Self-Efficacy: A comparative study between male and female students

Arjdeep Kaur Sandhu

Amity Institute of Psychology and Applied Sciences (AIPS)

STAT616: Research Proposal

Dr Seema Singh

March 11, 2024

 1

Introduction

The term 'self-efficacy” was first coined by psychologist Albert Bandura (1977) a

Canadian-American psychologist and a professor at Stanford University.

Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute

behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986,

1997). Since then, self-efficacy has become one of the most thoroughly researched

concepts in psychology. Self-efficacy does not refer to your abilities but rather to your

beliefs about what you can do with your abilities. Also, self-efficacy is not a trait—there

are not certain types of people with high self-efficacies and others with low self-efficacies

(Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). To quote George Bernard Shaw: The reasonable man adapts

himself to the world: the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself.

Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man. Self-efficacy can be developed

by anyone. That is, self-efficacy is not a trait that some have, and others do not. Rather,

everyone can exercise agency and strengthen their self-efficacy, regardless of their past or

current environment (Schunk & Ertmer, 2000).

Your beliefs become your thoughts. Your thoughts become your words. Your

words become your actions. Your actions become your habits. Your habits become your

values. Your values become your destiny.

Self-efficacy plays a major part in determining our chances for success; in fact,

some psychologists rate self-efficacy above talent in the recipe for success. We need to pay

special attention to self-efficacy when setting goals to make sure that our efficacy beliefs
 2

are in line with our aims and not working against them. While experiences of success

certainly make up a large portion of self-efficacy development, there is also room for

failure. Those with a high level of self-efficacy are not only more likely to succeed, but

they are also more likely to bounce back from failure. This is the ability at the heart of

resilience, and it is greatly impacted by self-efficacy.

Self- efficacy is also positively related to confidence, but they are not the same

thing; in the other words of Albert Bandura: Confidence is a nondescript term that refers to

strength of belief but does not necessarily specify what the certainty is about. whereas,

perceived self-efficacy refers to belief in one’s agentive capabilities, that one can produce

at given levels of attainment. Self-efficacy and confidence can work in a positive cycle: the

more confident a person is in his abilities, the more likely he is to succeed, which provides

him/her with experiences to develop his/her self-efficacy.

1.1 Sources of Self-Efficacy

The originator of the theory, Albert Bandura names four sources of efficacy beliefs with

which efficacy is developed are as follows:

1. Mastery Experiences: The first and foremost source of self-efficacy is through mastery

experiences. Mastery experience refer to the experiences we gain when we take on a new

challenge and succeed. Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-

efficacy. Once a person has done this enough time, they will come to believe that sustained

effort and perseverance through adversity will serve a purpose in the end; belief in one’s

ability to succeed will grow. On the other hand, however, failing to adequately deal with a

task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy. The power of Mastery
 3

Experiences to increase self-efficacy depends upon a number of factors, including the

difficulty of the task, the pattern of success, the amount of effort expended, the amount of

external aid received, and the circumstances under which the task is performed.

2. Vicarious experiences: Vicarious experience is quite simply having a role model to

observe and emulate. When we have positive role models who display healthy level of self-

efficacy, we are likely to absorb some of those positive beliefs about the self. Observing

others’ successes or failures can also influence an individual’s self-efficacy. Seeing

someone similar to oneself succeed can increase self-efficacy, while witnessing someone

fails can decrease self-efficacy.

3. Social Persuasion: Social persuasion involves verbal or non-verbal messages from

others that can influence an individual’s self-efficacy. Encouragement, positive feedback,

and constructive criticism can increase self-efficacy, while negative feedback and criticism

can decrease self-efficacy.

4. Emotional and Physiological states: Emotional and physiological states can also

influence self-efficacy. Positive emotions and a sense of physical well-being can increase

self-efficacy, while negative emotions and physical discomfort can decrease self-efficacy.

For example, your doctor telling you that you are doing a good job sticking to your diet

plan can be encouraging.

5. Imaginal Experience: Psychologist James Maddux has suggested a fifth route to self-

efficacy through “imaginal experiences”, the art of visualizing yourself behaving

effectively or successfully in a given situation. Exercises that allow you to imagine your

future success in detail help you to build the belief that succeeding is indeed possible.
 4

Self-efficacy begins to develop in very young children. Once self-efficacy is

developed, it does not remain constant—it can change and grow as an individual has

different experiences throughout his or her lifetime. When children are very young, their

parents’ self-efficacies are important (Jones & Prinz, 2005). Children of parents who have

high parental self-efficacies perceive their parents as more responsive to their needs

(Gondoli & Silverberg, 1997). Around the ages of 12 through 16, adolescents’ friends also

become an important source of self-efficacy beliefs. Adolescents who associate with peer

groups that are not academically motivated tend to experience a decline in academic self-

efficacy (Wentzel, Barry, & Caldwell, 2004). Adolescents who watch their peers succeed;

however, experience a rise in academic self-efficacy (Schunk & Miller, 2002). This is an

example of gaining self-efficacy through vicarious performance.

