UNIT 2 - DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

PART –B(C205.2)
1.Explain about the speed-torque characteristics of a DC Compound Motor with suitable graph
and equations.(Dec 2013)
Characteristics of Cumulative Compound Motors
Fig. shows the connections of a cumulative-compound motor. Each pole carries a series as well as
shunt field winding; the series field aiding the shunt field.

(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic.

As the load increases, the series field increases but shunt field strength remains constant. Con-
sequently, total flux is increased and hence the armature torque (Ta α Ia ) It may be noted that
torque of a cumulative-compound motor is greater than that of shunt motor for a given arma-
ture current due to series field [See Fig.].

(ii) N / Ia Characteristic.
As explained above, as the lead increases, the flux per pole also increases. Consequently, the
speed (N 1/) of the motor tails as the load increases (See Fig.). It may be noted that as
the load is added, the increased amount of flux causes the speed to decrease more than does
the speed of a shunt motor. Thus the speed regulation of a cumulative compound motor is
poorer than that of a shunt motor.

(iii) N / Ta Characteristic.
 Fig. shows N / Ta characteristic of a cumulative compound motor. For a given armature cur-
rent, the torque of a cumulative compound motor is more than that of a shunt motor but less
than that of a series motor.

Applications of D.C. Motors

1) Shunt motors
a. Lathes, drills, boring mills, shapers, spinning and weaving machines, wood working ma-
chines,
b. reciprocating pumps, blowers, centrifugal pumps, milling machines, grinders etc.
2) Series motors
a. Electric locomotives, tram cars, trolley cars, cranes, hoists, elevators, conveyors, winches
etc.
3) 3. DC differential compound motor
a. Battery boosters, experimental and research work only.
4) 4. Cumulative compound motor
Punching, shearing and planning machines, lifts, air compressors, rolling mills, printing presses,
etc.

2. Draw and explain the speed torque characteristics of dc series motor and three phase
induction motor.(Dec 2011,Apr 2019)

(I) Characteristics of DC Series Motor:

Fig. shows the connections of a dc series motor. Note that current passing through the field wind-
ing is the same as that in the armature. If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the armature cur-
rent also increases. Hence, the flux in a series motor increases with the increase in armature current and
vice-versa.

DC Series Motor Ta – Ia Characteristics

 N / Ta Characteristic:
The N/Ta characteristic of a series motor is shown in Fig. It is clear that series motor develops
high torque at low speed and vice-versa. It is because an increase in torque requires an increase in arma-
ture current, which is also the field current. The result is that flux is strengthened and hence the speed
drops (N 1/). Reverse happens should the torque be low.

N – T Characteristics

Following three important conclusions are drawn from the above characteristics of series motors:
i. It has a high starting torque because initially Ta α Ia 2
ii. It is a variable speed motor (See N/Ia curve in Fig) i.e., it automatically adjusts the speed as
the load changes. Thus if the load decreases, its speed is automatically raised and vice-versa.
iii. At no-load, the armature current is very small and so is the flux. Hence, the speed rises to an
excessive high value (N 1/). This is dangerous for the machine which may be destroyed
due to centrifugal forces set up in the rotating parts. Therefore, a series motor should never be
started on no-load. However, to start a series motor, mechanical load is first put and then the
motor is started.

(II) Speed Torque Characteristics of 3 Induction motor

Complete Speed Torque Chracteristics of 3 Induction motor

 The speed-torque characteristics can be drawn by considering three modes of operation of 3 in-
duction motor.
1. Motoring mode: 0 < s < 1
2. Generating mode: s < 0
3. Braking mode: s > 1

1. Motoring mode: 0 < s < 1

For this range of slip, mechanical power is given as output (or) torque developed is in the direc-
tion in which the rotor rotates.

2. Generating mode: s < 0

Negative slip refers to the motor running at super synchronous speed i.e. N > Ns· For this mode,
mechanical power is input and electrical power is given as output at the machine terminals.

3. Braking mode: s > 1

The motor runs in opposite direction to the rotating field i.e., N is negative. Braking effect takes
place and the motor stops at the instant

Effect of change in supply frequency on torque and speed

Smooth stepless speed control is obtained by smooth variation of supply frequency. If supply fre-
quency is varied by keeping the supply voltage constant, then the magnetic flux will change. But, it is de-
sirable that an induction motor is operated with its magnetic flux maintained constant.

To maintain the magnetic flux constant, it is therefore necessary to control the supply frequency
and voltage in such a way that V/f remains constant.

A family of torque-speed curves for an induction motor obtained by supply frequency variation
with V/f = constant.

