CHEMISTRY

127
 MATTER
PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass - Everything you see around you
is matter.
All substances can be classified into three states of matter, namely solid, liquid and
gas.
The table below summarizes the arrangement and movement of particles in solids,
liquids and gases.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of particles Closely packed Loosely packed Far apart
Motion of particles Vibrate about a fixed Slide over each Move freely in random
position other direction
Diagram of particles

Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume

Shape Fixed shape No fixed Shape, No fixed Shape, takes
takes the shape of the shape of the
the container container

KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

The three (3) states of matter can be explained using the kinetic particle theory –
a theory about how particles behave under different conditions. The kinetic (motion)
particle theory explains that:
 Matter is made up of very small particles (namely atoms, molecules or ions)
 The particles of matter are always moving (in motion) - they always have kinetic
energy. The higher the temperature, the faster the movement of particles.
 The state (form) of matter depends on temperature. The higher the temperature,
the faster the movement of particles. Increasing the temperature makes particles
gain kinetic energy and move further apart. When the temperature is low, particles
lose kinetic energy and move closer together.
 Heavier particles move / diffuse more slowly than lighter particles. – Gases with
higher molecular masses diffuse slower than gases with lower molecular masses.
The diagram below shows the changes of the e states of matter as the temperature
changes.

128
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process whereby particles move from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration until they are evenly distributed.

The idea that matter is made up of particles is evident through diffusion. This can be
done by some experiments demonstrating diffusion in both liquids and gases. The
following are examples show evidence of diffusion in gases:
 Detection of fragrance of an opened perfume
 Aroma of food from the kitchen
 Undesirable odour from a garbage

DEMONSTRATION OF DIFFUSION IN FLUIDS/LIQUIDS

Diffusion can also be demonstrated in liquids by using some water and potassium
permanganate as shown below. The molecules of potassium permanganate move
away from the crystal where they are highly concentrated until they fill the whole
beaker.

The rate of diffusion of gases depends on two factors:

 Temperature
When the temperature is high, rate of diffusion becomes faster. This is because
the particles at a higher temperature have more kinetic energy and hence are
able to move at greater speeds.

 Molecular mass
At a given temperature, lighter molecules diffuse faster than heavier molecules -
gases of different molecular masses diffuse at different rates to fill the space
available to them. Carbon dioxide, CO2 (molecular mass 44) will diffuse slower as
compared to O2 (molecular mass 32)

129
The reaction between hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas and ammonia (NH3) gas can be
used as evidence. (Molecular mass of HCl = 36.5 and molecular mass of NH3 = 17)
A piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated Hydrochloric acid; the gas given off
is hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Another piece of cotton wool is soaked is concentrated ammonia solution which gives
off ammonia gas (NH3).
Two gases diffuse towards each other in a sealed glass tube.

OBSERVATION
After a few minutes, a white ring of solid appears inside the glass tube. The white ring
is closer to the hydrochloric acid end rather than the ammonia solution end.
EXPLANATION
The HCl molecules have larger relative molecular mass compared to those of NH3
molecules. The ammonia molecules being lighter move much faster than the hydrogen
chloride molecules, the two molecules therefore meet nearer the hydrochloric acid end
and react with ammonium chloride forming a white solid.
CONCLUSION
The larger the molecular mass, the slower the rate of diffusion. The smaller the relative
mass, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Note: The rates of diffusion of two gases can also be compared by measuring the
time taken for each of the equal volumes of the two gases to diffuse through
a small hole.
It is very important to know how to interpret the results of such experiments.

130
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Every atom consists of a nucleus and
some particles called electrons that whizz non-stop around the nucleus in the shells.
Some other particles, the protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus and
are called nucleons.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
The three basic particles; protons, neutrons and electrons found in an atom have
different properties as shown in table below.
Particle Relative mass Relative charge Position
Proton 1 +1 (positive) Nucleus
Neutron 1 0 (neutral) Nucleus
Electron 1
or 0.0005 −1 (negative) Shells / orbitals
1840

Note: The table above must be mastered because it is often tested in the BGCSE
examinations. Common error is that candidates tend to confuse relative masses
with relative charges.
A table of elements labelled The Periodic Table of the Elements is normally
provided during chemistry tests. On the bottom left of the Periodic Table is a key
(shown below) which acts as a guide to use the table.

The numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom can be determined from
its proton number (atomic number) and the nucleon number (mass
number).
 The proton (atomic) number is defined as the number of protons in an
atom.
 The nucleon (mass) number is defined as the total number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.

131
An atom is neutral, it has no overall charge. This is because the number of positive
(+) protons in the nucleus must be equal to the number of (−) electrons in the
shells.
Look at the symbol of an element Carbon (C) as shown in the periodic table.

The protons and neutrons of an atom are just embedded and clustered inside the
nucleus and this is the heavy part of an atom.
The electrons are always moving around the nucleus at different levels from it. The
different energy levels for the electrons are called electron shells. Each shell can
only hold a limited number of electrons.

ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
The way in which electrons are arranged in an atom among the various shells is called
electron configuration.
Each energy level or shell can accommodate a definite number of electrons.
For the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table;
 the first shell can hold 2 electrons
 the second shell can hold 8 electrons
 the third shell can accommodate 8 electrons
Each shell or energy level must be completely filled up with electrons before the next
level is filled. Below are some examples of diagrams showing electron configuration of
four elements extracted from the Periodic Table.
Electrons are normally shown in the diagrams as cross (×) or dots (●)

132
The table below shows the electron arrangement of atoms of some of the elements
from the Periodic Table.

Element Proton Electron Atomic

number configuration Structure

1
Hydrogen H 1 1
1

16
Oxygen O 8 2,6
8

20
Neon Ne 10 2,8
10

27
Aluminum Al 13 2,8,3
13

40
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8
18

From the table above, electron arrangement of Neon and Argon are 2,8 and 2,8,8
respectfully. In these atoms, the valence/outer shells are full. The atoms are said to
be stable because of the fully filled outermost shells.

133
Except for helium that has 2 outermost electrons, all other group 8 elements (noble
gases) have their outermost shells filled with 8 electrons. A shell with 8 electrons is
called an octet structure.
When atoms take part in chemical reactions, they tend to combine in ways to attain
this noble gas electron configuration to be stable.

ISOTOPES
Isotopes of an element are atoms of the same element that have different nucleon
(mass) numbers or different number of neutrons.
Isotopes of the same element have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties.
The table below shows some isotopes of Hydrogen, Carbon, and Chlorine.

Element Name of isotope Proton Nucleon Number of Number of

number number neutrons electrons
Protium 1 1 0 1
Hydrogen Deuterium 1 2 1 1
Tritium 1 3 2 1
Carbon – 12 6 12 6 6
Carbon Carbon – 13 6 13 7 6
Carbon – 14 6 14 8 6
Chlorine – 35 17 35 18 17
Chlorine Chlorine – 35 17 37 20 17

Note
 Isotopes have the same number of protons (atomic) number
 The relative atomic mass of each element is an average mass of all isotopes in
existence according to their proportion in nature. As long as there appears a
decimal number on the relative atomic mass of an element in the Periodic
Table, that element must be made up of isotopes.

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 THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Periodic Table is a table used to classify and arrange elements according to their
proton (atomic) numbers.
The table consists of a number of rows called periods and a number of columns called
groups.
The main classification in the Periodic Table is metals and non-metals as shown in
the table below.
Some of the groups have special names;
Group 1 is often called the alkali metals
Group 2 is the alkaline earth metals
Group 7 is the halogens
Group 0 is the noble gases.
Hydrogen (H) stands on its own in the periodic table. This is because the properties of
hydrogen are unique as it has one outer electron, like group 1 elements, but unlike
them it is a gas.

135
Study the diagrams showing electron configuration of some elements extracted from
the Periodic Table.

Beryllium (Be) has 2 shells and 2 electrons on the outer/valence shell. The atom is
found in Period 2 and group 2 of the periodic table.
Magnesium (Mg) has 3 shells and 2 electrons on the outer/valence shell. The atom
is found in Period 3 and group 2 of the periodic table.
Sulphur (S) has 3 shells and 6 electrons on the outer/valence shell. The atom is found
in Period 3 and group 6 of the periodic table.
The period number indicates the number of shells of electrons in an atom and the
group number indicates the number of outermost electrons in an atom.
For the first 20 elements of The Periodic Table, (except for Helium) the number of
shells corresponds with the period number and the number of valence electrons
corresponds with the group number.
Helium is rightfully placed in group 8 because it has one shell with full (2) electrons
making it stable and therefore is one of the noble gases.

PERIODIC TRENDS
 The number of outermost electrons increases across a period from left to right.
 Elements in the same group have the same number of outermost electrons,
which is also equal to the group number, with the exception of Group O. Group
O elements have either 2 or 8 outermost electrons.
 Elements in the same group form ions with the same charges and they also
from compounds with similar chemical formulae.
 Elements in the same group also have similar physical and chemical properties.
 The elements are less metallic in nature as they move from left to right of the
Periodic Table.
 There is a zig-zag line that divides metals from non-metals – elements close to
this dividing line have both metallic and non-metallic characters and are called
metalloids.
 Metallic elements tend to form basic oxides, while no-metallic elements form
acidic oxides. The metalloids form amphoteric oxides, with both acidic and
basic properties.

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GROUP 1 ELEMENTS – THE ALKALI METALS
Group 1 consists of the five metals lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium
and the radioactive element francium. The first three of these, lithium, sodium and
potassium are commonly available for use in school laboratories. They are all very
reactive metals and are normally stored under oil to prevent them coming into contact
with air or water.

 They burn in oxygen or air to form white solid oxides. For example, lithium
reacts with oxygen in air to form lithium oxide.
lithium + oxygen lithium oxide
4Li (s) + O2 (g) 2Li2O (s)

 These group 1 oxides all dissolve in water to form alkaline solution of the
metal hydroxide.
lithium oxide + water lithium hydroxide
Li2O (s) + H2O (l) 4LiOH (aq)

 They react very vigorously with water to give alkaline solution of the metal
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Group 2, the alkaline earth metals are less reactive than group 1 metals as they have
to give up two electrons than losing just one!

137
GROUP 7 ELEMENTS – THE HALOGENS
Group 7 consists of non-metals. Halogens exist in all three states of matter at room
temperature. All halogens have seven electrons in their outer shells. The elements are
diatomic – their molecules are made up of two atoms.

The table below shows some properties of halogens.

HALOGEN COLOUR PHYSICAL STATE
Fluorine Pale yellow Gas
Chlorine Yellow green Gas
Bromine Red - brown Liquid (The only liquid non-metal)
Iodine Purple - Black solid

Displacement Reactions
If chlorine is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide, the less reactive halogen,
bromide, is displaced by the more reactive halogen, chlorine. This is called
displacement reaction.

potassium bromide + chlorine potassium chloride + bromine

2KBr (aq) + Cl2 (g) 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

138
GROUP O ELEMENTS – THE NOBLE GASES
The noble (or inert) gases comprise helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon as well
as the radioactive element radon. The group 8 elements are unreactive because they
have electron structures which are stable (full outer shell electrons)
They are important in providing an inert atmosphere for preventing oxidation and
combustion.

The table below outlines the uses of noble gases

Noble gas Use

Helium  Used for filling airships and balloons – because it is light.
 Used in gas mixtures used by deep-sea divers
 Used to fill tyres of airplanes as it is lighter and safer than air.
Neon  Gives out light when high voltage electricity is passed through it,
so it is used in glowing neon advertising signs and fluorescent
lights
Argon  Used to fill filament bulbs because the metal filament will not
burn in argon and it reduces evaporation of the metal filament.
 Used to produce an inert atmosphere in high temperature
metallurgical processes e.g. steel making

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TRANSITION METALS
The elements in the block between groups II and III of the Periodic Table contains
metals. These are transition metals. They are all solids except mercury which is the
only liquid metal at room temperature. They include some common metals such as
iron, nickel and copper and some precious metals such as gold, platinum and silver
which are very rare, beautiful and costly. Transition metals are different from the
metals in groups 1 and 2 because they;
 Are harder and stronger
 Have high densities
 Have high melting and boiling points
 Are less reactive
 Can be used to make alloys
 Form a large range of brightly coloured compounds
 Transition metals and their compounds often acts as catalysts
 Are good conductors of heat and electricity
 They form more than one valency (simple ion.) For example Cu+, Cu2+ and Fe2+
and Fe3+.
Salts of transition metals can be identified by looking at their colours e.g. copper
salts are blue and iron salts are green

FORMATION OF IONS
Atoms other than those in group O are generally unstable in nature – these atoms will
therefore lose valence electrons to form positive ions or gain valence electrons to form
negative ions with stable structures.
An ion is a charged particle. When an atom loses or gains electrons, it become charged
because it contains an unequal number of protons (+) and electrons (-).
Elements in group I and II tend to give away electrons as less energy is required to
lose or 2 electrons than to gain 7 or 6 electrons respectively to attain stability.
Element Number Electron Number of Electron Formula of
of configuration electrons in configuration ion
electrons of atom Ion of ion
in atom
Lithium 3 2,1 2 2 Li+
Magnesium 12 2,8,2 10 2,8 Mg2+
Aluminium 13 2,8,3 10 2,8 Al3+
Likewise, elements in Group VI or VII tend to gain 2 or 1 valence electrons than to
lose 6 or 7 valence electrons to attain stability.
Element Number of Electron Number of Electron Formula of
electrons configuration electrons in configuration ion
in atom of atom Ion of ion
Nitrogen 7 2,5 10 2,8 N3-
Oxygen 8 2,6 10 2,8 O2-
Chlorine** 17 2,8,7 18 2,8,8 CI-
35
(** using the isotope 17
Cl as example)

140
 CHEMICAL BONDING
We leant that the elements in Group 0 of the Periodic Table such as Helium, Neon and
Argon are known as noble gases. They are also called inert gases because they are
very stable and do not take part in chemical reactions – they therefore do not form
compounds. They are said to be stable because of the fully filled outermost shells.
When elements react, atoms bond with each other in the process called chemical
bonding. Atoms other than those in group 0 do not have a full outer shell of electrons
so these elements tend to gain stability by reacting. During the reactions, atoms tend
to combine in ways to attain full outer shell electrons, similar to the electronic structure
of the noble gases.
The valence electrons are the number of electrons in an outer shell of an atom that
can take part in forming chemical bonds with other atoms.
Atoms with fewer electrons in outer shell will want to give up electrons while those
with more valence electrons will want to gain electrons to fill up the outer shell.

IONIC BONDING
One way of gaining a full shell of electrons is by completely transferring outer electrons
from one atom to another.
Atoms will lose valence electrons to form positive ions and gain valence electrons to
form negative stable structures.
All ions formed are stable with electron configuration similar to those of noble gases
in Group 0.
Below is an example of how magnesium forms bonds with Fluorine

Each magnesium atom loses two electrons to form magnesium ion, Mg2+
Each fluorine atom gains one electron to form fluoride ion, F−

141
Sodium (which has 11 electrons and 1 in the outer shell) and Chlorine (which has 17
electrons and seven in the outer shell) bond together to form Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

When ions are formed, the electrons are transferred from a metal to a non – metal.
The diagrams below show the bonding of other different metals and non-metals.

