CHAPTER 19

EFFECTIVE STUDY SKILLS

Sarat Adenike Salihu

Introduction
Studying is one of the most important learning activities for students. As no
individual is an island of knowledge, there is a need to study in order to acquire the
desired knowledge. Ibrahim (2009) avers that “to study is to devote time and attention to
the acquisition of knowledge and competence on an academic subject” (p. 10). In other
words, studying is not reading for leisure. Studying transcends simply reading notes and
textbooks. It involves the acquisition of knowledge through conscientious efforts and
certain measures for particular academic purposes or achievements.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
(i) differentiate between reading for leisure and studying.
(ii) identify your purpose for studying and the kind of learner you are.
(iii) list three studying strategies.
(iv) state two factors that can impede effective study skills.

Main Content
Why do we Study?
Studying is done to achieve certain goals. It has to do with learning for a particular
purpose (Ibrahim 2009). The goal or purpose of studying usually determines the extent to
which studying is done. According to Open University Strategies Handbook (2007), there
are two (2) basic goals for studying; long-term and short-term goals.
Long-term goals: Long-term goals relate to career developments. This is the acquisition
of knowledge for different future endeavours. The knowledge acquired now has a
purpose for examinations, acquisition of qualifications and other future endeavours.
Short-term goals: This involves studying meant to serve an immediate purpose. These
include assignments, discussions and even competitions. These goals will help in guiding
the students to make necessary plans.
Effective Study Skills
Effective study strategies are very important for students to be able to acquire adequate
knowledge which would help them score better grades and prepare them for other future
endeavours. Over the years, there have been specific learning approaches proffered for
students as principles for an effective study.
Types of Study Strategies
Block (1986) cited in Ibrahim (2009) identifies various study strategies which can aid an
effective acquisition of knowledge.
These include:
Personal Motivation Strategy: This stipulates that a learner must have interest in
learning. The interest would help to overcome different challenges like boredom and
stress while reading. Content Anticipation: This involves the prediction of the next
content in any reading material in the process of reading.
Nature of the Material under Study: The kind of material a learner studies is very
important to the learner’s acquisition of knowledge. A good learner should be able to
identify and read current and relevant materials and not irrelevant and out-dated
materials.
The PQRST Strategy: The PQRST technique according to Robinson (1979) includes
Previewing the Material, Question Formula, Reading for Inferences, Summarising the
Processes and Testing and Assessment. In preview, the student scans through the
research materials in order to identify significant topics and points in the text. The student
thereafter generates questions from each of the sub-topics in the text. For instance, if the
sub-topic reads “Skills for Effective Study”, a likely question would be “What are the
skills for effective study?” This would enable a better understanding of the material.
Reading for inferences requires the student to do an intensive reading in order to
identify the answers to the previously generated questions. The student would then
summarise what has been read through note-taking, diagrams and maps. The last
stage involves general assessment of what has been read through providing
answers to the question without checking the materials used.
- Other measures identified by Block (1986) cited in Ibrahim (2009) include
Memorising Strategy, Outline Strategy, Summary Skill, Time Management, Note-
Making Strategy, Recognition of Texts structure, Paraphrasing Strategy and
Information Integration. The Open University Study Strategy handbook (2007)
identifies Active learning, Learning Skills, Reflections and Management of time and
space as important strategies which help to achieve an effective study. It can be
observed that many of these strategies overlap. They would therefore be categorised
into effective study habits, organisation skills, reading and comprehension skills and
learning styles.
- Effective Study Habits: A habit deals with repeated behavioural pattern which can
help to make or mar an individual. They can be good or bad habits. A good habit
generally helps an individual to achieve set out dreams while a bad habit can destroy
good efforts. It is important for a student to develop good reading habits. This will
positively enhance other study skills. These include developing a penchant for
reading, having positive attitude to learning, attending classes regularly, not having
prejudice about a teacher/lecturer/course, self-discipline and determination to
succeed, keeping good friends and getting rid of all sorts of distractions and avoiding
procrastinations.
Organisational Skills: Important organisation skills include identifying a specific
purpose, planning and prioritising, time and space management. The purpose for which
any activity is meant for is very important. It serves as a guide and also helps to sustain
an interest in it. As a student, you need to identify the purpose for which you are
studying; is it for assignment submissions? Is it for exams? Is it to acquire general
knowledge? These questions would help in making adequate plans. Planning and setting
priorities are important aspects of studying. Like the popular maxim, ‘if you fail to
plan, you plan to fail’, planning is required to avoid failure. A student is expected to
make necessary plans that would have positive effects on his/her knowledge
acquisition at the beginning of every semester. Every activity should be planned and
prioritised. There should be study plan which would involve, identifying all the courses
for the semester, the course content, study materials for the courses, and a time table for
reading. There should also be plans for break or rest; this would help create the necessary
balance for a mental wellbeing. Making plans will also help to avoid multitasking which
 could be tiresome and boring. Effective time and space management is also very
important in studying effectively. Once a plan has been made, this would make
managing time very easy. Each activity has a speculated time, therefore the goal
would be to complete each reading task at a specified time. Also, as a student, there is
the need to identify the best place that would help to achieve the desired knowledge.
Every individual has specific places for studying, however, it is advisable to get a venue
devoid of all forms of distractions.
Reading and Comprehension Skills: These are the most important skills for effective
study. A student can acquire knowledge if he/she reads and understand the content of the
materials read. Methods of reading and understanding texts include getting the necessary
reading materials, adequate concentration, adopting the PQRST method or the SQ3R
strategy. The SQ3R strategy includes surveying, having a general overview of the text;
Question, formulate necessary questions from the titles in the text; Read, intensive
reading to generate answers; Recite/Recall, read out loud or summarise what you have
read; and, Review, critically assess yourself, generate note and answer the questions
generated (Adegbija 1998). Another important method of reading and comprehension is
note-taking. It is important for students to take notes during classes or while reading.
This would make reading and understanding much easier. A student can have two
different note types; class notes and reading notes. Class notes are lecture notes taken by
students in order to make research easier while studying. A student is not expected to
quote the lecturer verbatim while taking the notes, there should be use of paraphrase,
shorthand, abbreviations, symbols and most importantly written in the student’s
expression.
Reading notes are notes taken by students while reading. This can come in the following
ways according to Harboe and Mullen (2007):