Speed-Torque Characteristics

Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage Motors

The slip-ring induction motors have the following advantages over the squirrel cage motors:
(i) High starting torque with low starting current.
(ii) Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
(iii) No abnormal heating during starting.
(iv) Good running characteristics after external rotor resistances are cut out.
(v) Adjustable speed.
The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:
(i) The initial and maintenance costs are greater than those of squirrel cage motors.
(ii) The speed regulation is poor when run with resistance in the rotor circuit
3. Explain about the speed-torque characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor with suitable graph
and equations.(Dec 2014) (Dec 2018) (Apr 2018,2019)
4. Explain about the quadrant diagram of speed-torque characteristics for a motor driving hoist
load. (Nov 2015) (May 2015) (Dec 2016)
Four quadrant Operation

For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable

conventions about the signs of torque and speed. A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and
braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, which supports its motion.
In braking it works as a generator converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and thus op-
poses the motion. Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse dir-
ections. Figure shows the torque and speed co-ordinates for both forward and reverse motions. Power
developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque. For motoring operations power
developed is positive and for braking operations power developed is negative.

Speed
Forward
Forward Motoring
Braking
II I

Torque

III IV
Reverse Reverse
Motoring Braking
 A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft one end of the rope is
tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level . Other end of
the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of
empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage. Forward direction of motor speed will be one which
gives upward motion of the cage. Load torque line in quadrants I and IV represents speed-torque
characteristics of the loaded hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist and
counter weight

In quadrant I, developed power is positive, hence machine works as a motor supplying

mechanical energy. Operation in quadrant-I is therefore called Forward Motoring. In quadrant II,
power developed is negative. Hence, machine works under braking opposing the motion. Therefore
operation in quadrant II is known as forward braking. Similarly operation in quadrant III and IV can
be identified as reverse motoring and reverse braking since speed in these quadrants is negative. For
better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of hoist in four quadrants as
shown in the figure. Direction of motor and load torques and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

The load torque in quadrants II and III is the speed torque characteristics for an empty hoist.
This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sigh is negative
because the counter weight is always higher than that of an empty cage.

The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires movement of cage upward, which corresponds to
the positive motor speed which is in counter clockwise direction here. This motion will be obtained if
the motor products positive torque in CCW direction equal to the magnitude of load torque TL1. Since
developed power is positive, this is forward motoring operation. Quadrant IV is obtained when a
loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of the loaded cage is higher than that of the counter weight .It
is able to overcome due to gravity itself.

In order to limit the cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T equal to
TL2 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse
braking operation. Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a
counter weigh is heavier than an empty cage, it’s able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a
safe value, motor must produce a braking torque equal to TL2 in clockwise direction. Since speed is
positive and developed power is negative, it’s forward braking operation.

Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has a
lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in CW direction. Since speed is
negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring operation.

Steady State Stability:

Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when motor torque equals the load
torque. Electric drive system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable
state equilibrium. Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability
of an equilibrium point from the steady state speed torque curves of the motor and load system.

In most of the electrical drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared
with the mechanical time constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be
in electrical equilibrium implying that steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the
transient state operation.
5. Explain how an induction motor is brought to stop by (i) Plugging and
(ii) dynamic braking.(Dec 2014)
(I) Plugging or Counter current or reverse current braking
Plugging method gives more amount of braking than, dynamic braking method. In 3 induction
motor, the direction of rotating magnetic field depends on the phase sequence of the 3 supply fed to the
stator winding. The direction of torque developed in the rotor is in the same direction as that of the rotat-
ing magnetic field. Therefore, in order to develop braking torque in a direction opposite to the movement
of the shaft. It is just enough if we change the order of phase sequence of the 3 supply fed to stator. The
circuit connection for this method of braking is
shown below

Dynamic braking
 The dynamic or rheostatic braking is employed to brake a non-reversing drive, stator is
disconnected from the three phase ac mains and a d.c. current is fed into the stator via two of its termin-
als. The d.c. supply is usually obtained from a rectifier fed via a low-voltage high-current transformer.

The speed of rotation of the air-gap field is directly proportional to the supply frequency, so it
should be clear that since d.c. is effectively zero frequency, the air-gap field will be stationary. The rotor
always tries to run at the same speed as the field. So, if the field is stationary, and the rotor is not, a brak-
ing torque will be exerted, so that the braking (negative) torque falls to zero as the rotor comes to rest.
Since there will be induced currents in the rotor (and hence torque) only when the rotor is ‘cutting’ the
flux. As with plugging, injection (or dynamic) braking is a dissipative process, all the kinetic energy be-
ing turned into heat inside the motor.

6. Explain the various methods of braking of induction motors. (June 2014) (Apr 2018, 2019, Dec
2014)
Braking characteristics of 3 induction motor:
1. Rheostatic or Dynamic braking
 The dynamic or rheostatic braking is employed to brake a non-reversing drive, stator is
disconnected from the three phase ac mains and a d.c. current is fed into the stator via two of its termin-
als. The d.c. supply is usually obtained from a rectifier fed via a low-voltage high-current transformer.