Lithium Oxide (Li2O) Aluminium Fluoride (AlF3)

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)

142
COVALENT BONDING
In covalent bonding electrons are shared between atoms rather than donated in order
for atoms to gain full outer shells. Electrons are always shared in pairs.
Some examples of covalent bonding between different molecules are illustrated below.
In each case, the atoms share electrons such that each atom has a full outer shell.
HYDROGEN (H2)
Each hydrogen atom has one electron in its electron shell, the atoms share this valence
electrons and achieve the electron configuration of the noble gas, Helium. When atoms
share a pair of electrons, the bond formed is called a single bond. The single bond
between two hydrogen atoms can be shown as H – H.
Sometimes only the outer electrons are shown. The electrons from one atom may be
shown by a cross while that of the other atom may be shown by a dot.

H–H
OXYGEN (O2)
Each oxygen atom (O) needs two electrons to fill its outer shell and become oxygen
molecule (O2). This is done by sharing two electrons with another atom of oxygen.
When two pairs of electrons are shared as shown this we call a double bond.

NITROGEN (CI2)
Nitrogen has five valence electrons, so it needs three more electrons to complete its
octet. It can do this by sharing three electrons with another nitrogen, forming a triple
bond.

NΞN

143
CHLORINE (CI2)
Chlorine like all the other halogens (group 7 elements) needs only one electron to fill
their outer shells. This is done by sharing electrons as shown below.

Cl - Cl
WATER (H2O)
Atoms of different elements can combine in the same way. Oxygen has six electrons
in its outer shell. It needs two more to fill it. The diagram below shows how two atoms
of hydrogen combine with one atom of oxygen by sharing electrons to make a water
(H2O) molecule. All the three atoms end up with full outer shells.

H–O–H
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
Another molecule containing different elements is that of carbon dioxide (CO2). In
this case. The carbon needs four extra electrons and can gain them by forming
double bonds with two oxygen atoms.

144
PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
IONIC COMPOUNDS
When a metal reacts with a non-metal, the opposite charges - the positive ions from
the metal and negative ions from the non-metal present in ionic compounds attract
each other. This strong attraction force between the oppositely charged ions is called
electrostatic force of attraction.
The ions cluster together so that each ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge
forming a giant structure called crystal lattice. Because of this arrangement of ions,
ionic compounds are crystalline – they form regularly shaped crystals. Below is an
example of a lattice structure of Sodium Chloride (table salt).

The physical properties of ionic compounds are summarized in the table below.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (IONIC)
Crystalline solids at room
temperature
High melting and boiling points
Conduct electricity when molten
or aqueous
Soluble in water
EXPLANATION
Due to the regular arrangement of ions, resulting
from strong electrostatic force of attraction.
Strong electrostatic force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions
When molten or aqueous ions are set free to move
about in solutions.
Water molecules are polar and are attracted to the
charged ions pulling the crystalline structure apart.

COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalent compounds are formed between non – metals. The molecules are held
together by weak intramolecular forces (forces within a molecule) and
intermolecular forces (forces that exist between molecules).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (C OVALENT) EXPLANATION

Low melting and boiling points
Cannot conduct electricity in any
state
Soluble in water in organic
compounds but not water
The inter-molecular force of attraction are
very weak.
There are mobile ions in covalent
compounds
Covalent molecules are not readily hydrated
by water molecules

145
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show he bonding in a water molecule (H2O)

[2]
2. Hydrochloric acid is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water.
Use a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to draw the structure of the ions in hydrochloric acid.
Show all the shells in each of the ions.

[3]
3. The table below shows some properties of the elements in group IV of the Periodic
Table.
Element Density g/cm3 Melting point Type of oxide
Carbon 2.25 3700
Silicon 2.33 1683 Acidic
Germanium 5.35 937 Amphoteric
Tin 7.28 505 Amphoteric
Lead 11.35 601 Amphoteric

(a) Explain why these elements are placed in group lV.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Complete the table by stating the type of oxide formed by carbon.
(c) Describe the trends of the elements in terms of
(i) Density
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Melting point
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Tin, (Sn) reacts with oxygen to form amphoteric oxide.
(i) Which two substances will be formed when the oxide of tin reacts with an
acid?
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

(ii) All the elements above form compounds with hydrogen called hydrides.
The saturated hydrides of carbon are alkanes.
Predict the formula for the hydride of germanium, (Ge) which contains
three atoms of germanium.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

146
4. Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride, HCl.
Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show the bonding in hydrogen chloride, HCl.

[2]
5. Sodium is an element in Group 1 of the Periodic Table.
It has the electron configuration of 2, 8, 1.
(a) State why sodium is in group 1.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) In which period is sodium found?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) State how the sodium atom reacts with atoms of non-metals.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

6. (a) In an experiment, two jars are set up as shown below.

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is a brown gas.

(i) What observation will be made when the glass disc is removed?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Calculate the relative molecular mass if NO2.

Relative molecular mass = …………………………………. [1]

(b) The experiment is repeated using bromine gas, Br2, which has a relative
molecular mass of 160.
State and explain how the rate of change observed when the glass disc is
removed will differ from the change in the first experiment.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

147
7. Draw a ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show the bonding in a molecule of methane,
CH4.

[2]
8. The table below shows physical properties of substances V, W, X, Y and Z.
Substances Melting Boiling Electrical conductivity
point/°C point/°C As solid As liquid
V 3720 4827 Conducts Does not
W -95 69 Does not Does not
X 327 1760 Conducts Conducts
Y 3550 4827 Does not Does not
Z 776 1500 Does not Conducts

(a) Which of the substances could be sodium chloride?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Which substance consists of small covalent molecules?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Use the kinetic theory of matter to describe the arrangement and movement
of particles in substance W at room temperature.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
9. The figure shows experimental set-up to investigate the rate of diffusion of
hydrogen chloride. HCl, and ammonia, NH3. Damp blue and red litmus papers were
both placed at position Y.

(a) Name the process by which the gases move from the cotton wool to meet at
position X.
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

148
 (b) Calculate the relative molecular mass of ammonia, NH3.

[1]
(c) The relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride is 36.5
Explain why the position X where the gases meet is nearer to the hydrochloric
acid end of the tube.
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) What colour change will be observed in the litmus paper at position Y?
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Why is the damp litmus paper used instead of dry litmus paper?
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
35
10. An element X has the symbol X.
16
(a) What is the atomic number of element X?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Write the electronic arrangement of element X.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Suggest a group and period for element X in the Periodic Table.
Group …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Period ……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Predict how the reactivity of element X would compare to that of oxygen.
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Element X reacts with chlorine to form a compound. Use your answer to (b)
and he Periodic Table to predict the electronic structure of a molecule of this
compound.

[3]
(f) Suggest two properties of the compound of chlorine and element X.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
....……………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
12 13
11. Two isotopes of carbon are C and C.
6 6
(a) What is the difference between the two isotopes?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) State one reason why the isotopes react similarly.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Draw an atomic structure showing the arrangement of electrons in an atom of
13
C and the number and position of neutrons and protons.
6

[2]

149
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
ENERGY CHANGES
 All chemical substances store chemical energy; this chemical energy can be
converted into heat, light electrical or even sound energy.
 We obtain our energy from the combustion of fuels, or from combustion of
food and from many other chemical reactions.
 A reaction that gives out heat to the surrounding is exothermic while that
which takes in energy from the surrounding is endothermic.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Exothermic reactions give out heat!
Exothermic reaction involves a loss of heat energy to the surrounding, resulting
in temperature rise in surrounding.
In exothermic reaction, the total energy of the products is lower than the total energy
of the reactants as heat is lost to the surroundings during the process of reaction.

ΔH

H1

H2

This energy changes can be shown in the energy level diagrams like the one below.

ΔH = energy change = heat of reaction

The reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid is an example of exothermic

reaction. In the experiment shown in below, the test tube feels warm because the
reaction gives out heat energy which can be felt in your arm. When metals reacts with
water, the reaction also gives out heat and is therefore exothermic.

The energy released by the amounts of reactants is called the heat of reaction.

150
Chemical energy can be released as heat. In the first figure in the previous page, it is
shown that the reactants (magnesium and hydrochloric acid) have energy content, H1,
and the products have energy content, H2. During the reaction, some energy is given
out by the reactants as they react. So the energy content of the products, H2, is lower
than that of the reactants, H1. There is difference between the energies of the reactants
and products. It can be written as ΔH. ΔH means the change in energy content. It
must be given a sign to show whether the energy content has increased or decreased.
For an exothermic reaction, ΔH is negative. The reactants lose energy to give the
products.
All combustion reactions are exothermic. One other exothermic reaction is respiration.

COMBUSTION
When a natural gas (methane) burns in a plentiful supply of air, it produces a large
amount of energy.

Methane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Heat energy

CH4 (g) + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20

During this complete combustion of methane, heat is given out. When heat is given
out, the reaction is said to be exothermic.
If only a limited supply of air is available then the reaction is not as exothermic and
the poisonous gas carbon monoxide is produced. This is incomplete combustion of
methane.

Methane + Oxygen Carbon monoxide + Water + Heat energy

The energy changes that take place during a chemical reaction can be shown by an
energy level diagram. The figure below shows the energy level diagram for the
complete combustion of methane.

151
When any chemical reaction occurs, the chemical bonds in the reactants have to be
broken – this requires energy. When the new bonds in the products are formed, energy
is given out.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Endothermic reactions take in heat!
When heat is taken in from the surrounding in a reaction, resulting in a
temperature drop in the surrounding, the reaction is said to be endothermic.
Here, the temperature of the surrounding decreases and the reaction container
becomes colder. The total energy content of the products will be higher than that of
the reactants.

The energy level diagram below shows the energy changes.

Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water, as shown below, is endothermic. The tube feels
cold because the process takes in energy from the water and your hand.

In figure in the previous page, it is shown that the energy is taken in by the reactants,
so the energy content of the products H2, is greater than that of the reactants, H1. ΔH
is positive.
All vaporization and melting process are endothermic. One other endothermic
reaction is photosynthesis.
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 RATE OF REACTION
Chemical reactions take place at a variety of speeds. Explosion and fireworks reactions
are very fast and are complete in a fraction of a second. The rusting of iron and other
corrosion process are very slow and continue for years.
Chemical equations say nothing about how quickly the changes occur. The rate of
reaction is found by experiment.
The speed at which a chemical reaction takes place is also called the rate of a
chemical reaction. It tells us how fast or slow a reaction is taking place.

THEORIES ABOUT REACTION RATES

In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged. Before any reaction can occur, the
molecules or atoms may come together and collide.
Bonds between the atoms must be broken before new molecules can be made. (See
the figure below). This needs energy.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION

Chemical reaction occurs when the particles of reactants collide together. Factors
affecting the rate of chemical reaction include;

 SURFACE AREA
When a solid is broken into smaller particles, the total surface area exposed to
the reacting particles is increased, and more reaction can take place. With a
greater surface area of solid, collisions are far more frequent. Because there
are more collisions, the reaction rate is greater.

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 CONCENTRATION
In solutions of higher concentration and in gases at higher pressure, the
particles are closer together. They have a greater chance of colliding. Because
there are more collisions, the reaction rate is greater.

 TEMPERATURE
At higher temperatures, particles have more kinetic energy and are moving
faster, so there are more collisions. Also (and more importantly), the collisions
are more energetic and greater, and hence, there will be more successful
collisions resulting in the formation the products.

 CATALYST
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a reaction without being used up.
They are usually transition metals or compounds of transition metals.
A wide range of industries use catalysts. A catalyst speeds up a reaction by
providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
An activation energy is the energy barrier which reactants must overcome,
when their particles collide to react successfully and form products.

 Light (although this applies to a limited number of reactions)

 Pressure (if the reactants are gases)

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ENZYMES
Enzymes are protein molecules produced in living cells. They are catalysts for biological
reactions. Enzymes;
− are substrate specific (catalyze only one specific reaction)
− becomes inactive at low temperatures
− are more active at their optimum temperatures and pH
− becomes denatured at high temperatures

USES OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are widely used in industries. They are used in baking, brewing and in making
dairy products as explained below;
 Making bread – yeast is a fungus consisting of millions of tiny living cells. These
feed on sugar, using an enzyme to break it down into ethanol and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide produced makes the dough rise. This is called
fermentation.
 Making beer and wine – yeast is also used in making wine and beer. The
fermentation process is the same as for bread.
 Making yogurt – yogurt is made by adding bacteria to milk. The milk is first
sterilized or pasteurized by heating to kill harmful bacteria. The enzymes
produced convert the sugar in milk (lactose) into lactic acid and other
substances and make its proteins thicken.
 Making cheese – milk is initially heated to kill bacteria and then cooled. A starter
culture of some bacteria is then added, which coagulates the milk into curds
and whey. The curds are then put into steel or wooden drums and pressed and
allowed to dry.

SOME DAILY APPLICATIONS OF SPEEDS OF REACTIONS

 To slow down the process of decay, food is kept at temperature in refrigerators.
Meat can be kept frozen in refrigerators for a few weeks. If left at room
temperature, the meat will go bad in few hours.
 When cooking food, we use higher temperature to cook it faster. Since water
boils at 100ºC, we often use boiling oil to stir fry meat and vegetables to make
them cook much faster.
 Some medicines can be made to work faster; they are normally taken in powder
form with warm water.
Some other medicines are taken in capsules in order to release the drugs slowly
over a longer period of time.
Fine coal in coal mines and flour dust in flour mills can cause explosions when mixed
with air. Precautions must therefore be taken to avoid such explosions.

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The speed of a chemical reaction can be measured in the following ways;
 Measuring the time taken for a reaction to complete.
 Measuring the amount of product formed in unit time.
 Measuring the amount of reactants used up or remaining per unit time.
In most chemical reactions, the rate changes with time. The graph below shows the
formation of a product with time.

The graph is the steepest at the start of the experiment, showing that the rate of
reaction is greatest then. As the reaction continues, the graph becomes less steep
indicating that the rate decreases until it eventually becomes flat showing that the
reaction has stopped.

In another graph below, the two lines show the formation of a product under a
particular set of conditions and the time from the start of the reaction.
Line A shows a faster reaction while line B shows slower reaction.
Note that from the graph, different amounts of reactants were formed at time of 10s.

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 REDOX REACTIONS
Some chemical reactions such as rust (iron oxide) are often called redox reactions
because both the processes of reduction and oxidation occurred within it. To determine
if a redox reaction has occurred and to identify the element oxidized and the element
reduced, you have to be able to define oxidation in terms of:
1. GAIN OR LOSS OF O XYGEN
Whenever an element gains oxygen during a reaction, it is oxidized. An example is
that of magnesium burning in air or oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

2Mg (s) + O2 (s) 2MgO (s)

In this reaction, the magnesium has gained oxygen. We say that magnesium has
been oxidized to magnesium oxide.
Thus, oxidation can be defined as the gain of oxygen.
Reduction is the opposite of oxidation.
In the blast furnace, iron oxide (Fe2O3) is reduced to iron (Fe) by carbon monoxide.
(CO).
Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g)

The iron has lost oxygen. It has been reduced. The carbon monoxide has gained
oxygen. It has been oxidized.
Thus, reduction can be defined as the loss of oxygen.

2. GAIN OR LOSS OF ELECTRONS

When sodium reacts with chlorine, the sodium atoms turns into sodium ions. Each
sodium atom gives up one outer electron.

The electrons are taken by the chlorine. Each chlorine atom turns into chlorine ions
by gaining an electron.
Electrons have been transferred from sodium atoms to chlorine atoms. This is an
example of redox reaction, the sodium is oxidized by loss of electrons, and the
chlorine is reduced by gain of electrons. The words ‘OIL RIG’ may help you
remember this:
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons and Reduction Is Gain of electrons.

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OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS
You must be very careful when using these terms. An agent is something or someone
who gets things done!
In redox reactions, when an oxidizing agent reacts, it is reduced. When a reducing
agent reacts, it is oxidized.
This can be illustrated by the reaction of magnesium with oxygen.

Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

Mg (s) + O2 (s) MgO2 (s)

The magnesium is oxidized by loss of electrons. It is oxidized by the oxygen. So oxygen
is the oxidizing agent – it caused magnesium to be oxidized by taking its electrons.
At the same time, the oxygen is reduced by the magnesium – magnesium caused the
oxygen to be reduced by giving it the two electrons. The magnesium is the reducing
agent.

TEST FOR REDUCING AND OXIDIZING AGENT

The table below show how some a solution of potassium iodide change colour when
oxidized. It can therefore be used to test for oxidizing agents.
TEST RESULTS
Add solution of potassium iodide Solution turns brown, and grey specks may be
seen

Similarly, a solution of acidified potassium manganate (VII) changes colour when

reduced and can therefore be used to test for reducing agents.
TEST RESULTS
Add solution of acidified potassium Purple colour is decolourised.
manganate (VII)

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 ELECTROLYSIS
It is the process of splitting up (decomposing) substances by passing an electric
current through them.
The electric current causes a chemical reaction that breaks down the ionic compound.
We say the compound decomposes.
 The substance which is decomposed is called the electrolyte. An electrolyte
is a substance that conducts electricity when in molten state or in solution.
Electrolyte can be melted (fused) or dissolved in water.
 Electrolytes can be molten salts or aqueous solutions of salts, or aqueous
solutions of acids or alkalis.
Electrolytes include: acids, salts, metal oxides and metal hydroxides.
 The electricity is carried through the electrolyte by ions. The ions are free to
move when the electrolyte is dissolved in water or molten.
 The electric current enters and leaves the electrolyte through electrodes,
which are usually made of unreactive metals such as platinum or of the non-
metal carbon (graphite). These substances are unreactive or inert, meaning
that they will not react with the electrolyte or the products of the electrolysis.
Cathode - the negative electrode which attracts positively charged ions (cations)
Anode – the positive electrode which attracts negatively charged ions (anions)
The figure below shows an electrolytic cell. It consists of two electrodes in a liquid
electrolyte. A direct current (d.c.) power source is connected to the electrodes. An
electric current flows through the electrolyte, decomposing it into simpler substances.

During electrolysis, ions migrate towards the electrodes. The migration can be seen
if the ions are coloured. The positive ions (cations) always migrate to the negative
electrode (the cathode) where they gain electrons and negative ions (anions) move to
the positive electrode (the anode) where they lose (discharge) electrons.

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All metals and hydrogen are formed at the cathode and non-metals are formed at the
anode. Basically chemical changes take place at the electrodes.

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN COMPOUNDS

When an ionic compound is molten, the ionic structure breaks down and the positive
and negative ions separate and move apart.
The molten sodium chloride electrolyte contains positive sodium ions (Na+) and
negative chloride ions (Cl−). During electrolysis, the positive ions or cations are
attracted to the negative cathode. The negative ions or anions are attracted to the
positive anode.
At the cathode, the sodium ions take (gain) electrons from the electrode to
become sodium atoms. They are reduced.

Electrode reaction Na+ + e− Na

We say the sodium ions have been discharged. The sodium is found as molten drops
at the bottom of the crucible.
At the anode, the chloride ions lose (discharge) / give up electrons to the
electrode and become chlorine molecules. They are oxidized.

Electrode reaction 2Cl− Cl2 + 2e−

The chlorine ions have been discharged. The yellowish-green chlorine gas is seen
around the anode during electrolysis.
The electrolysis of other molten binary (two) ionic compounds will follow the same
pathways;
 The metal of the compound will be formed at the cathode
 The non-metal will be formed at the anode.

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ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, the ions are separated and are free to
move about.
However, unlike molten compounds, water is present in the solution and it ionizes to
produce hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−)

H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH−(aq)

These ions and that of the electrolyte migrate to the respective electrodes and compete
for discharge. To determine which ions win, we look at the following rules;

At the cathode
1. The more reactive metal remains in the solution as ions and the hydrogen
ions (H+) are discharged and hydrogen gas liberated.
2. If the ion is for a less reactive metal (Cu2+, Ag+, Au+) the metals in this very
order will be discharged, leaving H+ ions in solution.

At the anode
1. If ions of a halogen (halide ions) (Cl−, Br−, or I−) are present, they are
discharged and molecules of a halogen will be formed.
2. If there is no halide ion, OH− ions are discharged and oxygen gas liberated.

The electrode reactions for some electrolytes are summarized below.

Electrolyte Ions present At the cathode At the anode

Copper (II) chloride Cu2+ Cl−

solution, CuCl2 (aq) Cu2+ + 2e− Cu 2Cl− Cl2 + 2e−
H+ OH− (aq) (s) (aq) (g)

Sodium chloride Na+ Cl−

solution, NaCl (aq) 2H+ + 2e− H2 2Cl− Cl2 + 2e−
H+ OH− (aq) (g) (aq) (g)

Dilute sulphuric acid, H+ SO42−

H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ + 2e− H2 4OH− O2 + 2H20 + 4e−
H+ OH− (aq) (g) (aq) (g) (l)

During electrolysis of Sulphuric acid, only water decomposes. The amount of the acid remains
unchanged at the end of electrolysis but its concentration increases due to the removal of water
molecules. For this reason, the electrolysis of dilute Sulphuric acid can be called “the
electrolysis of water”

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ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE (USING INERT ELECTRODES )
The electrodes used can be carbon (graphite) electrodes which does not take part in
the reaction, inert.
Ions present; From Copper (II) sulphate Cu2+ SO42−
From water H+ OH−
At the Anode
Both SO42− and OH− ions migrate to the anode. OH− ions are discharged to give
oxygen gas.

4OH−(aq) O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e−

At the Cathode
Both Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. Cu2+ ions are discharged and a salmon
pink solid (copper) is deposited at the cathode making it to increase in mass.

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− Cu (s)

Changes in the solution

The blue colour of the solution slowly fades until it becomes colourless as the
concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases.
The H+ and SO42− ions are not discharged and therefore the remaining solution
becomes Sulphuric Acid.

ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE (USING ACTIVE ELECTRODES )

The electrodes used can be copper electrodes and take part in the reaction.
Ions present; From Copper (II) sulphate Cu2+ SO42−
From water H+ OH−

At the Anode
The copper anode affects what happens at the electrode. No ions are discharged at
the anode instead the copper anode dissolves into the solution to form Copper (ii)
ions. Copper atoms in the anode become copper ions in solution.

Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e−

At the Cathode
Both Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. Cu2+ ions are discharged and a salmon
pink solid (copper) is deposited at the cathode making it to increase in mass.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− Cu (s)

Changes
The copper cathode gains Copper and becomes larger. The copper anode dissolves
and becomes thinner as it disintegrates in the electrolyte.
The colour of the solution does not change as the ions removed at the cathode are
replaced by the ions produced at the anode.

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USES AND APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis concept can be used for different industrial purposes such as;

1. Electroplating
Electroplating is the process involving electrolysis to plate, or coat, one metal
with another metal or a plastic with a metal. When plastic is electroplated, it is
first coated with a thin layer of an electric conductor such as graphite paste to
enable it to conduct electricity during electrolysis.
Metals that can be used to electroplate include gold, copper, silver, nickel, tin,
chromium and platinum. Electroplating helps to;
− Make the object attractive by enhancing its appearance.
− Give a protective coating to the metal beneath. For example, bath taps are
chromium plated to prevent corrosion.
When electroplating an object;
− Use the object to be electroplated as the cathode so that the metal ions
move to it when the current is switched on.
− The metal used to electroplate must be used as the anode
− The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal used for electroplating.

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2. Purification / refining of metals using electricity
When purifying metals e.g. copper using electricity, the following must be
observed;
− The anode must be made of impure metal
− The cathode must be made of a pure metal
− The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal which is purified
The atoms in the impure anode dissolves and the impurities fall to the bottom of
the container. Metal ions are reduced to atoms at the cathode and deposited on
the pure cathode. The example below shows how copper is purified.

3. Extracting metals
Reactive metals ‘like’ to exist as compounds, so it is difficult to extract them
from their compounds. Electrolysis is therefore used to extract these reactive
metals from their molten compounds.

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 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

THE PH SCALE
The pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH scale
is a set of numbers which ranges from 0 to 14. The pH of a solution shows whether it
is acidic, neutral or alkaline. Acids have pH values less than 7. Alkalis have pH values
greater than 7. A neutral solution has a pH value of exactly 7.

Chemists use an indicator to measure the pH of a solution. An indicator is a

compound that has one colour in acidic solutions and another in alkaline solutions.

THE UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

The pH of a solution is usually measured using Universal Indicator which is a
mixture of dyes. It gives different colours in solutions of different pH.

pH 1-2 2-4 5-6 7 8 - 10 11 - 12 13 - 14

Colour Red OrangeThe Yellow

pH ScaleGreen Blue-green Blue Violet

Some other indicators are shown in the table below, along with their colours in acids
and alkalis.
COLOUR IN
INDICATOR ACID SOLUTION ALKALINE SOLUTION
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Pink Yellow
Methyl red Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink

ACIDS
There are two types of acids being:
1. Mineral acids: - acids that are derived from one or more mineral elements or
inorganic matter and can normally be prepared in the laboratory. Examples
are, hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), carbonic
acid (H2CO3) and phosphoric acid (H2PO4)
2. Organic acids: -acids that are mainly naturally occurring organic compounds
obtained from plants and animals. They include ethanoic acid and citric acid.

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An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ions when
dissolved in water. For example, hydrogen chloride exists in the gaseous state as
covalent molecules. When the gas is bubbled into water, hydrochloric acid is obtained.
The hydrogen chloride molecules dissociates (split up) into hydrogen ions and
chloride ions in solution.

Note that all acids contain hydrogen but NOT all substances that contain hydrogen are
acids. For example, ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) contain hydrogen, but they
are not acids. Below are some common acids, their formulae and the ions produced in
aqueous solution.
Name of acid Formula Ions/Radicals present
Hydrochloric acid HCl H +
Cl- - chloride
Nitric acid HNO3 H+ NO 3-
- nitrate
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH H+ CH3COO -
- ethanoate
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 2H+ SO4 2-
- sulphate
Phosphoric acid H2PO4 2H+ PO4 2-
- phosphate
Carbonic acid H2CO3 2H+ CO3 2-
- carbonate

RADICALS
As seen in the table above, sometimes groups of atoms can be charged. They are
called radicals. Radicals are a group of atoms that have a charge and do not exist by
themselves. In chemical reactions, they behave as if they were one atom.
Properties of Acids
Acids seem to have similar properties. Below are physical properties of acids;
 Have a sour taste
 Turns litmus paper red – due to presence of hydrogen ions
 Conduct electricity – due to mobile ions when dissociated in water.
Chemical properties of metals include the following reactions:
1. WITH METALS
When an acid reacts with a metal, a metal salt and hydrogen gas are formed. The
observation of the reaction would be effervescence or bubbling of a clolourless and
odourless gas.
The word equation for the reaction is:
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Sulphuric acid + Magnesium Magnesium Sulphate + Hydrogen

H2SO4 (aq) + Mg (s) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with acid to produce a salt
and hydrogen. In the example above, magnesium sulphate is a salt.
A salt is a compound formed when a metal or an ammonium group (NH4) replaces
hydrogen in an acid. The slat of sulphuric acids are called sulphates, those of nitric
acids are called nitrates and those of hydrochloric acids, chlorides.

166
Testing for hydrogen gas
Put a lighted splint at the mounth of the test tube.
Positive Results
A ‘pop’ sound is heared.

2. WITH CARBONATES
When an acid reacts with a carbonate (CO32-) a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
are formed. The word equation for the reaction is:

Acid +Metal carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + water

Nitric acid + Sodium Carbonate Sodium Nitrate + Carbon dioxide + water

HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) NaNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Hydrogencarbonates react in a similar way. For example:

Hydrochloric acid + Sodium Sodium chloride + Carbon dioxide + water

hydrogencarbonate

HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (s) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Testing for carbon dioxide gas

Bubble the gas through limewater
Positive Results
Limewater turns milky or cloudy

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3. WITH BASES
A base is any metal oxide or metal hydroxide. This means that a base contains
either oxide ions (O2-) or hydoxide ions (OH-)

ALKALIS: (A special class of bases)

There are two types of bases: those that are soluble in water and those that are not
soluble in water. Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis. This means that;
All Alkalis Are Bases But Not All Bases Are Alkalis
The diagram below may help you to understand this.

When an acid and an alkali react together, they neutralise each other. The reaction is
called neutralisation reaction. The product of neutralisation reactions are salt and
water. The word equation for the reaction is:

Acid + Base Salt + Water

Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride + Water

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Sulphuric acid + Copper oxide Copper sulphate + Water

H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

The equations above can be written as ionic equations; Taking the second equation
above and separating it into ions then cancelling the spectator ions, we have:

This leaves us with a very simple ionic equation:

2H+ (aq) + O2- (aq) H2O (l)

All osides of group 1 elements are soluble while insoluble bases are mostly oxides of
transition metals.

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Properties of Bases
Bases have similar properties. Below are physical properties of bases;
 Have a bitter taste and soapy feel
 Turns litmus paper blue – due to presence of hydroxide ions
 Conduct electricity in aqueous solutions – due to mobile ions when dissociated
in water.
With the exception of ammonia, all alkalis produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in
water.
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
When ammonia dissolves in water, ammonium ions and hydroxide ions are formed.
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
In neutralization reactions, the hydrogen ion (H+) from the acid and the hydroxide ion
(OH-) from the alkali combine to form water (H2O)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

All alkalis (except ammonia) react with ammonium salts; when warmed with an alkali,
ammonium salts decompose to produce a metal salt, ammonia and water.
Alkali + ammonium salts ammonia + Salt + Water

E.g. when calcium hydroxide is heated with ammonium chloride, ammonia gas is
liberated
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + 2NH3
When alkalis react with ammonium salts, the hydroxide ions and the ammonium ions
combine together to produce ammonia gas.
OH- (aq) + NH4+ (aq) NH3 (g)+ H2O (l)

APPLICATIONS OF ACID-BASE REACTIONS

 Treatment of indigestion
Indigestion is caused by accumulation of dilute hydrochloric acid inside the
stomach. The acid is neutralized by taking anti-acid tablets (contain sodium
hydrogen carbonate) or drinking milk of magnesia (contains magnesium
hydroxide).
 Treatment of acidic soils
Lime is added to acidic soils to neutralize it.
 Brushing of teeth using toothpaste
The food particles trapped between the teeth calls for bacteria which feeds
on the food by secretion of digestive enzymes. The enzymes produce acidic
particles which can be neutralized by the action of toothpaste.
 Treatment of insect stings
Insects such as bees, injects an acidic liquid into the skin. This is neutralized
by rubbing some zinc carbonate containing cream.

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PROTONS AND ACIDITY
Acids contain hydrogen ions (H+). Remember that a hydrogen ion consists of a proton
only in the nucleus with just one electron moving around it. A hydrogen ion is therefore
just a proton because the electron has left it.
A neutralization reaction can be written as ionic equations as shown below;
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

From the reaction above, the hydrogen ion (or proton) in the acid is joining the
hydroxide to form water. This is called a proton transfer reaction. The proton is
being transferred from an acid to the base to form water.
This idea give a better definition of an acid. The acid in the reaction donates protons
(hydrogen ion) to the alkali to form water. The alkali receive the protons to form water.
We can therefore define acids and alkalis thus:
An acid is an hydrogen ion, H+, donor
An alkali/base is an hydrogen ion, H+, acceptor
THE STRENGTH OF AN ACID
Hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acids are known as mineral acids. Acids such as
ethanoic and citric acids are called organic acids. Mineral acids are strong acids, but
organic acids are weak acids.
What is meant by the strength of an acid?
The strength of an acid refers to how well the acid molecules dissociates (ionizes)
when dissolved in water.
In a strong acid, all the acid molecule dissociates to form ions. Thus a strong acid
such as hydrochloric acid produce a lot of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution.
HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Weak acids are only partially dissociated into ions. In weak acids, only some of the
acid molecules form ions. Thus, weak acids such as ethanoic acid produce very few
hydrogen ions in aqueous solution. Some acid molecules remain unseparated. This is
indicated by a reversible equation as shown by the double arrow.
CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
The double arrow denotes partial dissociation. Most ethanoic acid remains
undissociated when dissolved in water.