1. Margin notes and highlighted texts: These are notes recorded directly on the text.
Margin notes are written on the sides of the texts while points in the texts are highlighted
using pen markers or pencils. Highlighted notes can be in different categories depending
on the importance of the highlighted material. Wavy line can be used under vague words,
question marks against difficult expressions, bold line under keywords and important
concepts, vertical line against important sections and double vertical lines against
sections that are central to the text you are reading. This can only be done on books that
belong to you.
2. Mind maps: This is another note taking measure. It involves a graphic representation of
concepts and ideas that are interwoven in order to identify their connection. This can
come in different methods depending on a student’s inclination and the
interconnectedness of different concepts and keywords. See the example below:
 Sourced from Harboe and Mullen (2007) University of Copenhagen Study Skills

Learners Style of Learning: Learning styles according to Brown (2000) is the way in
which information is perceived and processed by an individual (cited in Gilakjani 2012).
Every individual has specific styles by which s/he can acquire knowledge. It is very
important to understand definite methods by which we approach learning. These methods
involve the use of our sensory organ. There are three different ways identified by
Gilakjani (2012):

1. Auditory Style: Auditory learners learn best by listening to lectures or recorded tapes or
reading out loud to themselves. Although reading out loud is usually regarded as a bad
studying habit which does not aid the in the comprehension of text items, however, it is
important to note that some learners find this method easy. Thus, it is important to learn
the best way possible in order to achieve the best. An auditory learner can have group
discussion with friends or read in places with subtle music at the background.
2. Visual Style: Visual learners learn through visual images and pictures. They can learn
through non-verbal parameters such as cue notes, flash cards, diagrams and charts. They
can easily remember what they have read through a mental picture.
3. Kinaesthetic Style: This is referred to as a ‘hands on’ approach. This type of learner
engages in active discussions, writing ideas on paper for easy analysis, or read through
materials while doing active work.

It should be noted that a learner is not restricted to only the above learning styles. An
individual can be multi-sensory, that is, a learner can be visual and kinaesthetic. Cottrell
(2013) notes that:
the more we use our senses of sight, hearing and touch, and the more we use
fine muscle movements in looking, speaking, writing, typing, drawing, or
moving the body, the more opportunities we give the brain to take in
information using our preferred sense (p. 4).

The most important thing is to identify what works best while studying.

Factors Impeding Effective Study Skills

There are several factors which hinder the acquisition and use of effective study skills which
thus prevents the acquisition of knowledge. Some of these factors as identified by Adegbija
(1999) and Cottrell (2003) cited in Ibrahim (2009) include:
1. Negative attitude to learning: A student must have a positive attitude to the acquisition
of knowledge. A negative attitude will prevent a student from generating the adequate
skills that can help in studying.
2. Time of Study: There should be proper time management which can be achieved through
the creation of a study time table. Time mismanagement can lead to failure.
3. Study Venue: A student needs to find a appropriate venue for studying. The venue
should include a suitable venue (for the student, not necessarily a library) with adequate
lightening and good reading table and chairs. The student must ensure that all reading
materials are available at the venue in order to avoid running around which would lead to
a waste of time. Also, wrong venues can lead to distractions.
4. Lack of Rest and Inadequate Sleep: It is important to have adequate rest or sleep. This
would ensure an effective studying. There is usually no reason to read all through the
night, to ‘pull an all-nighter’ as the students say. Once there is an effective study plan,
there will not be any need to stay awake through the night when you are supposed to be
sleeping.
5. Mental Instability: An effective study would not be achieved when a student is mentally
unstable. The mind should be cleared of all distracting thoughts while studying.

Summary
Studying is an art which needs to be mastered (Adegbija 1998). There are various
study strategies that can aid effective acquisition of knowledge and there are also various
factors that can impede effective study skills. In essence, the success of every learner
is determined by how well and how fast knowledge has been acquired. This can only be
achieved through having adequate and effective study skills which can be used at all
times.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain the difference between reading for leisure and studying.
2. State two reasons why we study.
3. List three study strategies that can aid effective acquisition of knowledge.
4. Explain three factors impeding effective study skills.

Tutor Marked Assignment

1. What are your goals for studying?

2. Identify three major effective study skills given in this chapter.
3. Discover your learning style through answering the following using the keys below:
1 = Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3= Undecided 4= Agree 5= Strongly Agree

References
Adegbija, E. (1998). Studying effectively: The art and the strategies. In E. Adegbija (Ed.)
Effective communication in higher education (pp. 1-8). University of Ilorin:
General Studies Division.
Cottrell, S. (2013). The study skills handbook: Fourth Edition. United Kingdom: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Developing Effective Study Strategies (2007). Retrieved from
http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy
Gilakjani A. P. (2012). Visual, auditory, kinaesthetic learning styles and their impacts on
English language teaching. Journal of Studies in Education, 2. (1), 104-113.
Harboe T., & Mullen. R. (2007). Study Skills for International Students. University of
Copenhagen: The Teaching and Learning Unit of Social Sciences.

Further Reading

Ibrahim, B. F. (2009). Developing effective study habits and skills. In V. A. Alabi, S. T.