The speed of rotation of the air-gap field is directly proportional to the supply frequency, so it
should be clear that since d.c. is effectively zero frequency, the air-gap field will be stationary. The rotor
always tries to run at the same speed as the field. So, if the field is stationary, and the rotor is not, a brak-
ing torque will be exerted, so that the braking (negative) torque falls to zero as the rotor comes to rest.
Since there will be induced currents in the rotor (and hence torque) only when the rotor is ‘cutting’ the
flux. As with plugging, injection (or dynamic) braking is a dissipative process, all the kinetic energy be-
ing turned into heat inside the motor.

Schematic diagram of dynamic braking

 Speed – Torque Characteristics

2. Plugging or Counter current or reverse current braking

Plugging method gives more amount of braking than, dynamic braking method. In 3 induction
motor, the direction of rotating magnetic field depends on the phase sequence of the 3 supply fed to the
stator winding. The direction of torque developed in the rotor is in the same direction as that of the rotat-
ing magnetic field. Therefore, in order to develop braking torque in a direction opposite to the movement
of the shaft. It is just enough if we change the order of phase sequence of the 3 supply fed to stator. The
circuit connection for this method of braking is shown below

Motoring Plugging

Schematic diagram of dynamic braking

 Speed – Torque Characteristics
3. Regenerative braking

This is the most economical method of braking. During regenerative braking, the induction motor
is made to operate as an induction generator, converting the acquired mechanical energy into electrical
energy and feeding it back to the supply mains. It is worthwhile to mention that, when rotor of induction
motor is made to rotate at a speed greater than synchronous speed i.e., super synchronous speed, induc-
tion motor will now behave as induction generator.

3
AC Supply

Load Induction
Motor

Schematic diagram of regenerative braking

 Speed – Torque Characteristics

Three phase power equation P = √ 3 V L I L cosφ where  - angle between VL and IL

 < 90o
induction machine act as Motor
 > 90o
induction machine act as Generator

When rotor of an induction motor runs faster than the stator field (synchronous speed) speed, then
slip becomes negative, now machine act as generator. Overhauling load, hoist load and crane or downhill
motion has tendency to run the rotor above the synchronous speed. Regenerative braking is also possible

with a pole changing method and by varying the supply frequency

( N =
P ).
120 f
s

7. Describe the speed Torque characteristics of DC Dynamic braking of three phase in-
duction motor. (May 2014)
Refer question 5 and 6
8. Explain speed- torque characteristics of different types of load with graph.(May 2013)
Classification of load torques :
1.Active Load torques

2.Passice Load torques

Active Load Torques:

i. Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called
active load torques.

ii. Load torques usually retain sign when the drive rotation is changed.

Passive Torque:
i. Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion are
called passive load torques.

ii. Torque due to friction cutting – Passive torque.

Components of load torques:

1.Friction Torque (TF)
The friction torque (TF) is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.
2.Windage Torque (Tw)
When a motor runs, the wind generates a torque opposing the motion . This is known as the winding
torque.
3.Torque required to do useful mechanical work ( Tm)
i. Nature of the torque depands of type of load.

ii. It may be constant and indeoendent of speed, Some function of speed, may be time invariant or
time variant.

iii. The nature of the torque may change with the change in the loads mode of operation.

Characteristics of different types of load:

In electric drives the driving equipment is an electric motor. Selection of particular type of motor driving
a m/c is the matching of speed-torque characteristics of the driven unit and that of the motor.Different
types of loads exhibit different speed torque characteristics. Most of the industrial loads can be classified
into the following 4 general categories:
1. Constant torque type load.
2. Torque proportional to speed (generator type load)
3. Torque proportional to square of the speed (fan type load)
4. Torque inversely proportional to speed (const power type load)

1.Constant Torque Characteristic :

The speed – torque characteristic of this type of load is given by T=K.
Working motor have each mechanical nature of work like shaping , cutting, grinding or sharing, require
constant torque irrespective of speed. Similarly cranes during the hoisting.
Similarly cranes during the hoisting and conveyors handling constant weight of material / unit, time also
exhibit this type of characteristics.

Torque proportional to speed:

Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy current brakes and calen -
daring m/cs have a speed torque characteristics m/cs have a speed – torque characteristics given by T=
Kw.
Torque propositional to square of the speed:

Load Torque Square of speed

Example : Fans , Rotary pumps , compressors , ship propellers. The speed – torque characteristics of this
type of load is given by

Torque inversely propositional to speed:

In such types of loads , torque is inversely proportional to speed or load power remains constant.
· Eq: Lathes, boring m/cs, milling m/cs , steel mill colier and electric traction load.
· Most of the load require extra effort at the time of starting to overcome static friction. In power applica-
tion it is known as brake away torque and load control engineers call it “stiction” . Because of slition ,
the speed torque characteristics of the load is modified near to zero speed.