Self-efficacious adolescents perform better at school and self-efficacious adults

perform better at work. These individuals have happier romantic relationships and work

better in teams. People with strong self-efficacies have better health than those with weak

self-efficacies; they are more likely to engage in behaviors that prevent health problems

and actually increase their health. They are more likely to begin and continue exercise, and

eat better foods. Higher self-efficacy is also useful for getting out of bad habits. People

with strong self-efficacies are able to lose weight, quit smoking, and cut down on alcohol

consumption more successfully than can people with low self-efficacies.

Many of the researches have shown that there is no significance difference in self-

efficacy levels between male and female students. While gender differences in self-

efficacy can vary depending on the specific task or domain being examined, some studies

suggest that males tend to have higher self-efficacy than females in traditionally male-
 5

dominated fields such as science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). On the other

hand, females tend to have higher self-efficacy in domains traditionally associates with

females, such as nurturing and caregiving. These gender differences in self-efficacy may

be influenced by a variety of factors, including societal expectations, stereotypes, and

gender roles. It is important to note, however, that these differences are not universal and

can vary widely depending on the individual and specific context. Both males and females

can develop high levels of self-efficacy through experiences, feedback, and support, and

both can benefit from cultivating a strong sense of self-belief and confidence in their

abilities.

“Believing in oneself is a powerful tool that can unlock untold potential and lead to

great achievements. Self-efficacy is the key that unlocks this power within us.”

Objective:

The objective of the study was to investigate the general self-efficacy level of male

and female students and determine if there were any significant differences between the

two groups.
 6

Review of Related Studies

Some studies that investigated the general self-efficacy levels of male and female

students and explored whether there were any significant differences between the two

groups are as follows:

In 2013, Shikullaku done on study about “The Relationship between Self-analysis.

The study consisted of 180 students, 78 men (43%) and 102 women (57%) with the

participants age ranged from 19 to 31 years. In this study he found that there is no

significant difference level of self-efficacy between males and females.

The study conducted by Siti Salwa Bte Md. Sawari and Norwati in 2013 aimed to

investigate the general self-efficacy level of male and female students and determine if

there were any significant differences between the two groups. In this study, the

researchers used a survey questionnaire to collect data from 200 undergraduate students

(100 males and 100 females) at a Malaysian public University. After analysing the data,

the researchers found that there was no significant difference in the level of general self-

efficacy between male and female students. This suggests that both male and female

students had similar levels of belief in their ability to cope with challenging situations in

life.

A study published in the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology in 2013

examined self-efficacy beliefs in academic and social domains among college students.

The study found that while there were no significant gender differences in overall self-
 7

efficacy, women reported lower self-efficacy beliefs in the academic domain compared to

men.

A study by Abdel- Khalek and Alansari in 2014 examined self-efficacy beliefs

among a sample of Arabic-speaking university students. The results showed no significant

gender difference in overall self-efficacy or in specific domains of self-efficacy.

A study by Sahin and colleagues in 2014 examined general self-efficacy levels

among a sample of Turkish University students. The results showed no significant gender

difference in general self-efficacy.

A study by Memon and colleagues in 2015 examined general self-efficacy levels

among a sample of Pakistani University students. The results showed no significant gender

differences in general self-efficacy.

A study published in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence in 2016 found that there were

gender differences in self-efficacy beliefs among young adults. The study found that males

had higher self-efficacy beliefs in the academic and social domains, while females had

higher self-efficacy beliefs in the emotional domain.

Another study published in the journal of Career Assessment in 2017 found that

there were no significant gender differences in self-efficacy beliefs related to career

decision-making among college students. However, the study did find that self-efficacy

beliefs were related to career decision-making for both males and females.

A study published in the Journal of Psychology and Education in 2018 examined

the relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement among college students.
 8

The study found that self-efficacy beliefs were positively related to academic achievement

for both males and females.

A study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 2019

examined gender differences in self-efficacy beliefs related to leadership, but this

difference was reduced when controlling for prior leadership experience.

The study conducted by Sandeep Talluri in 2019 aimed to investigate the level of

self-efficacy among male and female secondary school students. In this study, the

researcher used a survey questionnaire to collect data from 200 secondary school students

(100 males and 100 females) from two schools in India. After analysing the data, the

researcher found that there was no significant difference in the level of self-efficacy

between male and female secondary school students.