Babatunde & F. A. Adekola (Eds.), The use of English: in higher education (pp.
10-22). University of Ilorin: General Studies Division.
Robinson, F. P. (1970). Effective study. New York: Harper & Row.
Study Skills Guide (2004). University of Newcastle UPON TYNE. Retrieved
from http://www.ncl.ac.uk/disability.service/
 CHAPTER 20
ENGLISH USAGE IN SELECTED SPECIALIST DOMAINS
Ibukun Titilayo Osuolale-Ajayi

Introduction:
English in specialist domains is predominantly concerned with the peculiar English used in
professional and institutional settings. These ‘specialised’ terms are mostly known to people in similar
profession. It can be referred to as a ‘private language’ in a community as it is a feature which
distinguishes people according to their profession. However, this ‘private language’ can also be adapted
by people in different walks of life in their day-to-day interactions as long as they are aware of the
semantics and implications of such terms. Thus, this chapter shall try to explain the notion of ‘Specialised
English Usage’, as well as, describe the graphological and syntactic features of three specialist domains:
Law, Medicine and Business.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the module, you should be able to:
(i) explain the notion of specialised English usage;
(ii) describe the graphological/syntactic features of specialised varieties of Legalese, Medical
English, Business English;
(iii) classify sample texts according to their specialised domains of use;
(iv) use selected words accurately in given contexts;
(v) suggest how to adapt sample texts to fit a different specialised language field; and
(vi) extract structures that constitute specialist language use in their core discipline lecture notes.

Main Content:
Specialised English Usage
The lexicon of English language has over the years changed numerically; it can be said that the
lexical entries have increased drastically rather than decrease. These changes can be traced to linguistic,
cultural, historical, social and economic factors. Specialised English Usage, thus, refers to the English
words associated to a group of people’s profession or discipline. Specialised English Usage is also known
as jargons. According to Hudley and Mallinson (2011), jargon is the specific terminology used to support
our interests and occupations. Citing NIYB jargon is the language, especially vocabulary, peculiar to a
particular trade, profession or group and also “language that is characterised by uncommon or pretentious
vocabulary and convoluted syntax and is often vague in meaning”.
From the foregoing, it can be inferred that each profession has its own special vocabularies which
are often unintelligible to outsiders. However, the fact that a person does not belong to a profession does
not mean that s/he should not seek to have an understanding of the vocabularies of that profession.
The knowledge of specialised English words is pertinent in ensuring a smooth inter-professional
communication. In fact, the understanding of the syntactic and graphological structures of specialised
English lexicons would help in facilitating the easy comprehension of professional jargons that one may
encounter. The syntactic and graphological features of the English Language of law (legalese), Medicine,
and Business shall be examined and characterised into their various categories in this chapter.
The Syntactic Features of Medical English
1. Modal auxiliary verbs are often used as hedging devices and face saving strategies. Pelvin (2014, p.
43) asserts that the use of hedges represents the expression of judiciousness and possibility which
plays a major role by allowing medical professionals to formulate statements with appropriate
accuracy and caution, expressing possibility rather than overconfidence. Examples include:
a. We may need to increase the dosage of your medication.
b. It could take a while before it becomes symptomatic.
2. The structure of medical English is usually in the passive voice because the form is usually
impersonal. An example is in the following:
a. The drugs were administered by the medical consultant on Lassa fever patients.
3. Variation of tenses: simple present tense is most commonly used when describing processes,
functions, mechanisms, diseases; it is also used when asking questions about present illnesses: Do
you skip meal? Do you take fatty or fried foods a lot? Do you have any other symptoms other than
heart burn?
Past tense on the other hand is used especially when taking a medical history, such as: when
referring to childhood/adult diseases, previous hospitalisation and the onset of a symptom, etc. “For
example: when was your last menstrual cycle? When did you first notice the lower abdominal
cramps?” (Pavel, 2014, p.43).
4. Nominalisation: in specialised texts, the derivation of a noun from the related verb appears to
reflect the same process of deduction of results from experiments or the same process of derivation
of objects from a manufacturing process. Examples include:
a. “Modifications of the dose of cetuximab were made only in cases of toxic effects to the skin,
and modifications in the dose of irinotecan were made in cases of hematologic or non-
hematologic toxic effects”.
b. “Concurrent chemotherapy and radiation has improved the outcome for patients presenting
with locally advanced squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck (SCCHS). These
improvements have come at a cost of increased-treatment-related toxicities” (Maglie, 2009,
p.34).
5. Impersonal mode: sentences in Medical English often express impersonality. For instance, it is
common for doctors to say: “A 30 year old premiere that was at the latent phase of labour was
referred from Adepoju hospital. She was placed on admission and subsequently examined” rather
than “A 30 year old premiere that was at the latent phase of labour was referred from Adepoju
hospital. I placed her on admission and after a while, she was examined by me”.

Graphological Features of Medical English

1. Acronym and Abbreviations: some common abbreviations and acronyms in medical English
include the following:
i. Formation by the initial letters of words:
a. C&S: culture and sensitivity (performed to detect infections)
b. PTSD: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
ii. Formation by clipping:
a. Urinalysis: from Urino analysis
b. Patofiza: from Patofiziologija
iii. Formation by blending which consists of the initial or final syllables of words:
a. Cap: capsule
b. LINAC: Linear Accelerator
iv. Pleonasms, that is the use of more words or word parts than necessary:
a. PMS sindrom: premenstrual syndrome
 Medical acronyms may have more than one referent, thus, one has to be very careful when confronted
with them. One of the ways of identifying the right referent is by considering the linguistic context of the
expression. Also it is possible for different medical acronyms to mean the same thing. Examples of such
include:

a. Ca: which means cancer (noun) and carcinoma (verb)

b. DNC, D&C, or D and C: dilation and curettage
2. The use of signs and symbols: the field of medicine is one of those that make the most use of
numbers, signs, symbols, notions, scientifically-generated term, etc. among other communicating
devices (Odebunmi, 1996, p. 265). Examples are:
a. x/7: where X represents the number of days the ailment started in the week. Thus 3/7 means
three days or thereabout.
b. x/52: indicates number of weeks and x/12: represents number of months as in 1/12 for one
month or since a month.
c. 0: means none
d. (+++): means the ailment is intense.