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THE STRENGTH OF A BASE
Like acids, alkalis can also be strong or weak. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
and calcium hydroxide are examples of strong alkalis. Ammonia however is a weak
alkali.
A strong alkali is completely dissociated when dissolved in water. This means that
strong alkalis exist almost completely as ions in solution.
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
A weak alkali is only partially dissociated. Ammonia is a weak alkali because only some
ammonia molecules form ions in solution.
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

STRENGTH VS CONCENTRATION
Concentration refers to the amount of water present in the acid or alkali. A
concentrated acid has very little water in it. In dilute acid, the acid is mixed with a lot
of water. The concetration can be increased by adding more acid or more alkali to the
solution. It can be decreased or diluted by adding more water to the solution.
The term “Strength” refers to how much of the acid or alkali is dissocoated into ions.
An acid or alkali is said to be either weak or strong.
Unlike concentration, the strength of an acid or alkali cannot be changed. A strong
acid whether concentrated or dilute remains a strong acid.

TYPES OF OXIDES
An oxide is a compound of oxygen and another element. There are four types of oxides
as described below:
 Acidic Oxides
Oxides of non-metals are called acidic oxides. They are usually gases at room
temperature and dissolve in water to form acidic solutions with pH less than 7. One
example of an acidic oxide is sulphur dioxide which dissolves readily in water to
form sulphurous acid.
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)
Other examples of acidic oxides are shown in a table below.
Acidic Oxide Formula Acid produced in water
Carbon dioxide CO2 Carbonic acid - H2CO3
Sulphur trioxide SO3 Sulphuric acid - H2SO4
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Nitric acid - HNO3

 Basic Oxides (behave like a base)

Most metal oxides are basic oxides. Many basic oxides are formed by the direct
combination of a metal with oxygen. Basic oxides react with acids to form a salt
and water. For example: potassium oxide (K2O), sodium oxide (Na2O), calcium
oxide (CaO), iron (II) oxide (FeO) etc.

171
 Neutral Oxides
Oxides of non-metals which shows neither acidic nor basic properties. They do not
react with acids or alkalis and are mostly monoxides. Examples are water, H2O,
carbon monoxide CO and dinitrogen oxide N2O.
 Amphoteric Oxides
The word amphoteric means ‘both of them’. Amphoteric oxides have both acidic
and basic properties. Examples are Al2O3 PbO and ZnO. These oxides form salts
and water when they react with acids. They also react with alkalis to form complex
salts and water.

PREPARATION OF SALTS
A salt is a substance formed when one or more hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced
by metallic ion or ammonium ion.
When making a salt, the solubility of the salt in water must be determined to allow us
to choose a suitable method for preparing the salt.
There are four ways of making salts:
1. Reacting a metal with an acid
Salts can be made by reacting acids with metals. This method is only suitable
for metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series.
It is however not a good idea to preapre salts of very reactive metals such as
sodium and potassium using this method. The reaction of these metals with the
acid is too violent – a titration method is more suitavle in these cases.
Salt Reagent Formula Chemical equation
Calcium nitrate Calcium and nitric acid Ca(NO3)2 Ca + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2

2. Reacting an insoluble base with an acid

Salts can also be made by used to make salts that are low in the reactivity
series. reacting an acid with an insoluble base.
Salt Reagent Formula Chemical equation
Zinc chloride Zinc oxide + hydrochloric ZnCl2 Ca + HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2
acid

3. Neutralising an alkali with an acid (titration method)

Titration is a method used to make a soluble salt from a souluble base and
an acid. This method is used to make salts of group 1 metals and ammonium
salts.
Acid – alkali titration is used to find how much acid is needed to react exactly
with a solution of an alkali. We use an indicator to find when the acid just
reacted with all the alkali. We call this the end point of the titration. At the
end point, the indicator changes colour.
The indicator we choose depends on whether we use a strong or weak acid or
alkali.

172
  For a strong acid and alkali we can use any indicator.
 If we are making a salt from a weak alkali such as ammonia, we titrate with
strong acid. We use methyl orange indicator which changes from orange to
red.
 If we are making a salt from a weak acid such as ethanoic acid, we titrate
with strong base. We use phenolphalein indicator which changes from pink
to colourless.
To carry out the process of titration,
1. Measure a known volume of alkali into the titration falsk using a volumetric
pipette. First wash the pipette with a littele of the alkali you are using.
2. Add a few drops of indicator solution to the alkali in the flask.
3. Fil a clean burette with acid. First wash the burette with a little of the acid
tou are using.
4. Record the burette reading.
5. Open the burette tap and let the acid flow into the flask. Keep swirling the
falsk gently to make sure that the acid and alkali mix and react.
6. Keep adding the acid slowly until the indicator changes colour. This is the
end point.
7. Record the reading on the burette. The final reading minus the initial reading
is called the titre. The first time you do this gives you the rough titre.
8. Repeat this process at least three times. You can add the acid rapidly until
you are few cm3 from the end point. Then add the acid drop by drop so that
you can get an acurate titre.
9. If you are doing calculations to find the concetration of the alkali in the flask,
you take the average of the accurate titres.

4. Precipitation
A precipitate is made when solutions of two soluble compounds are mixed. To
make salts by precipitation, we have to know which compounds are soluble in
water and which are insoluble . This can be done by using the solubility rules below
to help us.

Salt Type Soluble Insoluble

All group 1 salts All -
All nitrates All -
All ammonium salts All -
Chlorides All others Silver, lead (ll) chloride
Hydoxides Group 1 hydroxides, ammonium All other
Carbonates Group 1 carbonates, ammonium All others
Iodides All others Silver, lead and iodine
Sulphates All others Barium, calcium, lead

173
To make an insoluble salt, for example lead (ll) chloride, we
 Identify the ions present in the insoluble salt – lead and chloride
 Use the solubility rules to choose soluble compounds containing these ions –
for example, lead nitrate for the lead and sodium chloride for the chloride.
 Add one solution to the other and filter off the precipitate, wash and dry the
solid.

COLLECTION OF SALTS
(a) Salts like CuSO4.5H2O, ZnSO4.7H20 have water of crystallisation. Hence most
salts are collected by means of crystallisation rather than by direct evaporation.
(b) Salts collected must be wiped with filter paper and cleaned with distilled water to
remove contaminants that stay on the surface of the crystals.

IDENTIFICATION OF IONS - CATIONS

Aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia are alkalis used to identify different
positive ions (cations) in compounds. Solids are first dissolved in a little water, then;
 Put a small amunt of the solution you want to identify into a test tube.
 Add few drops of aqueous of sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia.
 Observe colour of any prepicitate formed
 Add excess aqueous sodium hydroxide and shake the test tube
 Record whether the prepicitate dossolves or not and any colour changes.

The table shows the results if particular cations are present.

Metal Cation Results with aqueous sodium Results with aqueous
hydroxide ammonia
Aluminium, Al3+ White precipitate White precipitate
Soluble in excess (solourless Insoluble in excess
solution)
Calcium, Ca2+ White precipitate No precipitate or very slight
Insoluble in excess white prcipitate

Copper (ll), Cu2+ Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate

Insoluble in excess
Iron (ll), Fe2+ Grey-green precipitate
Insoluble in excess
Iron (lll), Fe 3+
Redddish-brown precipitate
Insoluble in excess
Zinc, Zn2+ White precipitate
Soluble in excess (solourless
solution)
Insoluble in excess
Grey-green precipitate
Insoluble in excess
Redddish-brown precipitate
Insoluble in excess
White precipitate
Soluble in excess (solourless
solution)

174
IDENTIFICATION OF ANIONS
HALIDES
Group 7 ions such as chloride and iodide ions are called halides. These ions can be
identified using aqueous silver nitrate. The prcedure is as follows:
To a small volume of halide solution in a test tube:
 Add an equal volume of dilute nitric acid
 Add a few drops of aqueous silver nitrate
 Observe the colour of the precipitate
Chlorides (Cl-) give a white precipitate.
Iodides (l-) give a pale yellow precipitate.

CARBONATES (CO32-)
To test for carbonates, we add dilute acid to the unknown compound. If carbonate is
present, we will see effervescence (bubbles of a gas). The gas must be carbon dioxide
and can be tested using limewater.

NITRATES (NO3-)
The identification of nitrates make use of the test of ammonia. The procedure is:
 Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.
 Add aqueous sodium hydroxide then aluminium foil and heat gently.
 Test the gas given off with a piece of damp red litmus paper placed at the
mouth of the test tube
 If ammonia is given off, the litmus paper will turn blue.

SULPHATES (SO42-)
Barium chloride or barium nitrate solution is used to test for sulphades.
 Put an aqueous solution of the unknown compound into a test tube.
 Add an equal amount of soluble barium salt (chloride or nitrate).
 If a white precipitate is formed, the compound is sulphate.

175
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows electrolysis of aqueous copper (ll) sulphate using carbon
electrodes.

(a) Write the equation for the reaction occurring at the anode.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) State two observations made during the electrolysis.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
2. The figure below shows a set-up in the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous
sodium chloride using inert electrodes.

(a) Suggest the name of the material used for the inert electrode.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) The equation for the production of chlorine gas at the anode is shown.
2Cl- (aq) Cl2 + 2e-

i. Explain why this is an oxidation reaction.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
ii. State two observations made at the anode.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Hydrogen chloride dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid.
Suggest the pH of hydrochloric acid and explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

176
3. The rate of reaction between a sample of solid sodium carbonate and excess dilute
sulphuric acid was investigated at 20°C. The total volume of carbon dioxide
produced was measured every minute and the results are shown in the table.
Time / min Volume / cm3
1 25
2 45
3 55
4 60
5 60
6 60

a. On the grid below, plot a graph of volume of carbon dioxide produced against
time.

[2]

b. On the same axes, sketch a graph that will be obtained when half of the original
mass of sodium carbonate was used at 20°C. Label this graph Y. [2]

177
4. Magnesium sulphate is soluble in water.
(a) Describe how crystals of magnesium sulphate are made using magnesium oxide
powder and sulphuric acid as reactants.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………..………………………………………………………………[4]
(b) Describe a chemical test to confirm the presence of the sulphate, SO42-, ions in
the sample.
Test ………………………………..……………………..………………………………………….
Results …………………………..……………………..…………………………………………. [3]
5. The burning of methane is an example of an exothermic reaction.
(i) What is an exothermic reaction?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Give another example of an exothermic reaction other than burning in oxygen
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Explain why it is not safe to burn methane in a limited supply of oxygen.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
6. An iron ring can be electroplated with copper as shown below.

(a) What material is the anode made of?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) What change would be seen on the iron ring?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Write the equation for the reaction at the cathode.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Suggest a suitable electrolyte that could be used if the iron ring was to be
plated using silver.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(e) Give two other uses of copper.
……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..……………………………………….. [2]

178
7. Four powdered metals P, Q, R and S were each placed in dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl). The figure below shows what was observed.

(a) Use the information in the diagram to arrange the metals in order of increasing
reactivity.
Least reactive most reactive
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) The gas produced in the reaction between metals and dilute hydrochloric acid
is hydrogen.
Describe the test for hydrogen gas.
Test …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Result ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Which of the metals P, Q, R or S could be copper.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explain your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….… [2]
(d) Predict how the rate of reaction will compare with that shown in the figure
when lumps of metal Q are used.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explain your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….… [2]
8. The figure below shows hydrogen gas being passed over heated copper (ll) oxide
to produce copper.

(a) Name the type of reaction that takes place in the figure.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) An incomplete equation representing the reaction taking place is shown
CuO (….) + H2 (….) Cu (….) + H2O (….)
(i) Complete the equation by writing the state symbols of the reactants and
the products. [1]
(c) Other than the method used in the figure, state another method of producing
copper
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

179
9. The figure below shows the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride using
graphite electrodes.

(a) Explain why graphite is used as an electrode.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) (i) Write the formulae of two of the ions that are present in the electrolysis.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
ii. State whether the solution would be alkaline, neutral or acidic after the
experiment in complete.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..…………..…….. [1]
10. When chlorine is bubbled through aqueous iron (ll) chloride, iron (lll) chloride is
formed. The ionic equation for the reaction is:
2Fe2+ + Cl2 2Fe3+ + 2Cl-

The reaction is redox.

(a) Which substance is oxidized?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Give a reason for your answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….………………… [2]
(b) Why is a fume cupboard needed?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

180
11. Plastic articles can be electroplated with copper. The article is first coated with a
thin layer of graphite paste.
The figure below shows how the graphite – coated plastic is electroplated with
copper.

(a) What element is graphite a form of?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Name another form of this element.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Suggest a reason why the article is first coated with graphite.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Name the element from which the anode is made.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(e) Explain why copper (ll) sulphate must be dissolved in water for use in this
process.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….……….. [2]
(f) At the cathode, copper atoms are deposited on the plastic article.
Write an equation to show the formation of copper atoms.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

12. Sodium chlorate (I) solution decomposes into sodium chloride and oxygen gas
when a few drops of cobalt (II) nitrate are added in excess. The cobalt (II) nitrate
is not changed by this process.
In an experiment 20 cm3 of sodium chloride (I) solution was used, and the volume
of oxygen gas produced was recorded at various intervals as shown.

Time / min 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Volume of oxygen / cm3 0 47 62 71 75 75 75

(a) Balance the equation for the formation of sodium chloride and oxygen.
……NaClO ……………..NaCl + ………….. O2

181
(b) On the grid below plot a graph of oxygen evolved against time.

[4]

(c) What term is used to describe the cobalt (II) nitrate?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Describe a test that could be carried out to show that the solution at the end of
the experiment contained chloride ions.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..…………………….. [3]

182
13. A copper (II) sulphate is electrolyzed using two copper electrodes.
(a) What happens during the electrolysis
(i) At the anode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) At the cathode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(iii) To the solution
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Give two practical uses of this method of electrolysis.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(c) What would happen if the copper electrodes are replaced with platinum
electrodes
(iv) At the anode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(v) At the cathode
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(vi) To the solution
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]

183
 STOCHIOMETRY
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
Every element has its own chemical symbol. For example, Oxygen is O, Bromine is Br
and Lithium is Li. Many symbols such as Iron, Fe and Potassium, K are not as obvious.
This is because they come from Latin, Greek or Arabic words.
If you do not know the symbol for an element, you can look it up in the Periodic table.
Notice that the first letter in a symbol is always a capital letter. If there is a second
letter, it is always a small letter.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE
To find the formula of an ionic compound, the number of positive charges must be
balanced out by the number of negative charges. The charges of the ions must be
known in order to work out the formula for a compound.
Below are some examples of finding formulae of different compounds.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical reactions are shown by chemical equations. The simplest type of equation is
a word equation.
A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction. All chemical
equations must be balanced, care must be taken not to change the formula for
reactants or products.