·
10. What is meant by Braking? Explain various methods of braking of DC Motors with neat dia-
grams.(May 2013,2019) (Nov 2015) (April 2017) (Dec 2018). With neat circuit diagram explain the
plugging method of braking in D.C. shunt motor . (Dec 2021)
Braking Characteristics of DC Motors

Sometimes it is desirable to stop a d.c. motor quickly. This may be necessary in case of emer-
gency stop or to save time. The motor and its load may be brought to rest by using either (i) mechanical
(friction) braking or (ii) electric braking.

In mechanical braking, the motor is stopped due to the friction between the moving parts of the
motor and the brake shoe i.e. kinetic energy of the motor is dissipated as heat. Mechanical braking has
several disadvantages including non-smooth stop and greater stopping time.

In electric braking, the kinetic energy of the moving parts (i.e., motor) is converted into electrical
energy which is dissipated in a resistance as heat or alternatively, it is returned to the supply source (Re-
generative braking).

For d.c. shunt as well as series motors, the following three methods of electric braking are used:

i) Rheostatic or Dynamic braking

ii) Plugging or Reverse current or Counter current braking
iii) Regenerative braking

It may be noted that electric braking cannot hold the motor stationary and mechanical braking is
necessary. However, the main advantage of using electric braking is that it reduces the wear and tear of
mechanical brakes and cuts down the stopping time considerably due to high braking retardation.

Braking Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors

i) Rheostatic or Dynamic braking of dc shunt motor:

Dynamic braking is used to stop the motor by dissipating its stored kinetic enrgy into a
resistive load or external resistance or braking reistance Rb. once the kinetic energy is totally dissipated,
the motor stops rotating if no external torque is exerted.

In this method, the armature of the running motor is disconnected from the supply and is connec-
ted across a variable resistance R. However, the field winding is remains connected to the supply. The
armature, while slowing down, rotates in a strong magnetic field and, therefore, operates as a generator,
sending a large current through resistance R. This causes the energy possessed by the rotating armature
to be dissipated quickly as heat in the resistance. As a result, the motor is brought to standstill quickly.

Fig.(i) shows dynamic braking of a shunt motor. The braking torque can be controlled by varying
the resistance R. If the value of R is decreased as the motor speed decreases, the braking torque may be
maintained at a high value. At a low value of speed, the braking torque becomes small and the final stop-
ping of the motor is due to friction.
 This type of braking is used extensively in connection with the control of elevators and hoists and
in other applications in which motors must be started, stopped and reversed frequently.

Torque Ta
V −Eb −Eb −k b φN
I a= = =
Ra + R b R a + Rb Ra + Rb , V = 0, Also, Eb α N

Developed torque Td = Braking torque Tb

−k t k b φ2 N
T b = k t φI a =
Ra + Rb where, kt – torque constant, Rb – braking resistance
kb– back emf constant
For a shunt motor,  is constant. Braking torque, Tb α N
Advantages:
1. This method is effective and the motor stops very quickly
2. This method is adopted for non reversing drives where regeneration is not possible.
Disadvantages:
1. Generated energy is wasted in the form of heat loss at resistance.
2. This method is inefficient in case of failure of electric supply.

ii) Plugging (or) Counter current braking (or) Reverse current braking

In this method, connections to the armature are reversed so that motor tends to rotate in the op-
posite direction, thus providing the necessary braking effect. When the motor comes to rest, the supply
must be cut off otherwise the motor will start rotating in the opposite direction.
 Due to the reversal of armature connections, both V and Eb start acting in the same direction
around the circuit. In order to limit the armature current to a safe value, it is essential to insert a resistor
in the circuit while reversing the armature connections.

When compared with rheostatic braking, plugging gives better braking torque. This method is
commonly used for printing presses, elevators, rolling mills and machine tools

The speed torque characteristic under plugging condition is given below in figure.

Speed
Motoring

Torque

Braking

V 1 T b ( Ra + Rex )
N= +
k b φ R a + R ex kt kb φ 2 V and Ia are negative
Rex – external resistance
T d =T b =k t φ I a

Advantages:
1. In this method quick stoping is achived
2. For reversing the drives requires a short time for reversal

iii) Regenerative braking

In the regenerative braking, the motor is run as a generator. As a result, the kinetic energy of the
motor is converted into electrical energy and returned to the supply. Fig. shows two methods of regener-
ative braking for a shunt motor.
 Regeneration takes place when Eb becomes greater than V. This happens when the overhauling
load acts as a prime mover and so drives the machine as a generator. Hence, the direction of Ia and arma-
ture torque is reversed and speed falls until Eb becomes less than V.

