Modern Thinkers and Trends in Islam – Midterm – Literature Review

Laura van Kan

S1692968

Teacher: Sara Bolghiran

Word count: 1316

What is modern Islam? This is a question which has intrigued many Islamic and Western

scholars in the past years. There have been many different views on Islam and arguably even

more stereotypes and prejudices. Starting in the 18th century, different views and trends on

Islam have emerged. However, in order to formulate an answer to the question what modern

Islam entails, it is important to first contextualize the meaning of the word ‘modern’ itself.

In her book, Gurminder Bhambra argues that the concept of modernity is highly

Eurocentric, based on European history and development.1 The definition of modernity is

heavily interlinked with the entity in power. Marshall Hodgson also explored Eurocentrism,

stating that Westerners have exaggerated their own development in the sense that their

developments and therefore, their modernity, is not as an isolated phenomenon as they often

think.2 The rapid growth of the (industrial) modernization made Western-Europe a force of

power, but also saw the decline of the Islamic High Culture in the 18th century.3 Ahmad Dallal

contests this decline theory. He argues that the 18th century was a period in which many

Islamic thinkers wrote extensively on socio-political issues.4 Additionally, he elaborates on

1
Gurminder Bhambra ‘Introduction: Postcolonialism, Sociology, and the Politics of Knowledge Production’, in:
Rethinking Modernity (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan UK 2007) 2.
2
Hodgson, Marshall G. S, ‘Modernity and the Islamic heritage’, in: Rethinking World History (1993) 207–
244, on 212-213.
3
Ibidem, 231-234.
4
Ahmad S. Dallal, ‘Introduction’, in: Islam without Europe (University of North Carolina Press 2018).
these thinkers in his other article, analysing the works of Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab,

Shah Wali Allah, Uthman Ibn Fudi, and Muhammad Ali Al Sanusi.5

All together, these targeted different problems within Islamic society. Al Wahhab’s

main issue was the lack of iman within society and the over-veneration of saints, especially

within Sufism. He called for a return to what he believed to be the pure and uncorrupted form

of Islam as practiced by the early Muslims.6 Over the years, Al Wahhab’s thought would gain

a great following, in some cases accumulating negative stereotypes of violence and terrorism.

Al Sanusi on the other hand, was a Sufi scholar, whose teachings were influenced by

the traditional Islamic sciences, namely the Quranic exegesis, Hadith, and jurisprudence. He

emphasized the importance of intellectual traditions and encouraged his followers to seek

knowledge from a variety of sources, both religious and secular. Additionally, he believed in

the importance of social justice and stimulated them to work towards the betterment of their

communities.7

Wali Allah emphasized in his work the importance of the Quran as a source of

guidance and he believed in the need for itjihaad within the framework of Islamic

jurisprudence. One of the main problems he addressed was the lack of unity between

Muslims, and he called for them to return to basic fundamental Islamic principles.8 Finally,

Uthman Ibn Fudi’s ideas targeted the, in his eyes improper, practice of Islam and the

shortcomings of the ruling elite, who exploited the poor. He highlighted the significance of

Islamic education, strict adherence to Islamic law, and the protection of the rights of the

marginalized.9

5
Ahmad S. Dallal, ‘The Origins and Objectives of Islamic Revivalist Thought, 1750-1850’, Journal of the
American Oriental Society 113 (1993) 341–359.
6
Dallal, ‘Islamic Revivalist Thought’, 349-351.
7
Resistance and Revolution II: Anticolonialism, Print-Culture and Revivalist Movements; Sara Bolghiran;
Leiden University; 20th of February; Lecture.
8
Dallal, ‘Islamic Revivalist Thought’, 343-349.
9
Ibidem, 352-355.
 These thinkers all had their own views on what contemporary Islam should entail.

Some, like Al Sanusi and Wali Allah, both belonged to Sufi orders. At first, Sufism was a

more spiritual movement, focused on seeking God through practices such as prayer. However,

Knut Vikør notes that due to interactions with colonial powers, Sufi orders became more and

more organized and politicized in order to resist colonial interference.10

Another movement which has been significant in modern Islamic studies is that of

Salafism. Salafi Muslims aim to follow the practices and beliefs of the early Muslims (the

Salaf) as close as possible.11 However, it is important to realise that Salafism as a movement

is a development of the 20th century. Salafiyyah thought was already established, but from the

1920s it shifted towards a hardened belief on what constituted true Islam and distinguished

believers from non-believers.12 In that same period, Muhammad Iqbal formulated his ideas on

the relationship between Islam and modernity, arguing that one should interpret Islamic texts

and principles with reason, intuition and experience. An intellectual understanding of Islam

was essential, and he encouraged engaging with modern Western philosophy.13

Taking Iqbal’s work into consideration, his approach to modern Islam constitutes an

important distinction from the four 18th century thinkers highlighted earlier. Although these

four thinkers all had vastly different approaches to Islam, their common denominator was that

they developed their ideas in isolation from Western ideas. In contrast, Iqbal was well versed

in Western philosophy and deemed it essential in approaching modern Islam. Moreover, his

battle with colonial powers in India transformed his intellectual ideas to a more politicized

struggle.