USING STATE SYMBOLS

We use special symbols in equations to show if a substance is a solid, liquid, gas or
dissolved in water. These are called state symbols. They are:
(s) solid (l) liquid (g) gas
(aq) aqueous solution – dissolved in water

IONIC EQUATIONS
An ionic equation is a special form of symbol equation that shows only those ions that
react

2H+ (aq) + O2- (aq) H2O (l)

184
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS AND RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
The relative atomic mass of an atom is the average mass of one atom of the element.
This is the total number of the protons and neutrons found in a nucleus of an atom
The relative molecular mass of a substance is the average mass of one molecule – it
is found by adding the relative atomic masses of all the constituents’ atoms of a
molecule.
The following atoms are used as examples to calculate atomic and molecular masses
of different atoms and compounds;

1 12 35.5 16 40 14
H C Cl O Ca N
1 6 17 8 20 7

Calculate the relative masses of the following:

 H2O (1 × 2) + 16 = 18
 CO2 12 + (16 × 2) = 44
 C 12
 CaCO3 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100
 (NH4)2CO3 2(14 + 4) + 12 + (16 × 3) = 96

PERCENTAGE (%) MASS OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND

Calculate the percentage by mass of the following:
2
 H in H2O × 100 = 11.1%
18

12
 C in CO2 × 100 = 27.27%
44

48
 O in (NH4)2CO3 × 100 = 50%
96

185
 THE MOLE CONCEPT
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is always equal to its relative molecular mass in
grams and has 6.02 × 1023 (Avogadro’s number). Examples –
 1 mole of H has a mass 1 g
 1 mole of O2 has a mass of 16 × 2 = 32 g
The mass in g of 1 mole of substance is called its molar mass. The symbol for the
mole is mol.
We can therefore convert the mass in grams of an element into moles using the
following formula:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈)
Moles =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔

Worked examples
 Calculate the number of moles in 24 g of carbon.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟐𝟒
Moles = = = 2 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟐

 Calculate the number of moles in 16 g of oxygen.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟏𝟔
Moles = = = 0.5 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟑𝟐

MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES

Equal volumes of all gases under the same temperature and pressure contains the
same number of molecules. One mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 or 24 000 cm3 at
r.t.p. 24 dm3 is called the molar volume of a gas at r.t.p.
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3
To calculate the moles of gas we use the equation:

Worked examples
 Calculate the number of moles in 6 dm3 of oxygen at r.t.p.

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝟔
Moles = = = 0.25 mol
𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒

186
MOLES IN SOLUTIONS
The concentration of a solution indicates the amount of solute present in 1 dm3 of the
solution. Concentration of the solution can be calculated using the equation:

Concentration is given in g/ dm3.

Usually, the concentration of a solution is expressed in molarity (M), where M is mol/
dm3
To find the number of moles in solutions we use the following formula:
Moles = volume in dm3 × concentration in dm3

A molar solution is the one that that contains 1 mole of solute in 1 dm3 of solution.

CALCULATIONS BASED ON EQUATIONS

A balanced chemical equations can be used to calculate the amount of reactants
required or the amount of products formed as shown below.

Mg (aq) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

1 mole : 2 moles : 1 mole : 1 mole

The number of atoms or molecules taking place in a chemical reaction can be
converted directly into moles.
From the above equation, 1 mole of magnesium reacts with 2 moles of hydrochloric
acid to produce 1 mole of magnesium chloride and 1 mole of hydrogen gas.

Worked examples
 In the equation above, 1.2 g of magnesium ribbon was allowed to react with
excess hydrochloric acid.
− How many moles of magnesium have reacted?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟏.𝟐
Moles = = = 0.05 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟒

− What mass of magnesium chloride was formed?

1 mol of Mg produces 1 mol MgCl2
So 0.05 mol of Mg produces 0.05 mol of MgCl2
Mass = Moles × Molar mass 0.05 × 95 = 4.75 g

− What is the volume of hydrogen at r.t.p. that would be produced?

1 mol of Mg produces 1 mol H2
So 0.05 mol of Mg produces 0.05 mol of H
Volume = 0.05 × 24 dm3 = 1.2 dm3

187
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
The empirical formula is the simplest formula. It shows the simplest ratio of the
elements present in a compound.
Some examples of empirical formulae are CH2, H2O and CO2.
The following are not empirical formulae: C3H6, C2H6 and C6H12O6 because they can be
reduced further to their simplest forms being CH2, CH3 and CH2O respectively.
The molecular formulae is the true formula of a compound. It shows all the atoms
present in a molecule. Most empirical formulae are also the molecular formulae. Some
examples of molecular formulae are CH2, H2O, CO2, and C2H4.
Ethane, C2H4 contains two carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms, it would therefore
be incorrect to reduce it to the simplest form.

FINDING MOLECULAR FORMULAE

The molecular formula of a compound can be found if the empirical formula and the
relative molecular mass are known as shown below;
 A compound has the relative molecular mass of 42. The empirical formula of
this compound is CH2. Find the molecular formula.
Relative molecular of C = 12 and that of H = 1.
(CH2)n = 42
(12 + 1×2)n = 42
14n = 42

n = 3: - the molecular formula of the compound is therefore C3H6.

188
CALCULATING PERCENTAGE YIELD
A yield from a chemical process can be calculated. In industries, a high yield is more
useful and valuable than a chemical process with lower yield.
The percentage yield is given by the following:
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
Percentage yield = × 100%
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

An experiment was carried out to prepare copper (II) sulphate crystals by reacting
copper (II) oxide with dilute sulphuric acid.
It was found that 5 g of copper (II) oxide had completely reacted with the acid.
12.5 g of hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4. The equation of the reaction
is: CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O
Calculate the percentage yield of the copper (II) sulphate.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈) 𝟓
Number of moles of copper(II)oxide = Moles = = = 0.0625 mol
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟖𝟎

From the equation, 1 mol of CuO produces 1 mol of CUSO4 .5H2O (with water of
crystallization) therefore, 0.0625 mol of CuO will produce 0.0625 mol of CUSO4 .5H2O
Mass of CUSO4 .5H2O produced = 0.0625 mol × 250 g/mol
= 15.6 g (theoretical mass)
Actual mass of CUSO4 .5H2O obtained = 12.5 g

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

Percentage yield = × 100%
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

𝟏𝟐.𝟓
Percentage yield = × 100%
𝟏𝟓.𝟔

= 80.1%

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE PURITY

Percentage purity is the percentage of a pure compound in an impure sample.
The percentage purity is given by the following equation:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆
Percentage (%) purity = × 100%
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆

A 150.0 g sample of copper ore contains 90.2 g of pure copper. Calculate the
percentage purity.

𝟖𝟕.𝟑
Percentage (%) purity = × 100 = 58.2%
𝟏𝟓𝟎.𝟎

189
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Excess zinc metal is added to 200 cm3 of 0.500 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid to form zinc
ethanoate (CH3COO)2 Zn and hydrogen gas.
The equation of the reaction is:
Zn (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) (CH3COO)2 Zn (aq) + H2 (g)
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 200 cm3 of 0.500 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(b) Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen gas, H2, that are produced from
the reaction.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Use your answer above to calculate the volume of hydrogen produced from
the reaction at room temperature and pressure. [ volume of 1 mole of gas at
r.t.p. = 24 dm3]

Volume = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(d) A gas is produced when dilute ethanoic acid reacts with zinc.
State one observation that will be made.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(e) The experiment was repeated using dilute hydrochloric acid of the same
concentration.
State and explain the difference that will be made on the observation
between the two reactions.
Difference …………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
Explanation ………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..………………. [2]

190
2. Excess copper (ll) carbonate is added to 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
The equation of the reaction is:
CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CuCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(a) Explain why the carbonate should be in excess.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Calculate the number of moles in 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Use your answer above to calculate the number of moles of copper (ll)
carbonate that will react with the acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(d) Calculate
(vii) The relative molecular mass of copper (ll) carbonate.

Mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(viii) The mass of copper (ll) carbonate that will react with the acid

Mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

3. In an experiment, 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid was reacted with
excess zinc powder.
The equation of the reaction is:
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 HCl.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(b) Use the equation and your answer above to calculate the number of moles of
zinc that reacted with the acid.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Calculate the mass of zinc that reacted with the acid.

Mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(d) Calculate the volume of hydrogen measured at room temperature and pressure

Volume = …………………………..…….……… [2]

191
4. 21.2 g of sodium carbonate was dissolved in water and the solution was made up
to 500 cm3. The equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate with dilute sulphuric
acid is shown.
The equation of the reaction is:
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
(a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of sodium carbonate.

Molecular mass = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(b) Calculate the number of moles in 21.2 g of sodium carbonate.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Use your answer above to calculate the concentration of sodium carbonate
solution.

Concentration = ………………………….mol/dm3 [2]

(d) (i) Use your answer in (c) to determine the number of moles of carbon
dioxide produced when excess dilute sulphuric acid I added to the 500
cm3 of sodium carbonate solution.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [1]

ii. Use your answer above to calculate the volume of carbon dioxide
produced measure at room temperature and pressure. (1 mole of any
gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.)

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [1]

5. The iron (III) oxide Fe2O3, is reduced to iron, Fe, as shown by the equation.
Fe2O3 (s) + …….CO (g) ……..Fe (l) + ……CO2 (g)
(a) Balance the equation by writing numbers in the spaces provided. [1]
(b) Copper (I) oxide, Cu2O, can also be reduced using carbon monoxide as
shown by the equation.
Cu2O + CO 2Cu + CO2
In an experiment, 28.8 g of copper (I) oxide was completely reduced to copper.
i. Calculate the relative molecular mass of copper (I) oxide, Cu2O.

Relative molecular mass =…..…….…… [2]

192
 ii. Calculate the number of moles in 28.8 g of copper (I) oxide.

Moles =…..…….…… [2]

iii. Calculate the number of moles of copper produced.

Moles =…..…….…… [2]

iv. Calculate the mass of copper produced.

Mass =…..…….…… [2]

v. Calculate the volume of carbon monoxide, CO, measured at room
temperature and pressure (r.t.p) needed to completely reduce 28.8 g of
copper (I) oxide. [1 mole of gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p]

Volume =…..…….…… [2]

6. The equation of the reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid is shown
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(a) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
……………………………………………………………….…………………………..…….……… [2]
(b) In an experiment, lumps of calcium carbonate were added in excess to
100 cm3 of 0.10 mol /dm3 hydrochloric acid.
(i) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid in 100cm3 of 0.10
mol /dm3.

Number of moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(ii) Use your answer above and the equation to calculate the number of
moles of carbon dioxide produced.

Number of moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(iii) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced at room temperature
and pressure. (rtp)

Volume = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(c) Suggest two ways of increasing the rate of this reaction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

193
7. In an experiment, 120 cm3 of methane, measured at room temperature and
pressure, was burnt in excess oxygen. The equation for the reaction is
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 120 cm3 of methane.
(1 mole of gas occupies 24 000cm3.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [2]

(b) Use your answer above and the equation to calculate the number of moles of
oxygen that reacted.

Moles = …………………………..…….……… [1]

(c) Calculate the volume of oxygen, measured at room temperature and pressure
that reacted with 120 cm3 of methane.

Volume = …………………………..…….………cm3 [1]

8. During the electrolysis, 0.025 g of hydrogen gas was produced at the cathode.
(a) Calculate the number of moles in 0.025 g of hydrogen gas.

Moles of gas = ………………….……… [2]

(b) Use your answer above to calculate the volume of the hydrogen gas produced
at room temperature and pressure. 1 mole of gas = 24 dm3.

Volume of gas = ……………….……… [2]

(c) Calculate the volume of oxygen, measured at room temperature and pressure
that reacted with 120 cm3 of methane.

Volume = …………………………..…….………cm3 [1]

194
 METALS AND NON - METALS

METALS
The Periodic Table in page shows that there are about 90 naturally occurring elements;
these elements are arranged in groups such that all elements to the left of zigzag line
are metals and those to the right are non – metals. Metals are amongst our
important resources. They are obtained from rocks called ores. Metals and non –
metals have different properties.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The physical properties of the metal depend on the way atoms are arranged together
in the crystals of the metal and on the size of the metal crystal.
Metal atoms are held strongly together by what are called metallic bonds. (See the
figure below) The outer electrons of each metal atom in the crystal can move freely
between atoms. This means that the metal is made of rows of positive ions surrounded
by a ‘sea’ of moving electrons. This ‘sea’ of (negative) electrons attracts positive ions
strongly together.

The metallic bond explains a number of properties of metals.

 Melting and Boiling Points
If a substance has a high melting point, it means a lot of energy is needed to
pull particles of the substance apart. Metal atoms are held strongly together
with electrostatic forces between the positive ions and the mobile sea of
electrons. This means that a lot of energy is needed to pull the ions apart and
so metals has high meting and boiling points.
 Electrical Conductivity
Electrons moving through the metal cause an electric current in a metal. This
happens because the outer electrons in the metal atoms easily become
detached from the atoms. These electrons can then move away from negative
terminal in a circuit and towards the positive terminal.
 Conductivity of Heat
Heat is quickly conducted through a solid when particles are close together.
This allows the kinetic energy in a vibrating particle to be passed on to the next
particle easily when the two hit each other. In a metal, the moving electrons
can transfer this energy and so metals are the best solid conductors of heat.

195
  Density
Because the metal atoms are held together very strongly, the atoms are packed
close together and so metals have high density.
 Malleability and Ductility
Metals and malleable and ductile; they can be hammered and rolled into shape
– malleable and they can be stretched into wire – ductile.
When a metal is hammered, I does not crush, it just deforms. The layers of
atoms do not move apart, they slide over each other as shown in the diagram
below. After they have moved, the closely packed structure still remains. This
is what happens when a metal is pulled into a wire.
It is much easier to hammer a metal when hot than when cold. When hot, the
particles have more kinetic energy and are vibrating faster and further away
from each other.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The chemical properties of metals depend on the arrangement of the electrons in the
metal atoms.

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH AIR (O XYGEN)

As soon as group 1 metals such as Sodium are exposed to air, their shinny surfaces
start to dull. This is because the Sodium in this case reacts with oxygen in air forming
white sodium oxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide
2Na (s) + O2 (g) Na2O (s)
Other metals like aluminium react more slowly. A shiny aluminium pencil sharpener
may take several weeks before it goes dull with the formation of white aluminium
oxide.
Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide
4Al (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Al2O3 (s)

Unreactive metals, like copper, take months or even years before they become darker
with the formation of a thin layer of black copper oxide.
Copper + Oxygen Copper oxide
2Cu (s) + O2 (g) 2CuO (s)
We can summarize these reactions of metals with oxygen as:

Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

196
Very unreactive metals, like gold, do not react with air or oxygen and they remain
permanently shiny.
From these observations and from experiments in which metals are heated in air or
pure oxygen, it is possible to put metals in an order of reactivity. This order of reactivity
is called the reactivity series. Metals at the bottom of the series, like silver and gold,
are the least reactive.
The reactivity series can be used to predict and summarise other reactions of metals
as well as their reaction with oxygen. As expected, reactive metals like sodium also
react vigorously with other non – metals such as chlorine and sulphur to from their
compounds. Unreactive metals like gold have a little desire to react with non metals
and tend to remain uncombined.

The reactivity series of a metal depend on the ease with which it forms metal ions.
The higher a metal is placed in the reactivity series, the more easily it forms metal ios
and the more reactive the metal is.

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH WATER OR STEAM

Some metals react chemically with water. When this occurs, a metal oxide or hydroxide
is formed and hydrogen gas is liberated.

Metal + Water Metal oxide / hydroxide

The equation below shows what happens when a small piece of metal (potassium) is
dropped in a beaker of water at room temperature.
Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) 2KOH (s) + H2 (g)

197
Zinc and iron do not react with water but they do react with steam. The figure below
shows the apparatus suitable for investigating the reaction of a metal with steam.
Copper does not react with steam.

