its activation and further differentiation.
vi. Clonal Expansion:
Upon activation, the B-cell undergoes clonal expansion, rapidly proliferating to generate
a large population of identical B-cells, all with the same antigen specificity.
vii. Differentiation:
During clonal expansion, some B-cells differentiate into two main effector cell types:
 Plasma Cells:
These are specialized B-cells that secrete large quantities of antibodies specific to the
encountered antigen. Plasma cells are responsible for the production of antibodies
during the humoral immune response.
 Memory B-cells:
These cells are long-lived and provide immunological memory. They persist in the body
after the initial immune response and can rapidly respond to subsequent encounters
with the same antigen, leading to a faster and more robust secondary immune
response.
viii. Antibody Production:
Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the bloodstream
and tissues. Antibodies bind specifically to the antigen, neutralizing pathogens directly
or marking them for destruction by other immune cells such as phagocytes and
complement proteins.