The Language of Business English

Business English language is a variety of English used locally and internationally to transact
business. The internationalisation of English in business world, according to Dalalau (2017, p.1), can be
traced to the irreversible growth in business institutions and the micro revolution and computerisation
worldwide. This specialised English has to do with the language of trade, work place, business, and
international relations. Business English is not only constituted of English words but French, Greek and
Latin words; just like other jargons, it has its lexical features which include formal words:
Formal words Common Words
i. purchase buy
ii. approximately around
iii. commence start/begin
iv. execute sign
v. terminate end

Examples of documents written in Business English include application letter, curriculum vitae
andminutes of meeting. Oral Business English is used in business telephoning, interviews, business
presentations, etc. Some examples involve but oral and written aspects of language. One of such examples
is adverts. The following are general syntactic and graphological features of business English

The Syntactic Features of Business English

Business English according to Yanxin (2015, p.31) have the following syntactic features:
1. Conciseness and tightness: Business English is characterised with its targeted, direct and
practical language which ensures that business information are disseminated promptly
and effectively. The conciseness of Business English sentence is mainly reflected in the
use of simple sentence, compound sentence, and parallelism sentence. An example can be
seen in the following:
We aspire to the highest standards in secondary school education. We offer intensive
trainings in educational, moral, extra-curricular and life-survival skills.
2. Omission of Prepositions, Articles and Objects: some syntactic elements are sometimes
omitted in Business English:
a. We have accepted your order for 1,000 cases (of) Toilet soap. (Omission of
preposition)
b. We acknowledge (the) receipt of your letter. (Omission of article) (Yanxin 2015,
p.32)
 3. The usual and unusual use of pronouns: the pronoun, it, is often expected to be used for
companies, however, the first person plural pronoun is mostly used in business
correspondence. This is instantiated in the following:
In reference to your application, we have found out that Jide & Ropo law firm cannot
represent you in court as they have irreconcilable conflicts of interest in the matter.
Also, the use of first person singular pronoun ‘I’ in business correspondence is often
avoided. The second person pronouns are often employed in order to convey politeness:
for instance the sentence: “Your goods will reach you before 20th March” is preferred to:
“I tell you that your goods would get to you before 20th March”. According to Yanxin
(ibid), the former sentence sounds comfortable and euphemistic and it shows the concern
with the reader’s convenience than the latter.
4. The use of passive voice: Yanxin (2015, p.33) submits that passive voice are usually
employed in unpleasant transactional situations, to achieve language euphemism and
appropriateness.
a. You have to make an offer before next Friday.
b. The offer has to be made before next Friday.
The first example cannot be said to be polite as it sounds almost rude, while the second would make the
decoder comfortable.

Graphological Features of Business English

As said earlier, Business English is a type of English that covers communication in the worlds of
finance, trade, as well as presentations at workplace and report writing. Thus, the graphology of the
different areas where business English is used varies. However, the common graphological features that
cut across the different types are: punctuations, upper case, italics, acronyms, etc. Punctuations,
uppercase, bold fonts and italics retain the functions they perform in general English when used in
Business English. The use of upper case, italics and bold fonts is to draw the attention of the receiver of
the message. Some acronyms and Abbreviations that cut across the various types of business English
include:
a. AOB: Any other Business
b. LLC: Limited Liability Company
c. SME: Small to Medium sized Enterprise
d. EOD: End of Day
e. VAT: Value Added Tax
f. HLML: Hypertext Make-up Language

Some of the graphological features of the language of print advert which is an aspect of business
English include the following:
a. Punctuations: as a stylistic tool helps the writer’s meaning clearer. In the language of adverts,
they are used with other linguistic tools in the bid of convincing the audience of the adverts.
Examples include:
i. Make the right choice now!
ii. Do you want double value for your money? Come to Adeks Bank and have a feel.

The punctuation mark used in the first sentence is an exclamation mark and it indicates the
interest of the advertiser(s) which is too intimate the public of the services being advertised. The first
sentence in (ii) ends with a question mark which is stylistically aimed at appealing to the emotions of the
audience.
b. The use of colours and pictures: Pictures and colours are often heavily exploited in print adverts.
Usually, the colours used in print adverts are usually those which reflect the brand. For instance, a
page coloured ‘yellow’ would likely be an MTN advert. Logos and emblems of brands are also
 used in print advert to differentiate it from other types of adverts. All of these work hand in hand
to sell a brand or a product to the unsuspecting audience.
Exercise 5: Using Business English features, discuss ‘corporate entertainment’.
Exercise 6: What department does which job? Match each job from the column on the left to a
company department from the column on the right:

Puts products into boxes Personnel

Recruits new staff Packaging

Deals with complaints Advertising

Plans to promote products Sales

Buy media space/ design copyrights Customer service

(Business English by Nikolaenko, 2008)

Summary:
This chapter focuses on specialised discourse or specialised language which is an aspect of English for
Specific Purposes. For detailed illustration, the syntactic and graphological peculiarities of Legal English,
Medical English and Business English are sampled for description. It is deducible that each of these
specialist domains/ professional fields has its distinguishing linguistic elements for adequate, and possibly
accurate, expression of authorial intentions.

Self-Assessment Questions:
(i) What do you understand by specialized English usage?
(ii) Distinguish between the graphological features of Medical English and Business English.
(iii) Explain the meanings of the following common words in general English words and use them
in possible sentences in the specifics of your own field or area of specialisation:
(a) Inform
(b) Require
(c) State
(d) Convene
(e) Sufficient
(f) Certify

(iv) In your field of study, write out ten (10) vocabulary items that have specialist use in that
domain, and use them in correct context-sensitive sentences.