Zinc + Water (steam) Zinc Oxide + Hydrogen

Zn (s) + H2O (l) ZnO (s) + H2 (g)

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH DILUTE ACIDS

The reactions of metals with acids is covered under the topic ‘Acids, Bases and Salts’
in page 165.
The general equation of metals and water is shown below;

Metal + dilute acid Metal salt + Hydrogen gas

Lithium + Sulphuric acid Lithium sulphate + Hydrogen

2Li (s) + H2SO4 (aq) Li2SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
Metals above copper in the reactivity series react with acids to form salt and hydrogen.
In each case, the metal displaces hydrogen from the acid.
When zinc is placed in copper sulphate solution, the zinc becomes coated with red-
brown copper. At the same time, the blue colour of the solution fades.
Zinc + Copper Sulphate Zinc sulphate + Copper
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
In this reaction, copper ions have been displaced from the solution as copper atoms.
The copper atoms have been deposited on the zinc ions from the zinc metal have
replaced the copper ions in solution.

ALUMINIUM AND THE REACTIVITY SERIES

The usefulness of the reactivity series lies in the fact that it can be used to predict the
chemical behavior of a metal if we know its position in the series. For example;
chromium occupies a position between zinc and iron in the series. This means that
chromium will react with dilute acids and steam to liberate hydrogen gas.

198
However, a few metals do not behave in the way we expect, for example, aluminium
does not appear to react with dilute acids even though it is above hydrogen in the
reactivity series.
The reason for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium is that the metal reacts readily
with oxygen in air to form aluminium oxide (Al2O3). As a result, the metal is always
covered with a thin layer of oxide which protects it from the attack of the acid. If the
layer is removed with sandpaper, aluminium will react with acids to produce hydrogen
gas.

THE EXTRACTION OF METALS

Only a small number of unreactive metals, such as silver, gold and platinum, occur
freely in nature as uncombined elements. Most metals react with other elements to
form ores. The extraction of the metal from is ore generally involves three major
stages;
 Mining and concentrating the ore
 Reducing the ore to the metal
 Purifying the metal

MINING AND CONCENTRATING THE O RE

An ore is a compound of the metal mixed with large amounts of impurities. The ore
is mixed with soil, rocks and other impurities from which it must be separated.

THE EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM IRON ORE (HAEMATITE)

The main ore of iron is Haematite. It contains iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) mixed with sand
and clay. Iron is extracted from Haematite in a tall reaction chamber called a blast
furnace shown below.

199
 1. Iron ore, coke (carbon) and limestone are added at the top of the furnace.
2. Blasts of hot air are blown in through small holes near the bottom.
3. Oxygen in the blasts of air reacts with coke to form carbon monoxide.

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon monoxide

2C + O2 2CO

This reaction is very exothermic and the temperature in the furnace increases.
4. As the carbon monoxide rises up the furnace, it reacts with iron ore (iron (iii)
oxide) and reduces it to iron.

Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide

Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

WHY IS LIMESTONE U SED IN THE FURNACE

Iron ore usually contains impurities such as sand (silicon dioxide, SiO2). Limestone
(calcium carbonate) is used in the reaction to get rid of these impurities. The limestone
decomposes at the high temperatures inside the furnace to form calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.
Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

The calcium oxide then reacts with sand and other substances in the impurities to form
slag (calcium silicate) by reacting with sand (silicon impurities) in the ore forming a
liquid slag.
Iron Oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

Slag is less dense and it therefore floats on top of iron. The molten iron and slag form
two different layers at the bottom of the blast furnace. The molten iron can then flow
out of the furnace at bottom.

METALS AND ALLOYS

Pure metals have many useful properties but not widely used – this is because they
are often too soft and have low resistance to corrosion. Most metallic substances used
in everyday lives are alloys.

ALLOYS
An alloy is a mixture of metals or of metals and non-metals. For example; solder is an
alloy of tin and lead, and bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
Some alloys contain carbon, a non-metal e.g. steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and other
metals.

200
Alloys are made by mixing the molten elements (metals or carbon) in the right
proportions and then allowing them to solidify. The alloys produced have some useful
physical properties than the pure metals. The main reasons for alloying are;
 To improve the strength and hardness of the metal e.g. brass (copper and
zinc) is harder and stronger than copper or zinc.
 To improve resistance of metals against corrosion e.g. stainless steel (iron,
chromium, nickel and carbon) is very resistant to rusting.
 To improve appearance of the metal.
 To lower the melting point of the metal e.g. solder (tin and lead) has a lower
melting point than pure tin and lead and can be used to join metals.

THE USES OF METALS

Metals are among the first elements to be used by humans. They are just as important
today in many aspects of our lives.
The choice and uses of metals depend on three main factors:
 Their physical properties (density, strength, electrical and conductivity, melting
point.
 Their chemical properties such as resistance to corrosion
 The cost of production.

THE USES OF IRON

The iron produced in blast furnace is called “pig iron” or cast iron. Cast iron contains
a number of impurities and is very brittle and hence has very limited uses. Most of the
cast iron produced is converted into steel.

What is Steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Although there are many different types of steel,
it is convenient to group them under two categories; carbon steel and alloy steel.

How is Steel Made From Iron?

The chemistry of steel-making involves oxidation, followed by alloying. The impurities
are removed from the cast iron by blowing in pure oxygen (oxidation) Carbon and
small amounts of other metals are then added to produce steels with special
properties.

THE USES OF OTHER METALS

METAL USES SPECIAL PROPERTIES
Mild steel Car bodies Hard, strong and malleable
Stainless steel Chemical plant and cutlery Corrosion resistant
Aluminium Aircraft manufacture Strong and low density
food containers Resistant to corrosion
Zinc Galvanizing iron Protection from rusting
brass making (with copper) Does not corrode
Copper Electrical wiring Good electrical conductor

201
 NON – METALS
PROPERTIES OF NON - METALS
The following are general properties of non-metals. They:
 Are brittle
 Have low melting and boiling points
 Are poor conductors of heat and electricity
 Can be found in solids, liquids or gases at room temperature.

PREPARATION OF CHLORINE (Cl2)

Chlorine is produced from concentrated hydrochloric acid using a powerful oxidizing
agent. Two common oxidizing agents used are Manganese (IV) oxide (Manganese
dioxide) and Potassium manganate (VII), (KMnO4) these oxidizes the hydrochloric
acid.

2KMnO4(s) + 6HCl(aq) 5Cl(g) + 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O(l)

The gas is bubbled through water to remove (dissolve) hydrogen chloride gas. The
gas is then dried by bubbling through concentrated sulphuric acid, or passing
through a solid drying agent such as anhydrous calcium chloride or silica.
Chlorine is a dense, green gas, and it can be seen to fill the gas jar from the bottom,
displacing the air upwards. It is easy to see when the jar is full. A strong chocking
smell also be detected can be detected.

TEST FOR CHLORINE

Chlorine bleaches moist (damp/wet) litmus paper.
BLEACHING ACTION / POWER OF CHLORINE
Chlorine reacts with the water on the paper to form hydrochloric acid and
hypochlorous acid.
Cl2 (g) +H2O (l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

The Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus paper red.

The HClO(aq) bleaches the paper by decomposing to liberate (produce) oxygen,
which oxidizes the paper, thus bleaching it.
2HClO(aq) 2HCl(aq) + O2(g)

202
USES OF CHLORINE
 Sterilizing water - kills harmful bacteria
 Manufacture of plastics, e.g. PVC
 Making domestic bleaches - e.g. Jik, Dettol
 Manufacture of solvents - e.g. trichloroethane

PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE
 Chlorine is a pale-green gas with a choking smell.
 Chlorine is denser than air.
 Reaction with metals, - chlorine reacts with most metals to form chloride salts.
 Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent as it readily takes electrons to form
chloride ions.
 Chlorine bleaches coloured materials.

THE MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE FROM SODIUM CHLORIDE

Chlorine is manufactured from concentrated sodium chloride (Brine) by electrolysis.
The sodium chloride is obtained from sea-water and salt pans (e.g. Sua pan,
Makgadikgadi salt pans). At Sua Pan in Botswana, the salt is obtained by evaporation
of salty water. Sodium chloride salt is a very important source for chlorine, sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen

CARBON AND CARBONATES

CARBONATES
USES OF SODIUM CARBONATE USES OF CALCIUM CARBONATE
Used in the manufacture of Uses of calcium carbonate are;
• Soaps • Manufacture of glass
• Detergents and textiles • Manufacture of cement
• Dyes • Manufacture of lime (calcium oxide
• Drugs and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
• Glass • Extraction of iron in the Blast furnace
• Brine treatment „
• Water purification • Removal of sulphur from exhaust
gases of coal-burning power stations
• Road building
• Manufacture of sodium carbonate

203
CARBON
The element carbon exists in two major different forms in solid state. These two forms
are called allotropes of carbon.
Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the same state.
The two allotropes of carbon are diamond and graphite. These tow allotropes of
carbon differ in their structures. The carbon atoms are bonded differently in diamond
and graphite as shown in the table below.

DIAMOND GRAPHITE
STRUCTURE

PROPERTIES  Very hard  Soft and brittle

 Good conductor of heat  Good conductor of heat
 Does not conduct electricity  Good conductor of electricity
 Transparent, colourless  Dark black opaque and shinny
crystal solid
USES  Makes jewellery  Pencil lead
 Makes drill bits  Batteries
 Saw blades  Brake linings
 Grinding wheels  Lubricants
 Electrical conductor

NITROGEN (N2)
Properties
 Colorless
 Odorless
 Slightly soluble in water
 Unreactive compared with oxygen
 Combine with oxygen at high temperature to form nitrogen oxides
Uses
 Solvent
 Manufacture of fertilizers
 Manufacture of nitric acid
 Used in bleaches and explosives
 To flush out food packaging and keep food fresh (since it is quite unreactive)
 To quick freeze food, freeze liquid in damaged pipes, and shrink-fit machine
parts (since liquid nitrogen is very cold)
 Used in Haber process to make ammonia. Nitrogen is obtained from air
(fractional distillation of liquid air) while hydrogen is obtained from reacting
methane (natural gas), CH4 with steam over catalyst.

204
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Over 50 million tonnes of chlorine are produced in the world each year. It is made
by the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride.
(a) Name two sources of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) Describe the test for chlorine gas.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..………………………………………………………………. [2]
(c) Chlorine has many industrial uses.
(i) Why is chlorine added to drinking water?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Name one organic product of the reaction between methane and
chlorine.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Diamond is a form of a carbon.
a. Name another form of carbon.
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
b. What term is used to describe these forms of carbon?
………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
c. Sate one use of any two forms of carbon.
…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………. [2]
3. When a damp blue litmus paper is placed in chlorine gas, it changes colour to red
and is then bleached.
Explain the colour changes observed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….……………………………. [3]
4. Nitrogen is used for making ammonia in the Harber process.
(a) Suggest a reason why oxygen should be removed from nitrogen in air before
the nitrogen is used.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) (i) Name one acidic oxide of nitrogen formed in car engines.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) What is the purpose of a catalytic converter in a car exhaust system.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

205
5. The figure shows a blast furnace used in the extraction of iron.

a. (i) Name substance W.

………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
ii. At which position, X or Y, is molten iron removed?
……....………………………………………………………………………………....
Give a reason for your answer.
…..……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
iii. Name the ore that contains the iron (lll) oxide.
……....……………………………………………………………………………….... [1]
iv. At which position, X or Y, is molten iron removed?
……....………………………………………………………………………………....
b. A sample of the oxide of iron in the iron ore was analyzed and found to
contain 8.4 g of the iron and 3.6 g of oxygen.
Show, by calculation, that the formula of the oxide contained in the ore is
Fe2O3.

[3]
c. In the blast furnace, there is complete combustion and incomplete
combustion of some substances.
Write a balanced equation for the incomplete combustion of one of the
substances in the blast furnace.
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
d. Write the name of one of the components of exhaust gases.
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
e. Why is limestone added into the furnace?
……………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]

206
 f. The iron produced from the blast furnace can be turned into alloys like
steel.
(i) What is an alloy?
…………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
(ii) Describe how iron from the blast furnace is turned into steel.
………………….…………………..………………………………..……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(iii) Explain why pure iron is not used for making kitchen utensils.
………………….…………………..………………………………..……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

6. The figure shows the laboratory preparation of chlorine.

a. (i) Name the solid labeled X.

………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
(ii) What is the purpose of the water in the test tube?
………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
b. What is the colour of chlorine gas?
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………. [1]
c. Chlorine reacts with water as shown by the equation.

(i) Name the two products for the reaction.

………………………………………… and ………………..………………………. [2]
(iii) One of the products is a bleaching agent. Write the formula of this
product.
………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]
d. (i) What property of chlorine enables it to be collected as shown?
………………………………………………………..……………………………………. [1]
(ii) Explain why chlorine cannot be collected over water.
………………………………………………………………..……………………………. [1]

207
 e. Chlorine reacts with aqueous potassium bromine as shown by the equation.

(i) Balance the equation and write the state symbols. [2]
(ii) Chlorine is said to be more reactive than bromine.
Explain how this is confirmed by the reaction.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
7. The diagrams below show two different forms of carbon..

(a) Identify the two forms of carbon shown.

P ………………………………………… Q ……………………………………………… [2]
(b) What do the two forms have in common?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(c) Complete the table below relating the properties of the two forms of carbon and
their uses.
Property Use

Q Good conductor of
electricity
[3]

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8. The figure below shows apparatus used by Mpho to prepare a dry gas.

(a) Name gas Y.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name a suitable solid used for drying gas Y.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) There is an error in Mpho’s method of collection.
(i) What is the error?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) How can the gas be collected?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Name the salt formed in a conical flask.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e) Name any other two substances that can be reacted together to produce Y.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(a) What is the other product of this reaction?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between nitrogen and gas Y.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

209
 CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT

WATER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Boils at 100ºC and melts at 0ºC at sea level.
 Freezes at 0°C at sea level
 Density of 1 g/cm3
 Colourless, odourless and tasteless
 A good solvent especially of ionic compounds
 Neutral pH

TEST FOR WATER

Test 1: - Insert anhydrous blue cobalt chloride paper into the liquid under test.
Positive Results: - Hydrated cobalt Chloride paper turns pink if water is present

Test 2: - Add the liquid under test to white anhydrous copper sulphate (CuSO4)
Positive Results: - Hydrated copper sulphate (CuSO4) turns blue.

Note: these tests are for the presence of water. To test for purity of water, the boiling
points and the freezing points, and density are determined.

EXISTENCE OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

Some salts contain water molecules chemically combined to them. Such salts are called
hydrated salts and the water they contain is called water of crystallization.
Examples of hydrated salts are CuSO4.5H2O and CaCI2.6H2O. When salts lose water of
crystallization they become anhydrous salts.

HARDNESS OF WATER
Hard water is water that contains dissolved hydrogen carbonates and sulphates of
mainly calcium and magnesium. Hard water does not form lather easily, instead it
forms scum.