During slowing down of the motor, power is returned to the line which may be used for supplying
another train on an upgrade motion thereby relieving the power supply house, a part of its load. As a
safety measure, it is essential to have some type of mechanical braking also in order to hold the load in
the event of power failure.

In one method, field winding is disconnected from the supply and field current is increased by ex-
citing it from another source. As a result, induced e.m.f. E exceeds the supply voltage V and the machine
feeds energy into the supply. Thus braking torque is provided upto the speed at which induced e.m.f. and
supply voltage are equal. As the machine slows down, it is not possible to maintain induced e.m.f. at a
higher value than the supply voltage. Therefore, this method is possible only for a limited range of speed.

In a second method, the field excitation does not change but the load causes the motor to run
above the normal speed (e.g., descending load on a crane). As a result, the induced e.m.f. E becomes
greater than the supply voltage V. The direction of armature current I, therefore, reverses but the direc-
tion of shunt field current If remains unaltered. Hence the torque is reversed and the speed falls until E
becomes less than V.

This method is used when the load on the motor has overhauling characteristics as m the lowering
of the case of a hoist or downgrade motion of electric train.

From the characteristic curves, it is clear that, higher the armature circuit resistance, the higher is
the speed at which the motor has to run for a given braking torque.
 T

Speed – Torque characteristics of dc shunt motor during Regenerative braking.

T V −Eb
I a= I a=
T b =k t φ I a kt φ Also, Ra Eb > V Ia is –ve

V I R V Tb Ra
N= − a a N= +
k b φ kb φ k b φ k t k b φ2

Advantages:
1. The kinetic energy converted to electrical energy, which can be usefully utilized or returned
to supply mains.
2. Energy efficiency increases.

Disadvantages:
1. Need a set of battery bank to store the regenerated energy.
2. Load forces capable to accelerate the motor which is greater than the no load rated speed.

Braking Characteristics of DC Series Motors

i. Rheostatic braking
In series motor field is proportional to the armature current. At the beginning of dynamic braking,
the field is strong, but gradually weakens because of the reduction of armature current, which may pro-
long the braking time. To brake the motor faster the series field can be separated from the armature cir-
cuit and excited by a different voltage source.

The speed-torque characteristics of dc series motor during rheostatic braking is shown in the fol-
lowing figure (Fig.). Explanations are similar to rheostatic braking method applied to DC shunt motor.
k t k b φ2 N
T b =T d =−
R a+ R b
 Dynamic braking operation Motoring operation

Speed - torque characteristics

ii. Plugging or Counter current braking

In this method of braking, the connections of the armature are reversed and a variable resistance
R is put in series with the armature as shown in Fig. To limit the armature current an external resistance
may be required in the armature circuit compared to dc shunt motor. Braking torque of dc series motor
falls very rapidly with speed.

The speed torque characteristics of a de series motor for plugging condition is shown below
(Fig.). The above characteristics have been constructed in the same manner as that of plugging conditions
applied to DC shunt motor.
 Motoring Plugging

Speed - torque characteristics

iii. Regenerative braking

In DC series motor, regenerative braking is not possible without necessary modifications, because
reversal of Ia would result in reversal of field and hence of Eb. This method is however used in traction
motors and hoist load with special arrangements.

At no load the speed increases asymptotically, which results decreases in armature current and
field flux. The induced emf cannot be greater than the supply or terminal voltage. Hence regeneration is
not possible in a plain dc series motor, since the field current cannot be made greater than the armature
current.

The regeneration in such a case is achieved by separately exciting the field, now dc series motor
work as dc shunt motor and motor characteristics similar to those of a separately excited shunt motor.

Series motor (Motoring) Modified series motor (Regenerative braking)

 Speed - torque characteristics

11. Discuss the dynamic braking of DC shunt motor. (Nov 2015) (April 2017) (Dec 2018)
Refer question No: 10
12. (I) List the advantages and disadvantages of Electrical braking over mechanical braking. (II) For
drives, classify the types of loads torques available and sketch few speed torque curves of typical
loads. (Dec 2016) (Dec 2018)
There are two types of braking used in the electrical drives namely
1. Mechanical braking
2. Electrical braking
Mechanical Braking:
In this method, the stored energy is dissipated as heat by a brake shoe or brake lining which rubs against
a brake drum.
Electric braking:
 In this method of braking, the stored energy of ratating part is converted into electrical energy and
dissipated by the resistance in the form of heat or returned to the supply.
 The motors used for electric braking should have suitable braking characteristics.
The three types of electric braking are
Plugging,
Rheostat or dynamic braking,
Regenerative braking.
Advantage of Electrical Braking over Mechanical Braking:
 Electric braking is fast and cheap.
 In electric braking there is no maintenance cost like replaced brake shoes periodically.
 By using electic braking the capacity of the system( like higher speeds, heavy loads) can be in-
creased.
 A part of energy is returned to the supply consequently the running cost is reduced.
 In electric braking negligible amount of heat is generated whereas in mechanical braking enormous
heat is produced at brake shoes which leads to failure of brakes.
Disadvantages, Limitations of Electrical Braking:
 Electric braking can not be used for hold the machine after coming to the rest.
So a mechanical braking is required additionally.
 For example in the case of the train going up hill, after the train has been stopped using electric
braking, it has to be prevented from moving down hill.
In such cases mechanical brakes also should be provided for holding.
 During the braking period, the motor has to function as generator. So it must have suitable braking
characteristics. ie, the choice of motor is limited.