Tutor Marked Assignment:

(i) Drawing copious examples to illustrate, discuss the prominent graphological features of
Legal English.
(ii) Compare the syntactic peculiarities of Medical English with those of Business English.
References:
Alabi, V. A., & S. T. Babatunde (eds.) (2005) Basic Communication Skills for Students and
Humanities. Ilorin: University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Babatunde, S. T., Alabi, V. A., Alabi, T. A. & Egbewole, W. O. (Eds.)(2018). Fundamentals of the
Use of English. Ilorin: Published by the GNS Division, University of Ilorin.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1973) A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.

Further Reading:
Alabi, V.A. (2015). Abbreviations and symbols in science and humanities. In V. A. Alabi, & S.T.
Babatunde. (Eds.), Basic communication skills for students of science and humanities (pp.192-
206). Ilorin: Department of English, University of Ilorin.
Dalalau, D. (2017). Key linguistic characteristics of business English. Retrieved from
www.educationdocbox/language learning /70148224.com. 23/08/17
Halliday, M.A.K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Hudley, A.H., & Mallinson, C. (2011). Understanding English language in U.S. schools. USA: Teachers
College Press.
Khan, R.B., & Khan, S.Q. (2015). Stylistic study of legal language. International Journal of Engineeering
Research and Central Science. 3(1), 631-647.
Maglie, R. (2009). Understanding the language of medicine. Roma: ARACNE.
Nikolaenko, E.B. (2008). Business English. Russia: Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House.
Odebunmi, A. (1996). Abbreviations and acronyms in medical, science, technology and agriculture
(MESTA) texts. In E. Adegbija, & A. Ofuya. (Eds.), English language and communication skills
for medical, engineering, technology and agricultural students (pp.248-261). Ilorin: University of
Ilorin Press.
Pavel, E. (2014). Teaching English for medical purposes. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of
Brasov. 7(56), 39-46.
Yanxin, J. (2015). Study of language features of business English. Retrieved from www.cscanada.net.
23/08/17.
 CHAPTER 12
ESSAY WRITING
Mahfouz A. Adedimejl (Ph.D.)

Introduction:

We are today living in a world of words that has been aptly described as the
Information Age. We encounter words everyday and we also make use of words in order to
explain our views, clarify our points, express our feelings, set records straight or socialise with
one another. You cannot just take words for granted. As Birk & Birk (1959, p.3) tell us, "mere
words can make and prevent wars, create understanding or inflame prejudice, form constitutions
or destroy them, sell shoddy or superior products or ideas, justify man's worst actions or express
his highest ideals." Thus, in the beginning was the word and God taught Adam all words/ names
(Q 2:31). As if you don't know, writing is a way of communicating, and of course you
communicate all the time (Conlin, 1991 p. 1). It is the process of codifying one's thought such that
another person is able to share one's experience. This is why reading and writing go hand-in-hand.
The essence of writing is to make others read or share one's viewpoint or idea. People write to inform,
recommend, motivate, prompt or play a part in debate, persuade, impress, record, reinforce or build
on existing situations or beliefs and instruct (Forsyth, 2010, p. 11) Before one can do any
meaningful writing, one must have read widely. According to Saul Bellow, "A writer is a reader
moved to emulation" (Kennedy, Kennedy and Aaron, 1997 p.iii).

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
(i) list the types of essays alongside their accompanying sub-types;
(ii) describe the different parts of an essay; and
(iii) explain the features of the various essay types.

Main Content:

Writing (Essays)
 While composition can be defined as a piece of continuous writing on one topic, an essay
is a kind of composition in which a writer states his knowledge or gives his opinion about a
particular subject (Udofot & Ekpenyong, 2008 p. 194). An essay generally enlightens a
reader about a particular issue or phenomenon. This is why an essayist will always bear in my
mind what he intends to achieve in the reader. Writing an essay structurally consists of
composing a passage of three parts. These are the introduction or the opening, the body or the
middle and the conclusion or the end.
The introduction states the purpose of writing or whets the appetite of the reader. After
reading an introduction, a reader makes up his mind on whether the essay is worth reading or
not. The introduction of your essay is like the perfume that either attracts or repels. If the
introduction states the aim of the essay, gives a clue into what the reader is to expect or arouses
the reader's interest, it is successful. If it is drab and dull, clumsy or boring, a potential reader
would think of doing something better with his precious time.
Strategies of writing catchy introductions include (a) relating a pertinent and
interesting anecdote, (b) beginning with an arresting quotation (c) summarising a commonly held
view in the body of the essay (d) explaining the specific occasion that gave rise to the essay and
(e) emphasising the importance of the subject matter of the essay (Eko, 1999, p.25).
The introductory part of the essay is very important as it is what sets the pace for the
remaining part. If it is not catchy, the reader would not be encouraged to read the work. For
example, can you identify the strategies used in the beginnings of some essays I once
presented thus?
Introduction 1

The story is told of a poor man who lived with his wife. One day, his wife, who had
very long hair, asked him to buy her a comb for her hair to grow well and be well
groomed. The man felt very sorry and said no, explaining that he did not even have
enough money to fix the strap of his watch he had just broken. She did not insist on
her request.
The man went to work and passed by a watch-shop, sold his damaged watch at a low
price and went to buy a comb for his wife. He came home in the evening with the
comb in hand ready to give his wife. He was surprised when he saw his wife with a
 very short hair-cut. She had sold her hair and was holding a new watch band. Tears
flowed simultaneously from their eyes, not for the futility of their actions but the
reciprocity of their love. This is love.

To love is nothing extra-ordinary; to be loved is something but to love and be loved

by the one you love is everything, that is the lesson....