FORMATION OF HARDNESS IN WATER

Water containing magnesium ions Mg2+, Calcium ions Ca2+ and sulphate ions SO42- is
said to be hard.
Rain water reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid.
Water + Carbon dioxide Carbonic acid
H2O + CO2 H2CO3

210
The carbonic acid formed then reacts with calcium carbonate (limestone) and
magnesium carbonate (dolomite) from rocks to form calcium hydrogen
carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3 + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2

Calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate are soluble
in water and cause hardness in water.
Some other salts that cause hardness in water are calcium sulphate (CaSO4), and
magnesium sulphate (MgSO4)
Hardness in water can be temporary or permanent.
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling. It is caused by the presence of
dissolved calcium hydrogen carbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling. It is caused by the presence of
dissolved calcium sulphate or magnesium sulphate (or calcium chloride or magnesium
chloride.)
When water containing these dissolved substances is evaporated, a white solid deposit
is left behind. These deposits are calcium sulphate or magnesium sulphate or calcium
carbonate.
Calcium carbonate causes fur (white scales) in kettles and pots. This can be removed
by a dilute acid (nitric acid). Fur can cause blockages in hot-water pies.

MEASUREMENT OF HARDNESS OF WATER (Effects of Soap)

Soap does not lather (form froth – lefulo) easily with hard water. Instead it forms a
white precipitate called scum.
 The thickness (amount) of layer of scum measures the degree of hardness in
water.
 Same amount of soap can also be added to equal volumes of samples of water
and shaken.
The amount of soap used to just produce lather can be used to estimate the
hardness in water.

SOFTENING HARD WATER

 Physical Process
Boiling: - temporary hardness of water is easily removed by boiling. When
water is heated, the hydrogen carbonate decompose, producing insoluble
calcium carbonate (or magnesium carbonate) that settles at the bottom as a
white deposit, to form fur or white oxide.
Boiling does not decompose permanent hard water. Permanent hard water
contains calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate that are not affected by
heating.
Distillation: - water is heated to distill from dissolved substances. The water
vapour is cooled and condensed to give pure water.
This method works for both temporary and permanent hardness.

211
  Chemical Process
The processes below removes both permanent and temporary hardness.
Addition of Washing Soda
Washing soda and bath salts contain sodium carbonate. The calcium or
magnesium ions react with the carbonate ion to form a precipitate, and thus
no longer cause hardness. (Hardness is caused by dissolved substances)
Ion Exchange:
The water is passed through a container filled with a substance called an ion
exchange resin. The resin contains sodium ions that are exchanged for calcium
or magnesium ions as hard water passes through the column. Sodium ions do
not cause hardness of water, thus the water becomes ‘soft.’

HOW A DETERGENT WORKS

A detergent is a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt
to make them more soluble.
Soaps and detergents are used to remove grease from dishes or clothes.
A detergent or soap consists of two parts:
 A long hydrocarbon chain (tail), which is hydrophobic (water hating) – Organics
are insoluble in water.
 An ionic head, which is hydrophilic (water loving). Ionic compound dissolve in
water.

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WATER POLLUTION
The main causes of water pollution are wastes from;
 Industry
 Sewage
 Agriculture
 Oil
The water is polluted by dissolved substances and accumulation of toxic substances.
A serious form of pollution occurs when pollutants contain soluble impurities such as
nitrates, NO3- and phosphorous, PO43-. Many of these come from excess fertilizers.
These are plant and encourage the growth of small green plants called algae. The
algae eventually die and rot. When rotting, (decaying) take place, bacteria are involved
which uses up a lot of oxygen in water. The bacteria multiply and the increased
bacterial activity consumes much of the oxygen. The need of high oxygen is called
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
Dead plant materials have a high BOD. This means that low levels of oxygen will affect
all other forms of life in water e.g. fish may die.
This type of pollution by fertilizers and nutrients is called eutrophication.
Pollutants like pesticides enter water bodies at low amounts. With time, the pesticides
accumulate in water and its toxic levels increases.

Effects of Detergents
Some detergents that are used to clean clothes are non-biodegradable (do not rot).
This means they are not broken down by the action of oxygen and bacteria into
harmless substances. These detergents also pollute the water for many years. They
are harmful to plants and small animals.

AIR
Air is mixture of gases. The table below shows the composition of clean air by
percentage.
Component Percentage (%) composition
Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Other gases 0.97

SEPARATION OF GASES IN AIR

The gases that make up air are separated by fractional distillation. The air is first cooled
to remove water vapour and carbon dioxide as solids. If not removed, they can block
pipes as they solidify when air is further cooled in the process.
The remaining gases are then converted to the liquid state through compression and
cooling. Compression pushes the gas molecules closer together while cooling reduces
the kinetic energy of the particles thereby converting air to the liquid state.

213
The liquefied gases are then taken into the fractionating column where they are
fractionally distilled. The gases are separated according to their boiling points.

USES OF OXYGEN
 In life support machines in hospitals to help patients with breathing difficulties.
 Mixed with helium gas for divers under water.
 By astronauts in space.
 For burning fuel in rockets
 Mixed with acetylene to burn with hot flame for welding
 Used in manufacture of steel.

THE OZONE LAYER

Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen. It forms a layer surrounding the Earth and blocks
ultraviolent (UV) light coming from the sun from reaching the earth. This ultraviolent
radiation is harmful and can cause skin cancer in people and damage food crops. Thus
the ozone layer protects us and plants from this radiation.

CARBON DIOXIDE
Effects of increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere – The Green
House Effect
Air contains a small amount of carbon dioxide (0.03%). This atmospheric carbon
dioxide is important for photosynthesis. However, the amount of carbon dioxide in the
air is increasing drastically due to:
 Increased burning of fuels such as oils, gas and coal.
 Destruction of forests (deforestation) – vegetation helps to remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
The earth’s surface is heated by radiation from the sun. Carbon dioxide and water
vapour trap this heat radiation and prevent much of it from escaping back into space.
The greater the amount of heat that is trapped, and the hooter the Earth becomes.
That is, the Earth’s temperature goes up (Global warming) this is called the Green
House Effect.

RECYCLING
Some resources can be used more than once, this is called recycling. Recycling
ensures that all resources last longer and can also help reduce pollution.
Materials that can be recycled include water (sewage water), bottles, tins and paper.
The main reasons for recycling materials is to;
 conserve natural resources e.g. fossil fuels, water and trees
 reduce waste that must be disposed of
 reduce littering and pollution
 saves money reduce the amount of energy needed for manufacturing
Used paper can be recycled to make usable items such as egg tray and toilet paper.
This helps reduce tree cutting by paper making industries (paper is made from wood
pulp) recycling of paper also reduces soil erosion and maintains habitats for animals.

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COMMON POLLUTANTS OF THE AIR
The table below outlines the common pollutants and their sources in the air.
POLLUTANT SOURCE EFFECT CONTROL

Carbon 1. Car exhaust fumes Prevents blood from Fitting vehicles with
monoxide 2. Incomplete transporting oxygen catalytic converters
(CO) combustion of fuels around the body by to convert harmful
combining with gases to harmless
haemoglobin. gases.

Sulphur 1. Burning fossil fuels Cause acid rain which Desulphurization

dioxide (SO2) 2. Smelting sulphide damages limestone
ores buildings and kills
plants.

Oxides of Car exhaust fumes: Cause acid rain which Fitting vehicles with
Nitrogen oxygen and hydrogen damages limestone catalytic converters
combine under high buildings and kills
temperature and pressure plants.

Lead Car exhaust fumes: when Cause brain damage Use of unleaded
compounds leaded petrol burns especially children petrol

FOSSIL FUELS
Most of the energy used to cook, drive cars, and keep us warm comes from the fossil
fuels, oil, coal and natural gas.
Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of plants and animals that decayed millions
of years ago in the absence of air.
The vegetation that made the fossil fuels fell and died in the swampy area where there
was little oxygen. The lack of oxygen prevented the vegetation from decomposing
completely. Instead it was gradually compressed at the bottom of the swamps. Later,
more soils were deposited on top of the vegetation layer, and under the great
pressures of the layers above it gradually turned into coal.
Similarly, small fish died and their remains fell to the bottom. The same thing happens
to their remains but they changed into oil and gas and not coal.
Coal is mainly carbon but it also contains a lot of compounds of carbon. Crude oil
(petroleum) is a mixture of hydrocarbons – it contains the elements hydrogen and
carbon. Of the three fossil fuels, gas or natural gas means methane gas, CH4.

215
 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Equal volumes of water samples W, X and distilled water are tested for hardness
before and after boiling using a soap solution of the same concentration. The
results are shown in a table below.
Number of drops of soap solution needed to form
Sample lather
Before boiling After boiling
W 15 15
X 45 10
Distilled water 10 10

(a) State two physical properties of pure water.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….….. [2]
(b) State the type of hardness found in sample X. Give a reason for your answer.
Type ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Reason …………………………………………………………………………………………….[2]
(c) Suggest how hardness found in sample W can be removed.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d) Describe how the presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contributes
to the presence of harness in water.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
….……………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
2. Describe a positive chemical test for water.
Test ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
result …………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
9. A sample of water containing magnesium is hard.
a. Name this type of hardness.
………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
b. State the observation made when soap is shaken with hard water.
………………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
c. Give one method of removing this type of hardness of water
………………………………………………………………..…………………………………. [1]
3. Ozone, O3, is a form of oxygen. State the importance of the ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…....………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

216
4. The major source of energy of the world’s energy supply is fossil fuels. The
chemical energy stored in these fuels is converted to other forms of energy such
as heat and electrical energy. There has been a considerable increase in demand
for electrical energy in the last 50 years, and other energy sources for generating
electrical energy are now being investigated urgently.
a. (i) What is a fossil fuel
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name two fossil fuels in use at present.
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [2]
b. (i) Name two elements that are found in high proportions in fossil fuels.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) Write an equation for the complete combustion of each of the elements
stated above.
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Name another element found in fossil fuels that leads to the formation
of acidic rain
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………. [2]
c. Give one reason why urgent efforts are being made to find other sources
of energy as alternative to fossil fuels.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. State one source of energy, other than direct solar energy, which may be
used as an alternative to fossil fuels.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

217
 CARBON CHEMISTRY
A lot of things around us are made by people. Many of these things could not have
been made without the fossil fuels;
 Coal
 Petroleum (oil)
 Natural gas.
These fuels provide us with energy to drive the machines we use to make things. The
fuels are also the raw materials for many industries, particularly the plastic industry.
All these fuels contain a very special element, carbon.
Carbon is a very special element; it forms a million compounds and is able to form
very long chains including the branched chains.
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. Many of the substances
which it includes are obtained from living organisms. It also includes plastics and fibres.
- Many of our equipments such as footballs, golf balls and ropes are all made of
synthetic (man-made) organic chemicals.
- Many of the clothing we wear are composed of synthetic fibres such as nylon,
polyester and acrylic which are made by the chemical industry.
- Organic chemistry also includes all the foodstuffs, carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.
As we all know, crude oil is a complicated mixture of hydrocarbons. It must be refined
to make useful fuels and chemicals. The first step in refining is evaporating the crude
oil so that its vapours condense at different temperatures into the fractionating
column. This process is called fractional distillation.

218
The fractions with low boiling points are collected from the top of the fractionating
column and fractions with high boiling points are collected from the bottom of the
column. (See the figure on the previous page)
Carbon, like stated before, has so many compounds that it could be hopelessly
confusing to study them all separately. Fortunately, it is possible to group the
compounds into families, and to learn about families rather than about an individual
compound.

HYDROCARBON
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing the elements carbon and hydrogen only.
As stated above, hydrocarbons are grouped into several families which include the
Alkanes and Alkenes. These types of hydrocarbon form a homologous series.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is a group (family) of compounds which share similar structure
and general formula.
Characteristics of Homologous Series
 They have the same general formula.
 They have similar chemical properties.
 They can be prepared by similar methods.
 They show gradual change in physical properties.

ALKANES
Alkanes are hydrocarbons, which have the general formula;

CnH2n+2
The fossil fuels, natural gas and petroleum are the main sources of alkanes.
 All the names of alkanes end with -ane.
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons; this is because they contain only single
bonds between carbon atoms.
 Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds. They are only reactive in terms
of;
a. Burning
b. Substitution by halogens
a. Burning
All alkanes will burn in a plentiful supply of air to form carbon dioxide and
water.
Methane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H20

Butane + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water

2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H20

219
 b. Substitution Reactions
The only reaction of alkanes of importance other than burning is the
reaction with halogens. In this reaction one of the hydrogens in an alkane
is replaced by a halogen.
Light energy is required to make the reaction happen. Any of the hydrogens
can be replaced and the reaction can continue until all the hydrogens have
been replaced by the halogen and so a mixture of products is often
obtained.

The table below shows the structure of the first four alkanes.
Name Methane Ethane
Formula CH4 C2H6

Structure

Name Propane Butane

Formula C3H8 C4H10

Structure

220
BRANCHED CHAINS – ISOMERIZATION
Look at the structures of the alkanes in the previous page, the carbon atoms are
arranged in a single chain. Many alkanes, however, are branched chain compounds. A
pentane C5H12 molecule can be drawn in different structures or precisely three
structures as shown below but the molecular formula remains the same i.e. C5H12 :

Structure

Name Pentane 2 - methylbutane 2,2 dimethylpropane

These molecules, which have the same molecular formula but different structures are
called isomers.
Structural isomerism is very common in organic chemistry. The three isomers above
all have different names and different properties. The third isomer in the right has the
lowest boiling point. This is because it has the most compact or compressed structure
of the other two and therefore needs least energy to make the molecules escape.

221
ALKENES
Another homologous series of compounds is the alkenes. Alkenes have a general
formula

CnH2n

 All the names of alkenes end with - ene.

 All alkenes contain double bond between two carbon atoms ( C = C )
 Compounds containing double covalent bonds are said to be
unsaturated hydrocarbons. (The table below shows the structure of
some members of alkenes.)
Name Formula Structure Model

Ethene C2H4

Propene C3H6

Butene C4H8

 Alkenes are not as readily available as alkanes and so can be manufactured by a

process called cracking. The figure below shows the process of preparation of an
alkene (ethane) through cracking. Other small hydrocarbon molecules are made
the same way from larger alkane molecules.

222
Cracking splits large molecules into smaller ones. The large molecule may be decane,
C10H22. In this case the decane is vaporized and passed through a bed of catalyst -
that is why the process at times is termed catalytic cracking.
The products of this process are ethane, which can be used to make polythene and an
alkane, in this case an octane.
decane octane + ethane

C10H22 + C8H18 + C2H4

Cracking is important because:
 Large hydrocarbon molecules are broken into smaller ones to produce fuel for
cars.
 It is also a means of producing alkenes e.g. ethane which is useful in the
manufacture of ethanol and plastics such as poly (ethane).
When an alkene is reacted with aqueous bromine or potassium permanganate, they
become decolourised because of the presence of the double bond. These reactions are
two simple reactions are used to test for the presence of a double bond in some organic
substances.
 Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because of the double bond. Alkenes
undergo two types of chemical reactions; (You must know these reactions, they
are always tested in BGCSE exams!!)
a. Burning or combustion reactions
b. Addition reaction

a. Burning
Alkenes easily burn in a plentiful supply of air forming carbon dioxide and
water.
ethene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O

b. Addition Reactions of Alkenes

Alkenes undergo addition reaction reactions with: Bromine (Br2), Hydrogen
(H2) and Steam (H2O).
Addition reaction is a reaction in which a molecule adds to unsaturated hydrocarbon
by breaking a double bond.

223
  Addition of bromine
The reason why potassium permanganate and bromine water are decolourised
when they are added to alkenes is that they react with the double bond. The
bromine breaks the double bond, forming two extra single bonds to bromine
atoms as shown in the figure below.