A study by Zhang and colleagues in 2020 examined general self-efficacy levels

among a sample of Chinese high school students. The results showed no significant gender

differences in general self-efficacy.

A study by Wang and colleagues in 2021 examines self-beliefs in relation to

environmental education among a sample of Chinese University students. The results

showed no significant gender differences in self-efficacy for environmental education.

 9

A study Cetin and colleagues in 2022 examined general self-efficacy levels among a

sample of Turkish University students. The results showed no significant gender

differences in general self-efficacy.

Hypothesis:

1. There will be no significant difference between male and female students on the

variable of self-efficacy.

2. There will be significant difference between male and female students on the variable

of self-efficacy.
 10

Methodology

4.1. Design

This research is aimed at describing the condition of both male and female

student’s self-efficacy and identifying the difference. This research is a quantitative

research with descriptive-comparative. Proper instructions were given to the participants.

The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) typically includes 10 items that assess an

individual’s self-efficacy. The participants were asked to respond to the items in a scale.

There was no time limit for the participants to fill up the form.

4.2 Sample

The data was collected from 60 students out of which 30 were males and 30 female

students for the assessment of self-efficacy by using Generalized self-efficacy Scale

(GSE). The age range was 18-25 years. Simple random sampling was used to obtain the

data.

4.3. Tool used

4.3.1 Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

The Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES) is a 10-item scale, which has been

translated by Mary Wegner from the original German version by Schwarzer and Jerusalem

(in Schwarzer, 1992). It assesses the strength of an individual’s belief in his or her own

ability to respond to novel or difficult situations and to deal with any associated obstacles or

setbacks.
 11

This is a self-administered scale which normally takes two or three minutes to

complete. Respondents are required to indicate the extent to which each statement applies

to them. Each item is scored on 4-point Likert Scale, with responses ranging from “Not at

all true” which scores 1 to “Exactly true” which scores 4. The scores for each of the ten

items are summed to give a total score.

The score on this scale reflects the strength of an individual’s generalized self-efficacy

belief. Thus, the higher the score, the greater is the individual’s generalized sense of self-

efficacy.

Reliability. Internal reliability for GSE = Cronbach’s alphas between .76 and .90

Validity. The General Self-Efficacy Scale is correlated to emotion, optimism, work

satisfaction. Negative coefficients were found for depression, stress, health complaints,

burnout, and anxiety.

The total score is calculated by finding the sum of the all items. For the GSE, the total

score ranges between 10 and 40, with a higher score indicating more self-efficacy.

4.4. Statistical Analysis

A T-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups and

how they are related. It is suitable to test whether the mean of the two sets of scores are

significantly different or not. In this research T-test was used to investigate the general
 12

self-efficacy level of male and female students and determine if there were any significant

differences between the two groups.

 13

Result

In this study t-test was applied to test the significance of difference between male

and female student’s self-efficacy.

Table: 5.1 showing mean, standard deviation

and t-ratio of male and female students

S. No Variable Male Female t-

Students Students ratio

 14

1. Self- Mean- 31 Mean- 30.03 0.83

Efficacy S.D. – 4.25 S.D – 4.79

Table 5.1 Indicates that there is no significance difference between self-efficacy of

male and female students.

The results thus indicate that both girls and boys show similar levels of self-efficacy.

The obtained t-ratio of 0.83 is lesser than the required value of 1.671. The

difference is not significant at 0.05 level. The obtained t-ratio of 0.83 is also lesser than the

required value of 2.390. thus, the difference is not significant at 0.01 level as well.

Hypothesis say that there is no significance difference between the level of

general self-efficacy of male and female students. In accordance to the findings the
 15

hypothesis has been proved as it is shown clearly in the table that there is no significance

difference between self-efficacy of male and female students.

 16

Discussion

a. Self-Efficacy: A comparative study between male and female students.

The present study was designed to investigate the general self-efficacy level of

male and female students and determine if there were any significant differences between

the two groups for which the General Self-Efficacy Scale by Schwarzer and Jerusalem was

used to assess the significance difference between self-efficacy of male and female

students. This scale is a self-report measure of self-efficacy. The result showed that there is

no significance difference between the level of self-efficacy of male and female students

and also the hypothesis has been proved.

The reasons for no significant difference can be due to the advancements in

education for both male and female students and the empowerment of women has must

definitely impacted their self-efficacy. Students nowadays are more exposed to

extracurricular activities which help them to enhance their self-efficacy with the help of

which they get motivated and confident.

If male and female students have access to similar role models who demonstrate

competence and confidence in their abilities, this may also contribute to similar levels of

self-efficacy. Children often learn behaviors vicariously/ through observation as seen in

one of the sources given by Albert Bandura-Vicarious experiences.