Comparison between mechanical and electrical braking

Sl.No Mechanical Braking Electrical Braking

Disadvantages: Advantages:
Less efficient method High efficient method
1.
2. It requires frequent maintenance due to ex- It requires very little maintenance due to ab-
cessive wear on the brake linings, shoes, ad- sence of mechanical parts/equipments.
justment of brakes. They are prone to wear
and tear.
3. Maintenance cost is high Maintenance cost is low
4. Depending upon the condition the braking Braking is very smooth, without mechanical
may not be very smooth. jerking and snatching.
5. Due to frequent operation heat is produced at Heat is produced due to braking operation but
brake linings, shoes/drum, which may lead to no way the produced heat is harmful to brak-
failure of brakes. ing system.
6. The stored energy of rotating parts is wasted The kinetic energy of rotating parts can be
in the form of heat or friction. converted into electrical energy, which can be
either utilized or returned to supply mains.
7. Nose level is high Noise level is low
8. Brake shoes, linings and drum are required. Equipment of higher rating than the motor rat-
ing may be required in certain types of brak-
ing.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
This type of braking is applied to hold system It can’t produce holding torque. It requires
9. at any position. electrical energy to achieve braking operation

(II) Refer Question No: 8

13. (i) Obtain the torque – slip characteristics of single phase induction motors.
Split phase resistance start induction motor:, a main winding (also referred to as
The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an auxiliary or starting winding S in
addition to the main or running winding M. The starting winding is located 90° electrical from the main
winding.

The starting winding has fewer turns and is wound of smaller diameter copper wire than the run-
ning winding. Therefore, the starting winding has low reactance and high resistance. The running or
main winding has a low resistance and high reactance.

The current Is drawn by the starting winding lags behind applied voltage by a small angle whereas
current Im taken by the main winding large behind V by a very large angle. The phase angle between Is
and Im is made as large as possible, because, the starting torque of a split phase motor is proportional to
sinα.
 Electrical equivalent circuit Phasor diagram

Speed – Torque Characteristics

Operation
(i) When the two stator windings are energized from a single-phase supply, the main winding car-
ries current Im while the starting winding carries current Is.
(ii) Since main winding is made highly inductive while the starting winding highly resistive, the
currents Im and Is have a reasonable phase angle a (25° to 30°) between them as shown in Fig. Con-
sequently, a weak revolving field approximating to that of a 2-phase machine is produced which starts
the motor. The starting torque is given by;
Ts = kIm Is sinα
where k is a constant whose magnitude depends upon the design of the motor.
(iii) When the motor reaches about 75% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens the
circuit of the starting winding. The motor then operates as a single-phase induction motor and continues
to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed. The normal speed of the motor is below the synchronous
speed and depends upon the load on the motor.

Characteristics
(i) The sinning torque is 15 to 2 times the full-loud torque mid (lie starting current is 6 to 8 times the
full-load current.
(ii) Due to their low cost, split-phase induction motors are most popular single phase motors in the mar -
ket.
(iii) Since the starting winding is made of fine wire, the current density is high and the winding heats
quickly. If the starting period exceeds 5 seconds, the winding may burn out unless the motor is protec-
ted by built-in-thermal relay. This motor is, therefore, suitable where starting periods are not frequent.
(iv) An important characteristic of these motors is that they are essentially constant-speed motors. The
speed variation is 2-5% from no-load to full load.
(v) These motors are suitable where a moderate starting torque is required and where starting periods are
infrequent e.g., to drive: (a) fans (b) washing machines (c) oil burners (d) small machine tools (e)
blowers etc.The power rating of such motors generally lies between 60 W and 250 W.