Introduction II
A few weeks before he was assassinated in 1947, the esteemed advocate of non-
violent opposition and resistance, Mahatma Gandhi, had a conversation with his
grandson in which he provided him the "seven blunders" that accounted for the
violence that ravaged the world.
These seven blunders, which he had earlier called "seven social sins" in an article
he published in his weekly newspaper "Young India" of October 22 1925, are:
wealth without work, pleasure without conscience, knowledge without character,
commerce without morality, science without humanity, worship without sacrifice
and politics without principle. His grandson, Arun Gandhi, added the eighth
later, which he called "rights without responsibilities".
Now, if being an ardent fan of Gandhi entitles me to anything, I would add two
blunders of our modern age, which account for both passive and active violence, to
the list to make them ten altogether. These are democracy without decorum
and courts without justice.

Introduction III
When the German philosopher, Georg Wilherm Hegel, wrote that "nothing great
in the world has been accomplished without passion" or when Anthony Robins
said that "passion is the genesis of genius", they could have both had the Oloyede
administration in mind because it is passion personified.
Right from the beginning of the administration, the commitment with which the
principal officers and other key officials of the administration do their work is
legendary and infectious. In the wee hours of the day and into the late hours of
 the night, the University of Ilorin is the institution that works with extraordinary
zeal.

Now if you do not feel like reading the rest of the essays, the writer should either stop writing or
you stop reading.
The body or the middle of the essay contains the main points that the writer wants to pass
across. The body is developed through devoting a paragraph to a point and making a good use
of transition devices or paragraph linkers to make the points cohere. Apart from grammatical
correctness, all essays should persuade the reader that they are worth every minute spent on
them and the content and manner of presenting the points go a long way in determining whether
the readers should continue or not. In terms of length, it is the most extensive part of the essay
and as such, paragraphs must be arranged in a systematic manner such that each paragraph
connects with the one that follows it. More importantly, each paragraph should discuss a
specific point that will ultimately justify the thesis statement or persuade the reader to identify
with the writer's point of view.

Consider the body of the following essay and determine the strategies the writer used to
develop it:
One of the most exciting and thought-provoking definitions of the media is the one
offered by Littlejohn and Foss in their book, "Theories of Human Communication"
(2005) in which they offer eight metaphors to deconstruct the concept.

Types of Essay
Having defined what an essay is, it is important to identify the various types of essay in
which the POWER of writing earlier discussed would be deployed. This is not by any means a
full discussion since you are familiar with essay writing. You have certainly written essays
before. There are basically four types of essay. These are the expository (presenting and
explaining information), argumentative (convincing readers of something), descriptive (telling
what things are like) and narrative (recounting how things happen) essays. Each of these essays
has its focus which is achieved through exposition, argument or persuasion, description and
narraflon. However, most essays include two or more of the modes. An expository essay
explaining the process of operating a machine may have a paragraph or two devoted to the
description of the engine.

Expository Essay
An expository essay explains basic things about a subject. The main purpose is to make
a reader know what he does not know about a phenomenon. The world is knowledge-driven and
expository essays expose us to information, details and knowledge that abound on a particular
subject. "Exposition is the writing used most often in school, in daily life, business and
professions. When you write a book report, an essay examination, or a research paper, you use
expository writing; directions, recipes, instructions, and business reports are other examples of
exposition" (Winterowd & Murray, 1985 p-94). A writer of an expository essay must be
grounded in the subject himself because he who lacks something cannot give it. In writing an
expository essay, a writer must be guided by evidence and logic.
An expository writing can be done through a) enumeration and examples
(presentation of details in logical sequence) b) analyses (carefully examining issues and
explaining the relationships among various parts which can be done through division and
classification) c) definition (explanation of the terms and concepts for effective
communication) and d) comparison and contrast (weighing alternatives and grouping
similarities and differences around a definite thesis). The various examples of these strategies are
provided by Eko (1999 pp. 109 - 124).

Argumentative Essay
An argument is the process of organising and stating objectively and dispassionately, the facts
and reasons surrounding a particular stand or point of view (Eko, 1999, p. 126). Otherwise known as
a persuasive essay, the aim of the writer is to convince or persuade the reader to accept a particular
point of view. There are many approaches to writing an argumentative essay. For instance, a
"writer can argue objectively, that is looking at all sides equally until he gets to the end of his essay
before he makes concrete his stand" ( Asonibare & Atanda, 1994 p. 137). Alternatively, a writer
may reveal his "stand from the beginning of his writing. Then, he would go on to mention views
that are opposed to his stand. In a skillfully presented language with plausible evidence that can
challenge other points of view, the writer can win his audience to his side of reasoning" (Asonibare &
Atanda, 1994, p. 138).

Topics which may require argumentative writing are:

1. Why farmers are more important than doctors
2. Should dress code be abolished?
3. Women are better as wives than as workers
4. The President should contest in the next election
5. Education should be free for all
6. Public universities are better than private ones

Descriptive Essay
A descriptive essay is that which creates an image of an event, person or situation in words.
Virtually everyone has in varying degrees of success, tried to describe something to someone
before. Doing a good description requires being a good observer. As an essayist, you can
describe a person, a festival, a city or a phenomenon. A description can be objective or
subjective. An objective description recreates for the reader the image that may appear to any
observer with preciseness. A subjective description on the other hand describes the image as it
appears to the writer as well as his/her emotional reaction to the image under description.
Descriptive essays rely on imagery and adjectives to evoke consciousness in the m^er. A good
descriptive essay appeals to the senses of hearing, sight, touch, smell and taste of the reader. A
descriptive essay must have a purpose as well: why are you describing what you are describing?
(Neuleib, Cain, Ruffus & Scharton, 2005, p. 109).