10
Knut S. Vikør. ‘Sufism and Colonialism’, in: The Cambridge Companion to Sufism (2014) 212–232, 212-213.
11
Salafiyyah and the Engagement of Critical Muslim Modernists; Sara Bolghiran; Leiden University; 20 th of
February; Lecture.
12
Ibidem.
13
Iqbāl, Muḥammad, The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam (Oxford : London: Oxford U.P ;
Humphrey Milford 1934).
 The colonial aggression of Western powers has instigated a tense relationship between

the West and several Muslim-majority societies, which still influences international relations

today. Here, the concept of Islamophobia plays an important role. Orientalist ideas, stemming

from colonial relations, have strengthened misinformation, negative stereotypes, and

discrimination of Muslims globally. Furthermore, it is important to highlight the point Caner

Dagli makes in his article, where he critiques the way the term “Islamophobia” is often used.

He argues that the term might suggest that Muslims are an ethnic group as opposed to a

religion and that it neglects the fact that the numerous adherents stem from a variety of

different ethnic backgrounds.14 In line with this, he reasons that Islamophobia is not racism.

Rather, it is a different system of oppression and marginalization.15

The contested concept of Islamophobia highlights the importance of contextualization

when discussing modern Islam. The term is connected to racism and discrimination, yet it is

not identical to it. Similarly, the various modern Islamic thinkers have overlapping and

distinguishing aspects, crucial to the understanding of the different movements and

philosophies. Furthermore, the generalizations used in the discourse on modern Islam are also

apparent in the discussion on women’s rights. Lila Abu-Lughod accentuates this in her article,

stating that Western Orientalist stereotypes have reduced the agency of Muslim women in

their struggle for equality.16 The Western powers have often used women’s rights as a

justification for their interference, without acknowledging the role they played themselves as

a colonizer, contributing to the struggle of many women.17 This is visible in the case of

women under Taliban rule in Afghanistan. Specifically, Western media are eager to point out

14
Dagli, Caner. "Muslims Are Not A Race". Renovatio, The Journal of Zaytuna College (2020).
15
Ibidem.
16
Lila Abu Lughod. ‘Do Muslim Women (Still) Need Saving?’, in: Do Muslim Women Need Saving? (United
States: Harvard University Press 2013) 27–53, 32-34.
17
Ibidem.
the horrid treatment of women by the Taliban, but tend to neglect the, albeit complicated, role

the US government played in the rise of the organization.18

In conclusion, modern Islam is a diverse concept which has no clearcut definition.

Starting in the 18th century, various intellectuals have formulated a wide variety of

interpretations and beliefs. In recent years, it has become more and more apparent that the

nuancing and contextualization of concepts used in the debate is extremely important in order

to combat stereotypes and discrimination.

Bibliography

18
Daniel P. Sullivan, ‘Tinder, Spark, Oxygen, and Fuel: The Mysterious Rise of the Taliban’, Journal of peace
research 44 (2007) 93–108, 104.
Abu-Lughod, Lila. ‘Do Muslim Women (Still) Need Saving?’, in: Do Muslim Women Need
Saving? (United States: Harvard University Press 2013) 27–53.
Bhambra, Gurminder, ‘Introduction: Postcolonialism, Sociology, and the Politics of
Knowledge Production’, in: Rethinking Modernity (United Kingdom: Palgrave
Macmillan UK 2007).
Dagli, Caner. "Muslims Are Not A Race". Renovatio, The Journal of Zaytuna College (2020).
Dallal, Ahmad S, ‘Introduction’, in: Islam without Europe (University of North Carolina
Press 2018).
Dallal, Ahmad, ‘The Origins and Objectives of Islamic Revivalist Thought, 1750-1850’,
Journal of the American Oriental Society 113 (1993) 341–359.
Hodgson, Marshall G. S, ‘Modernity and the Islamic heritage’, in: Rethinking World History
(1993) 207–244.
Iqbāl, Muḥammad, The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam (Oxford : London:
Oxford U.P ; Humphrey Milford 1934).
Sullivan, Daniel P., ‘Tinder, Spark, Oxygen, and Fuel: The Mysterious Rise of the Taliban’,
Journal of peace research 44 (2007) 93–108.
Vikør, Knut S., ‘Sufism and Colonialism’, in: The Cambridge Companion to Sufism (2014)
212–232.