Capacitor-Start Motor
The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase motor except that the starting winding has as
many turns as the main winding. Moreover, a capacitor C is connected in series with the starting winding
as shown in Fig. (i). The value of capacitor is so chosen that Is leads Im by about 80° (i.e., α ≈ 80°) which
is considerably greater than 25° found in split-phase motor [See Fig. (ii). Consequently, starting torque
(Ts = k Im Is sinα) is much more than that of a split-phase motor Again, the starting winding is opened by
the centrifugal switch when the motor attains about 75% of synchronous speed. The motor then operates
as a single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed.

Electrical equivalent circuit Phasor diagram

Characteristics
(i) Although starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor are better than those of a split-phase
motor, both machines possess the same running characteristics because the main windings are
identical.
(ii) The phase angle between the two currents is about 80° compared to about 25° in a split-phase motor.
Consequently, for the same starting torque, the current in the starting winding is only about half that
in a split-phase motor. Therefore, the starting winding of a capacitor start motor heats up less
quickly and is well suited to applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.

Speed – Torque Characteristics

Applications: Due to its higher starting torque, the capacitor start split phase motors are used in pumps,
compressors, air .conditioners, large washing I!1achines and refrigeration units.

Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor or Permanent split capacitor start induction motor

This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor except that starting winding is not opened after
starting so that both the windings remain connected to the supply when running as well as at starting two
designs are generally used.

(i) Single value capacitor motor, a single capacitor C is used for both starting and running as shown in
Fig.(i). This design eliminates the need of a centrifugal switch and at the same time improves the
power factor and efficiency of the motor.

Normally, capacitors of 2 to 20 µF capacitors are employed. Since capacitors are permanently

connected, they are designed for continuous duty and they are made of oil filled type. Since a single
value capacitor is used for both starting and running, a compromise has to be struck between best run-
ning performance and best starting performance. As a result, neither optimum starting nor optimum
running performance is obtained. Since, both starting and running windings are identical, It is very easy
to reverse the direction of rotation or rotor by having one reversing switch outside the motor (Fig.).
The only one drawback of this type of motor is, it has low starting torque: The speed torque curve is
shown below (Fig.).

Permanent split phase capacitor start motor Speed – Torque Characteristics

or Single value capacitor motor

Applications: Due to noiseless operation, this type of motors are desirable for use in offices and
laboratories.
These motors are used where the starting torque is low such as fans, blowers, voltage
regulators, furnace controls; valve controls, arc welding controls, etc etc.

(ii)Two value capacitor motor

This is otherwise called as capacitor start and run motor. This motor is similar to the split phase
capacitor start induction motor except that the starting winding and capacitor are permanently connected
in the circuit at all times. There is no need of centrifugal switch. Since the capacitor is permanently con-
nected, this motor possesses the following merits,
1. Higher power factor at full load,
2. Improvement of overload capacity,
3. Higher efficiency,
4. Noiseless operation
 Permanent split phase capacitor start motor Speed – Torque Characteristics
or Two value capacitor motor

In the other design, two capacitors C1 and C2 are used in the starting winding as shown in Fig.
(ii)). The smaller capacitor C1 required for optimum running conditions is permanently connected in
series with the starting winding. The much larger capacitor C2 is connected in parallel with C1 for op-
timum starting and remains in the circuit during starting. The starting capacitor C1 is disconnected when
the motor approaches about 75% of synchronous speed. The motor then runs as a single-phase induction
motor.

Characteristics
(i) The starting winding and the capacitor can be designed for perfect 2-phase operation at any load.
The motor then produces a constant torque and not a pulsating torque as in other single-phase mo-
tors.
(i) Because of constant torque, the motor is vibration free
Applications:
(a) hospitals (b) studios and (c) other places where silence is important. (c) smaller home air condi-
tioning

Shaded-Pole Motor
The shaded-pole motor is very popular for ratings below 0.05 H.P (~ 40W) because of its ex-
tremely simple construction. It has salient poles on the stator excited by single-phase supply and a squir-
rel cage rotor as shown in Fig. A portion of each pole is surrounded by a short-circuited turn of copper
strip called shading coil.

Shaded pole induction motor Speed – Torque Characteristics

 These motors have salient poles on the stator and a squirrel cage rotor. The necessary phase split-
ting is produced by induction principle. The 1/3 rd part of the pole is shaded portion and the other as un-
shaded portion. When the exciting winding is connected to an AC supply, the magnetic axis will shift
from the unshaded portion of the pole to the shaded portion of the pole. This shift in magnetic axis is
equivalent to physical motion of the pole. As a result, the squirrel cage rotor will rotate in a direction
from the unshaded portion to the shaded portion. Its direction of motion is fixed. Shaded de motors are
simple in construction, almost reliable rugged and cheaper. These motors has low starting torque, low ef-
ficiency and very little overload capacity .

Applications: Due to its low starting torque, the shaded pole motors are generally used for small hand
fans, toys, hair driers, electric clocks, advertising displays, motion picture projectors, etc.