Narrative Essay
A narrative essay essentially tells a story. You must have experienced something that is
uorth sharing and when you write or narrate it to your reader, you are engaged in narrative writing.
More often than not. the goal of narrative writing is to describe an experience, real or imaginary.
that has some unusual meaning for the reader and the writer. According to Thomas and Pink
(1981. p. 180), all that the writer has to do is to present his facts in proper sequences-generally in
order of time and group them into paragraphs according to the stages in the narrative. Nothing
impresses one better than a story well told.

Characteristics of Effective Writing

Writing effectively requires that some conditions are met. There are writers and there are
writers. What defines each writer is the style or how s/he expresses himself or herself, The
characteristics of writing the various types of essays are all the same. To write right, the following
characteristics should be borne in mind:

Economy
"The first quality of any good writing is economy" (Eko, 1999, p. 1). Economy is the
management of expressions in such a way that unnecessary words are avoided while detailed
information is provided. Eko further cites Shrunk and White in their Elements of Style as
follows:
A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, paragraph no unnecessary
sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines
and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer makes all
his sentences short or that he avoids all detail ... but that every word tells.
As the difference between a child and an adult is that a child says it in several words but
an adult's language is more precise, a writer must express himself with the consciousness of the
principle of economy. The shorter the expression, the better it is as that is a mark of maturity.

Simplicity
The choice of language should not be unnecessarily flamboyant or pompous. It is more
difficult to write in simple language and as such, simplicity has to be cultivated. Simplicity
does not mean that one's expressions should be monotonous, restricted to wishy-washy talk of
the street, it rather involves cultivating a good style without being stiff or pretentious.
According to Mozart, "simplicity is the true mark of genius".

Clarity
 In his essay. "Politics and the English Language". Orwell (1977) insists that "the great
enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one's real and
undeclared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms."
Clarity involves avoiding obscurity, vagueness, ambiguity, redundancy and long windy
expressions. The essence of writing is to communicate and functional communication is
marred by unclear language. According to Wittgeinstein. "whatever can be said can be said
clearly." Clarity concerns writing straight and direct to the point without fuss and
unnecessary flourish. The advice of Thornton Wilder, poet and novelist, is apt and
memorable: "if you write to impress it will always be bad. but if you write to express it will be
good."

Correctness
Effective writing is marked by not only the correctness of the information provided, it also
covers the avoidance of errors of grammar and mechanics. A piece of writing riddled with
grammatical problems is boring and repulsive. No effort should be spared in ensuring that
correct information is provided in correct language. In this respect, a good writer knows the rules
of grammar, from the morphemic to the sentence level, and how they relate and function on the
paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes.

Summary:

1. The reality of today's life is that you cannot successfully pass through it without writing.
You need writing in school because you must convey your understanding of what you have
been taught through it. You need writing at work because you are going to write reports or
respond to queries, prepare proposals or do other sorts of things.
2. If you write a good essay, every other type of writing becomes easy as it is the adaptation
that you will do. Before you engage in writing, you have to assure yourself of what it
requires. Writing requires knowledge: know yourself. Writing requires discipline:
discipline yourself. Writing requires expressiveness: express yourself (Adedimeji, 2013).

Self-Assessment
(i) List the types of essays alongside their accompanying sub-types.
(ii) Describe the different parts of an essay.
(iii) Explain the features of the various essay types.
(iv) Carry out the following tasks:
1. Write ten topics related to the state of Education in Nigeria.
2. Compose any type of essay on any subject of your choice.
Tutored Marked Assignment:
1. To what extent does each paragraph of your essay observe the laws of
paragraph development'?
2. Discuss what you understand by the POWER of writing.
3. Study ten passages from ten different sources (newspapers, books, magazines,
etc.) and identify the strategies used in developing the paragraphs.

References:

Adedimeji. M. A. (2013) The art of writing. Paper presented at the Writing/Editing. Workshop
of the Muslim Students Society of Nigeria. LAUTECH Branch, Ogbomoso on Saturday,
April 6, 2013 at LALTECH, Ogbomoso.
Asonibare, J. B. & Atanda, S. S. (1994). Paragraph development and essay writing. In E. B.
Bolaji, & V. A. Alabi (Eds.) The principles and the practice of communication (pp. 124-
141). Ilorin: Department of English, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.
Babatunde, S. T. (1998). Developing effective writing skills: Basic requirements. In E. E.
Adegbija (Ed.) Effective communication in higher education: The use of
English, (pp. 185 - 196) Ilorin: The General Studies Unit, University of Ilorin.
Birk, G. B., & Birk, N. P. (1959). Understanding and using English. 3rd ed. New York: The
Odyssey Press.
Conlin, M. L. (Ed.) (1991). Patterns: A. short prose reader. 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Eko, E. E. (1999). Effective writing. (Revised edition). Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books
(Nig.)

Further Readings:
Forsyth, P. (2010). How to write reports and proposals. Revised 2nd ed. London: Kogan Page.
Hacker, D. (2003). A writer's reference 5th ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins.
Kennedy, X. L., Kennedy, D. M., & Aaron, J. E. (Eds.) (1997). The Bedford reader. 6th ed.
Boston: Bedford Books.
Neuleib, J., Cain, K. S., Ruffus, S., & Scharton, M. (Eds.) (2005). The Mercury reader. Boston,
MA: Pearson Custom Publishing.
Obah, T. Y. 1981. Essay writing. In B. O. A. Oluikpe (Ed.) The use of English for higher
education, (pp. 231-264) Onitsha: Africana-FEP Publishers Limited.
Orwell, G. (1997). Politics and the English language. In X. J. Kennedy, D.M. Kennedy & J. E.
Aaron (Eds). The Bedford reader. 6th ed. (pp.525 - 543) Boston: Bedford Books.
Thomas, S., & Pink, M. (1981). English grammar composition and correspondence. London:
Cassel.
Udofot, I., & Ekpenyong, B. (2008) A comprehensive English course for schools and colleges.
Ikot Ekpene: Development Universal Consortia.
Winterowd, W. R., & Murray, P. Y. (1985). English writing skills. San Diego, CA: Coronado
Publishers.
 CHAPTER 10
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Victoria A. Alabi (Ph.D.)