C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2

This kind of reaction, in which a reagent like bromine adds on to double bond, is called
an additional reaction to a double bond.
 Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation)
One important addition reaction of alkenes is the addition of hydrogen. If you
compare the structure of alkenes and alkanes that have the same number of
carbon atoms, the difference is in the number of hydrogen atoms. It is
therefore possible to change an alkene to an alkane by adding hydrogen as in
the figure below.
C2H4 + H2 C2H6

 Addition of Water (steam) - hydration

Another important addition reaction of alkenes is the reaction with steam. Like
the reaction with hydrogen, a catalyst is used to speed this reaction up. The
product has the group of atoms – OH attached to one of the carbons that was
part of the double bond. This group of atoms is called the hydroxyl group
and organic compounds that contain this group are called alcohols.
This process is used in industry as one way of making the common alcohol
called ethanol (C2H5OH.)

C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH

224
Ethanol is the scientific name for alcohol – the chemical in wines and beers that causes
drunkenness.

ALCOHOLS / ALKANOLS
Alcohols are a series of compounds with a hydroxyl group (– OH) joined to a carbon
atom in a hydrocarbon chain. Below is the general formula of alcohols, where – OH is
the functional group.
CnH2n+1OH

The table below shows the structure of the first four alcohols.
Name Methanol Ethanol
Formula CH3OH C2H5OH
Boiling point 64°C 78°C

Structure

Name Propanol Butanol

Formula C3H7OH C4H9OH
Boiling point 97°C 117°C

Structure

Take notice from the table that as the number of Carbon (C) atom increases the boiling
point also increases

PREPARATION OF ALCOHOL - ETHANOL

Ethanol is the most important alcohol in the homologous series. It is the only alcohol
that can be consumed, other alcohols especially methanol is poisonous. Ethanol is
obtained by:
 Fermentation
 Catalytic addition of steam to ethene

Fermentation
Fermentation is the process whereby an enzyme is used to break down glucose in
sugar or starch into ethanol and carbon iodide. Fermentation is catalyzed by the
enzymes present in yeast.

225
Fermentation is a natural process carried out by organisms called yeasts. The process
is used in brewing and baking.
An ethanol can be made in the laboratory by adding together sugar and yeast to water
in a flask. A small amount of alcohol can be collected by distilling the fermentation
liquid. Carbon dioxide gas will be also be produced.

Addition of Steam to Ethene

This process of obtaining alcohol is done in the present of phosphoric acid catalyst.
The reaction is an addition reaction as illustrated by an equation below.

C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) C2H5OH (l)

PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
There are three (3) important reactions of alcohols, including ethanol, they are:
(a) Combustion/burning
(b) Oxidation
(c) Esterification

(a) Combustion
Similar to alkanes and alkenes, alcohols undergo combustion reactions with oxygen.
The complete reaction of alcohols produce carbon dioxide and water.
The reaction is highly exothermic, hence alcohols are also used as fuels.

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O

(g)
(b) Oxidation to Carboxylic Acids
Ethanol is oxidized by hot acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution into
ethanoic acid.
C2H5OH (l) + 2[O] (g) CH3COOH (l) + H2O (l)

During the reaction, potassium dichromate (VI) is reduced and the solution turns
from orange to green.

226
(c) Formation of Esters
Alcohol reacts with carboxylic acids in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid to
form organic compounds called esters.
For example, ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid to form an ester called ethyl
ethanoate.

C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH (l) CH3COOC2H5 (l) + H2O (l)

Ethanol ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate

Esters are sweet smelling liquids which can be used for making perfumes.

USES OF ALCOHOLS - ETHANOL

 As a constituent of alcoholic drinks such as wines and beers.
 As a solvent in paints, varnishes, liquid soap and other toiletries.
 As a fuel

CARBOXYLIC / ALKANOIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are organic compounds which contain the -COOH functional group.
This group of atoms is called the carboxyl functional group. Below is the general
formula of carboxylic acids;
CnH2n+1COOH

The first four carboxylic acids are shown in the table below.

Name Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid

Formula HCOOH CH3COOH

Structure

Name Propanoic acid Butanoic acid

Formula C2H5COOH C3H7COOH

Structure

PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID

 It is a colourless liquid with a strong sour smell.
 It mixes well in water and its aqueous solution is called vinegar.
 It reacts with alcohols to form sweet smelling compounds called esters.

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 MACROMOLECULES

Macromolecules are giant molecules that are formed when thousands of smaller units
of identical molecules are joined together.
This process of joining together smaller identical units into a large macromolecule
(polymer) is called polymerisation.

POLYMERISATION
In polymerization, small molecules containing double bonds join up to form a long
chain. During polymerization, small simple molecules called monomers link together
to form larger molecule called polymer.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Synthetic means man-made, – the polymers are made by man and not natural.
Polythene, Terylene and nylon are synthetic polymers.
There are two types of polymerization:
 Addition polymerisation
 Condensation polymerisation

ADDITION POLYMERISATION
Addition polymerisation is a process of adding one monomer to another to form a long
chain polymer. The monomers are unsaturated – they have C = C double bonds.
During the polymerisation reaction, the double bonds open up and form links with
adjacent molecules to form large molecule, a polymer.
When ethene is heated under high pressure, the double bonds break and the ethene
molecules join up to make a very long molecule with thousands of carbon atoms. The
results in the formation of poly (ethene) or polythene.

A poly (ethene) molecule can be represented by:

Poly (ethene) or polythene is the most widely used in making plastic objects or
materials such as plastic containers, buckets, plastic films, plastic bags and plastic
drinking bottles.

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Other examples of addition polymers are shown in the table below.
Monomer Polymer Repeat Unit Uses
To make plastic bags
and plates.

To make water
pipes, waterproof
sheets, electric
insulators.

To make plastic
ropes.

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY PLASTICS

Plastics are widely used because they are cheap and easy to make. They however
cause a huge pollution problem as they are non-biodegradable.
Biodegradable materials can be decomposed by bacteria while non-biodegradable
materials are not composed by air and bacteria.

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
In condensation polymerisation, every two monomers link together and a simple
molecule such as water is eliminated. The two monomers join alternately in the
polymer by a condensation reaction. Condensation polymers are made from monomers
containing alcohol, acid or amino functional group.
The polymers formed by condensation are called condensation polymers.

POLYAMIDES
One example of condensation polymerisation is the formation of nylon from its two
monomers – carboxylic acids and amines. For simplicity the two monomers are
represented by a rectangle and triangle with the functional groups attached to them.

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To write the equation of the polymerisation, we place the two monomers side by side
and then take away a water molecule from each pair of monomers as shown below.

Notice that the two monomers are joined to each other by a group of atoms:

These atoms form the amide linkage and nylon is therefore classified as a
polyamide. The nylon polymer chain may also be written as:

POLYESTERS
Terylene is another example of condensation polymer. It is made from two monomers
–carboxylic acids and an alcohol. The reaction is actually the formation of an ester,
hence Terylene is classified as a polyester.

The monomers are joined together by a group of atoms:

The group of atoms forms an ester linkage.

NATURAL POLYMERS
Natural polymers are not man-made, they occur naturally. They are natural
condensation polymers and many have the polyester or polyamide structures like
Terylene and nylon.

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POLYMERS IN FOOD
The main constituents of food are proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Proteins are natural polymers with a polyamide structures. They are made of about
twenty different monomers (called amino acids). These monomers are arranged in
different orders in different proteins and it is difference in this order that determines
the different properties of the protein.
The figure below shows the way in which amino acids are joined together in a protein;
the different shapes represent different amino acids. You will notice that the structure
of proteins possess the same linkage (amide) as nylon but with different units.

HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEINS
Proteins can be broken down into amino acids from which they are made. This process
is called hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis is the reverse of condensation. Condensation is the process in which two
compounds join together and water is produced as the only by-product.
Hydrolysis is the process in which a substance is broken down by heating it with water.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are substances that are made by plants. They contain the elements
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Examples of carbohydrates are sugars, starch and
cellulose. All these three substances have a similar structure.
During photosynthesis, plants make glucose – the glucose is then used by the plant to
make the starch and cellulose. Starch and cellulose are both condensation polymers
of glucose.
Saliva can be used in hydrolysis of starch. In the saliva, the salivary amylase (ptyalin)
catalyses the hydrolysis of starch to glucose. The amount of starch in the solution will
decrease until all the starch is hydrolysed and the iodine test will be negative.

HYDROLYSIS OF FATS AND OILS

A fat or an oil is hydrolysed by heating it with an alkali, it is then hydrolysed to glycerol
and the acid. The alkali will react with the acid forming a salt. These salts are soaps.

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 PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The figure below shows a fractionating column used to separate the fractions of
crude oil.

(e) At which point, P, Q and R, is the column at the lowest temperature?

…………..………………………….. [1]
(f) Which fraction on the diagram contains the largest hydrocarbon molecules?
……………………………………….. [1]
(g) Crude oil is a mixture of alkanes which is are saturated hydrocarbons.
What type of reactions do alkanes undergo?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
2. Ethanol and propanol are members of the same homologous series.
(a) What is a macromolecule?
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [2]
(b) Draw the structural formula of ethanol, showing all atoms and bonds.

[2]
3. The flow chart shows some of the stages involved in the production of ethane from
crude oil.

(a) What is process X?

………….………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Why is it possible to obtain petroleum by process X?
………….………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(c) Name one other product from crude oil treated by process X?
…………..………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

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4. Complete the table on organic compounds. The first one has been done for you.
Molecular formula Molecular structure Homologous series

CH4 Alkane

C3H6 Alkene

C4H10

[4]
(b) Ethene polymerises to form poly(ethene)
Explain why careless disposal of poly (ethene) causes pollution problems.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) An incomplete equation for the reaction of the compound C2H5OH and
oxygen is
…….C2H5OH….. + O2….. ….CO2…. +…. H2O…..
(i) Balance the equation and include the state symbols. [2]
(ii) State two uses of the compound C2H5OH.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..……………………………………………………………………. [2]
(d) Draw the other structural isomer of C4H10.

[1]
5. Ethane, C2H6, and ethene, C2H4, are hydrocarbons.
(a) State the name of a homologous series to which ethene belongs.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Name a compound with four carbon atoms which belong to the same
homologous series as ethene.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]

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 (c) Draw the structural formula of ethane.

[1]
(d) Describe a test that can be used to distinguish between ethane and ethene and
state the observation made.
Test ………………………………...........................................................................
Observation with ethane ……………………………………………………………………………
Observation with ethene ……………………………………………………………………… [3]
(e) Ethane can be produced from ethene in the presence of a catalyst at 180°C.
(i) State the name of the reaction that produces ethane from ethene.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Suggest a catalyst that can be used for the reaction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(f) Ethene reacts with hydrogen by an addition reaction.
(i) Explain why ethene undergoes an addition reaction instead of a
substitution.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State two conditions for this reaction and suggest a reason for each
condition.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..[2]
(g) Alkenes polymerise through addition reactions.
Complete the table below by using an example of a polymer of your choice.
Name of Structure of polymer chain Structure of monomer
polymer showing three monomer units

6. Ethanol and pentanol are members of the same homologous series.

a. State the name of a homologous series to which ethanol and pentanol belong.
………..………………………………..……………………………………………………………. [1]
b. State two characteristics of the homologous series to which ethanol and
pentanol belong.
………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
c. Draw the structural formula of butanol.

[1]

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14. (a) Ethanol can be produced from the addition reaction of steam with ethene.
(i) Write the equation for the reaction of ethene with steam. Include state
symbols.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(ii) State two conditions for the reaction above.
………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(iii) Name another method that can be used to prepare ethanol.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(b) Ethanol can also be made from glucose. Glucose is made by the hydrolysis
of a naturally occurring polymer.
(i) Give an example of a naturally polymer that can be hydrolysed of a
naturally occurring polymer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(ii) Describe how the polymer in (c) (i) is hydrolysed to glucose.
………..………………………………..…………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(iii) Describe how glucose can be converted into ethanol.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….……………………….. [1]
15. The structure of nylon, a synthetic macromolecule, is shown below.

a. What is a macromolecule?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
b. What name is given to the linkage found in nylon?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c. One of the monomers in the nylon molecule is an alkanoic acid.
i. Using symbols from the figure above, draw the structure of the
other monomer.

ii. What makes synthetic macromolecules harmful to the

environment?
…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. An alkanoic acid has the formula CH3COOH.
i. Name the acid. ……………………………………………………………. [1]

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 ii. Draw the structural formula of CH3COOH showing all bonds.

[2]
e. Complete the equation for the reaction between CH3COOH and
magnesium metal. Include state symbols.

……. CH3COOH (aq) + Mg (s) ………………. + …….. [2]

f. Write one similarity and one difference between the structures of nylon
and the protein.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
g. Name the type of compounds produced by the hydrolysis of proteins.
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
h. What are the products of the hydrolysis of fats?
………...……………………………… and ……………………………………………. [2]

16. Bio-petrol is an ester compound made from vegetable oil by the following reaction.

Suggest one advantage of using bio-fuel petrol as a fuel, compared with using
fuels made from crude oil.
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
a. To which homologous series does glycerol belong?
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. Deduce the empirical formula of glycerol.
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
c. (i) Draw the structural formula of methanol.

ii. Methanol is burned in oxygen in a closed furnace to produce energy.

Write a word equation for the reaction
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

236
 d. Ethyl ethanoate is also an ester compound. It is made by the reaction of two
organic compounds.
Name the two compounds.
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
17. Octane, C8H18, can be broken down to butane and butane as shown by the
equation.
C8H18 C4H10 + C4H8
a. (i) Name the process represented by the equation.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name the catalyst used in this process.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. Draw the structural formulae of two isomers of butane, C4H10.

[2]
c. Figures A and B below show set-ups used to perform an experiment to
distinguish between butane and butene gases.

(i) State the observations made in figure A and Figure B.

………...…………………………………………………………………..……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..…………. [2]
(ii) Explain the observations stated above in terms of structural differences
between the two gases.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

18. The structure of an organic compound X is

a. What is the molecular formula of compound X?

………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. What is the empirical formula of compound X?
………...………………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

237
 c. (i) To which homologous series does X belong?
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]

(ii) Name another compound that belongs to the same homologous series as
compound X.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
d. (i) Name two products formed when compound X burns completely in air.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
(ii) What other type of reaction can compound X undergo?
………...…………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
19. The figure shows how hydrocarbons can be cracked.

a. (i) Name the catalyst used in this process.

………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State a suitable temperature for the process to occur.
………...…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. Ethane, C2H6, can be converted to give ethene C2H4, and hydrogen, H2.
(i) Draw the molecular structure of ethane and ethene.
Show all the bonds between atoms.

[2]
(ii) What is the effect of bubbling ethane and ethene gases through bromine
solution?
Ethane ………...…………………..………………………………………………………………. [1]
Ethene ………...…………………..………………………………………………………………. [1]
c. Ethene can be polymerised to form poly(ethene)
State two uses of poly (ethene).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]

238
20. Study the flow chart shown.

(a) (i) What must be added to glucose to enable fermentation to take place?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(ii) State two conditions necessary for fermentation to occur.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(b) Write the names of substances R, S and gas Q
R ………………………………. S ……………………………… Q ………………………… [3]
(c) The equation shows the reaction between ethanol and ethanoic acid.

(i) Name the organic product for this reaction.

………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) State one physical property of the organic product named above.
………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Draw the structural formula of the organic product of the reaction.

[1]
(d) Equations S and R represent the preparation of ethanol, C2H5OH, from butane.

(i) Write the chemical formula of M.

………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(ii) Name the type of reaction S.
………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(iii) Name a homologous series to which CH3CH3 belongs
………………....………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
21. Dudu preared some alcohol by mixing yeast. Malt, sugar and warm water. The
mixture was left for 2 – 3 days.
(a) Name the substance added to speed up the reaction.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b) Name the process used to prepare the alcohol
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Write an equation to represent the reaction that took place.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

239