It is important to remember that self-efficacy is an individual characteristic that

can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including personality, motivation, and past
 17

experiences. Therefore, it is possible that male and female students may have similar levels

of self-efficacy simply due to individual differences that are not related to gender.

Males and females may be socialized differently, with males often encouraged to be more

assertive and confident, and females encouraged to be more nurturing and empathetic.

However, these differences in socialization may not necessarily translate into differences in

self-efficacy, as both males and females may develop confidence and belief in their

abilities through experience and positive feedback.

If male and female students are in environments that are equally supportive and

encouraging of their efforts, this may contribute to similar levels of self-efficacy. For

example, if both male and female students receive positive feedback, opportunities for

growth, resources to support their learning, they may develop similar levels of confidence

in their abilities.

Cultural norms and values can influence the development of self-efficacy. If male

and female students come from cultures or communities that emphasize the importance of

hard work, perseverance, and competence, they may develop similar levels of self-efficacy.

Students’ beliefs about the role of effort in achieving success can influence their self-

efficacy. If male and female students believe that their effort and hard work can lead to

success, they may develop similar levels of self-efficacy.

Students’ experiences with challenges and obstacles can also shape their self-efficacy. If

male and female students face similar challenges and have opportunities to develop

strategies for overcoming them, they may develop similar levels of confidence in their

abilities.
 18

Students’ personal values and goals can also shape their self-efficacy. If male and

female students place similar importance on academic achievement and see it as central to

their identity, they may develop similar levels of self-efficacy.

These are just some possible factors that may contribute to similar levels of self-

efficacy in male and female students, and that there may be many other factors at play as

well. Ultimately, the development of self-efficacy is a complex and multifaceted process

that can be influenced by a wide range of individual, social, and contextual factors.

Based on the available evidence and research, it appears that there is no significant

difference between male and female students’ self-efficacy. The present study was

designed to investigate the general self-efficacy level of male and female students and

determine if there were any significant differences between the two groups which also

proved that there is no significant difference between male and female students’ self-

efficacy. Numerous studies have examined this issue across various context and age

groups, and the findings consistently suggest that gender does not play a significant role in

predicting self-efficacy levels.

While there may be some individual differences between males and females in

terms of their self-efficacy beliefs, these differences are likely due to factors other than

gender, such as personal experiences, social support, and academic achievement. It is

important to recognize that self-efficacy is a complex construct that is influenced by a

variety of factors, and gender is just one of many potential variables that can impact it.

Overall, the research suggests that both male and female students can benefit from

interventions aimed at enhancing self-efficacy, regardless of their gender. By providing

students with the tools and resources they need to develop and strengthen their belief in
 19

their own abilities, educators can help promote academic success and improve overall well-

being for all students, regardless of gender.

 20

Conclusion

There is no significant difference between male and female students’ self-efficacy.

The obtained t-ratio of 0.83 is lesser than the required value of 1.671. The difference is not

significant at 0.05 level. The obtained t-ratio of 0.83 is also lesser than the required value

of 2.390. thus, the difference is not significant at 0.01 level as well. Therefore, the

hypothesis has been proved.

 i

References

Abdel-Khalek, A. M., & Alansari, B. M. (2014). Gender differences in self-efficacy beliefs

among Arab university students. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 24(3), 242-245.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A Social Cognitive Theory.

Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. 2001. Self-efficacy beliefs

as shapers of children’s aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development,

72(1), 187-206.

Benight, C. C. & Bandura, A. 2004. Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: the

role of perceived self-efficacy. Behavior Research and Therapy, 42, 1129-1148.

Bandura, A., (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist,

37, p. 489-147.

Betz, N.E., & Hackett, G. (1997). Applications of self-efficacy theory to the career

assessment of women. Journal of Career Assessment, 5(4), 383-402.

Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic

performance: a systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63-84.

 ii

List of Appendices

Appendix No. Title

1. Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

 iii

Appendix-I

General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

Statements Not at Hardly Moderately Exactly

all true true true true

1. I can always manage

to solve difficult

problems if I try

hard enough

2. If someone opposes

me, I can find the

means and ways to

get what I want

3. It is easy for me to

stick to my aims and

accomplish my goals

4. I am confident that I

could deal efficiently

with unexpected

events

5. Thanks to my

resourcefulness, I
 iv

know how to handle

unforeseen situations

6. I can solve most

problems if I invest

the necessary effort

7. I can remain calm

when facing

difficulties because I

can rely on my

coping abilities

8. When I confronted

with a problem, I can

usually find several

solutions

9. If I am in trouble, I

can usually think of

solution

10. I can usually handle

whatever comes my

way.

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in

health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37).