14. A 3-Phase, 50 Hz, 8 pole induction motor has a full load slip of 4%. The rotor resistance is
0.001Ω/phase and standstill reactance are 0.005Ω/phase. Find the ratio of maximum to full load
torque and the speed at which the maximum torque occurs. (Dec 2018)

For Induction motor,

15. A 12 pole 50 Hz, 3 phase induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.15Ω and standstill reactance of
0.25Ω per phase. On full load it is running at a speed of 480 rpm. The rotor induced emf per phase
at standstill is observed to be 32 V. Calculate 1. Starting torque, 2. Full load torque, 3. Maximum
torque, 4. Speed at maximum torque. (Dec 2018).
16. Sketch the speed-torque characteristics of a three-phase induction motor and explain its motor-
ing mode, generating mode and braking mode of operation. (Apr 2019) (Nov 2020) (Dec 2021)

Speed Torque Characteristics of 3 Induction motor

 Complete Speed Torque Chracteristics of 3 Induction motor

The speed-torque characteristics can be drawn by considering three modes of operation of 3 in-
duction motor.
1. Motoring mode: 0 < s < 1
2. Generating mode: s < 0
3. Braking mode: s > 1

1. Motoring mode: 0 < s < 1

For this range of slip, mechanical power is given as output (or) torque developed is in the direc-
tion in which the rotor rotates.

2. Generating mode: s < 0

Negative slip refers to the motor running at super synchronous speed i.e. N > Ns· For this mode,
mechanical power is input and electrical power is given as output at the machine terminals.

3. Braking mode: s > 1

The motor runs in opposite direction to the rotating field i.e., N is negative. Braking effect takes
place and the motor stops at the instant

Effect of change in supply frequency on torque and speed

Smooth stepless speed control is obtained by smooth variation of supply frequency. If supply fre-
quency is varied by keeping the supply voltage constant, then the magnetic flux will change. But, it is de-
sirable that an induction motor is operated with its magnetic flux maintained constant.

To maintain the magnetic flux constant, it is therefore necessary to control the supply frequency
and voltage in such a way that V/f remains constant.

A family of torque-speed curves for an induction motor obtained by supply frequency variation
with V/f = constant.
 Speed-Torque Characteristics

Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage Motors

The slip-ring induction motors have the following advantages over the squirrel cage motors:
(i) High starting torque with low starting current.
(ii) Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
(iii) No abnormal heating during starting.
(iv) Good running characteristics after external rotor resistances are cut out.
(v) Adjustable speed.
The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:
(i) The initial and maintenance costs are greater than those of squirrel cage motors.
(ii) The speed regulation is poor when run with resistance in the rotor circuit

17. Compare the Electrical braking and mechanical braking of an electric motor.
(Nov 2019)
Comparison between mechanical and electrical braking

Sl.No Mechanical Braking Electrical Braking

Disadvantages: Advantages:

1. Less efficient method High efficient method

2. It requires frequent maintenance due to ex- It requires very little maintenance due to ab-
cessive wear on the brake linings, shoes, ad- sence of mechanical parts/equipments.
justment of brakes. They are prone to wear
and tear.
3. Maintenance cost is high Maintenance cost is low
4. Depending upon the condition the braking Braking is very smooth, without mechanical
may not be very smooth. jerking and snatching.
5. Due to frequent operation heat is produced at Heat is produced due to braking operation but
brake linings, shoes/drum, which may lead to no way the produced heat is harmful to brak-
failure of brakes. ing system.
6. The stored energy of rotating parts is wasted The kinetic energy of rotating parts can be
in the form of heat or friction. converted into electrical energy, which can be
either utilized or returned to supply mains.
7. Nose level is high Noise level is low
8. Brake shoes, linings and drum are required. Equipment of higher rating than the motor rat-
ing may be required in certain types of brak-
ing.
 Advantages: Disadvantages:

9. This type of braking is applied to hold system It can’t produce holding torque. It requires
at any position. electrical energy to achieve braking operation.

18. Explain the characteristics of Shunt Motor and series motor (Nov 2019)
 Part C

19. A 500V DC shunt motor with constant field, drives a load whose torque is proportional to the
square of the speed. When running at 900rpm it takes an armature current of 45A.Find the speed
at which the motor runs if a resistance of 8Ω is connected in series with the armature. The arma-
ture resistance may be taken as 1Ω. (Nov 2019)

20. A motor has a thermal heating time constant of 45 minutes. When the motor runs continuously
on full load, its final temperature rises to 80 degree Celsius. (i) What would be the temperature rise
after 1 hour, if the motor runs continuously on full load? (ii) If the temperature rise on 1 hour rat-
ing is allowed to be 75 degree Celsius, find what would be the new steady state temperature at this
rating. (Dec 2021) - UNIT 1