Introduction:
A paragraph is a section of a piece of writing and is made up of a group of sentences, all of which deal
with a common idea that is, a single subject. With respect to structure and purpose, a paragraph could,
among other types. be introductory, body, concluding, inductive or deductive. The development of each
of these types of paragraph is hinged on the writer’s ability to deftly present the relationship between the
topic sentence and the supporting sentences, carefully organise the ideas in paragraphs, aptly utilise the
characteristics of a paragraph as well as employ appropriate transitional markers to achieve coherence. An
analysis of five structures of paragraphs, the relationship between a topic sentence and supporting
sentences, how to develop and organise ideas in paragraphs, the characteristics of a paragraph as well as
the appropriate use of transitional markers will be undertaken in this chapter.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the module, you should be able to:
(i) identify the techniques for paragraph development;
(ii) differentiate between the topic sentence and supporting sentences;
(iii) show competence in the appropriate use of transitions in paragraph development for the purposes
of coherence; and
(iv) use all kinds of paragraphs for efficient discourse writing.

Main Content:
The Structure and Purpose of Paragraphs
The structure and purpose of paragraphs could be introductory, body, concluding, inductive or
deductive. Background information is given in an introductory paragraph. It could also contain the overall
plan of the way the argument in a written discourse will be developed as well as the scope of the
discourse. It is expected that a discourse would contain several body paragraphs. The first body paragraph
logically follows the introductory paragraph and the other body paragraph lucidly follows each other.
Usually, each of the body paragraphs should center on a single subject in line with the focus of the
discourse. Sometimes however, an idea may flow from one paragraph into another.one. The concluding
paragraph contains the summary of the argument in the discourse.
An inductive paragraph is usually referred to as ‘conclusion-oriented’. It is generally known to
start with either proof or reasons culminating in the author’s assertion at the end of the paragraph. The
end of a paragraph thus houses a conclusion, which is the most important part of the reasoning. A
deductive paragraph is the converse of an inductive paragraph. It opens with the author’s assertion of the
most important part of the reasoning. The remaining sentences in the paragraph are used as proofs to
support the author’s assertion of this most important part of the reasoning

Components of a Paragraph
The first sentence of a paragraph starts on a new line and the central idea of a paragraph is
summed up in the sentence called the topic sentence. The other sentences which expand the topic are
referred to as supporting sentences. The Topic Sentence could be the first sentence in the paragraph as an
introduction. The topic sentence(s) and supporting sentences develop into a paragraph or paragraphs
through various techniques. These include definition, explanation, exemplification, simplification,
description, comparison and clarification, that is, giving further details or enumerating facts about the
topic sentence. Carbello (2014), for example, identifies eight different methods of paragraph development
as follows: “Facts and statistics, examples and illustration, process, comparison and contrast, cause and
effect, classification and analysis, definition, and analogy”.

The Characteristics of a Paragraph

Among the characteristics of a paragraph are Unity, Coherence, Completeness and Emphasis.

UNITY
A writer of a paragraph must be concerned with one main idea or topic. Everything in a paragraph must
be related to the main topic being discussed and must be capable of being summarised in a single
sentence. A well written paragraph must have unity. If a writer adds any material irrelevant to his central
idea, then he violates unity.

COHERENCE
Well-written paragraphs must be coherent. Coherence may be achieved within sentences that make up a
paragraph or among paragraphs in a text. Ideas in a paragraph must be arranged in a clear logical order.
Linear structuring of time sequence or space order, contrast and comparison may be used. Also
transitional devices should be used to achieve coherence. Key words may be repeated, pronouns may be
used as references. Transitional words and phrases such as ‘consequently’, ‘meanwhile’, ‘however’,
‘furthermore’, may also be used.

COMPLETENESS
A paragraph must show evidence of a reasonable development of a central point. If a writer focuses on an
idea that cannot be fully developed, the paragraph becomes incomplete. The reader would thus not
understand what he should know.

EMPHASIS
The central idea of a paragraph must also be emphasised. Enough space must be devoted to discussing it.
The idea must be repeated many times including repeating or summing it up in the conclusion.
Expressions like ‘chiefly’, ‘of course’, ‘importantly’, ’mainly’, ‘indeed’, ‘especially’, may also be used to
emphasise the main idea.

Summary:
This chapter presents a discussion of some structures of paragraphs, the relationship between a topic
sentence and supporting sentences, how to develop and organise ideas in paragraphs, the characteristics of
a paragraph as well as the application of transitional markers. It is noteworthy that although paragraphs
are not written in isolation, the principles of writing paragraphs highlighted in this chapter are aimed to
assist in developing good essays.

Self-Assessment Questions:
(i) Read the following paragraph and identify the techniques which the writer employed to
develop it.

There are many steps to making pancakes. First, collect your ingredients. You will need, flour, sugar,
milk, and eggs. You will also need a frying pan. Next, mix a cup of flour with half a cup of sugar. Add a
teaspoon of salt. After that, mix the eggs and milk in a separate bowl. Add a tablespoon of oil. Then mix
the liquids and solids together until you have a smooth batter. Pour some batter into a frying pan. Wait for
the pancake to start to bubble. Then flip it over. Last, take the pancake out of the pan. (Carbello, 2014)

(ii) Underline the topic sentence in the passage above.

(iii) Compose a short four-paragraph essay demonstrating your understanding of the use of
transitional markers.

Tutor Marked Assignment:

(i) Read the paragraph below and underline and list the various words and phrases the writer has
used to emphasise his central idea. There are twelve words/phrases used for emphasis.

Training the student for a profession is one of the important functions of a college or university.
In the first place, professional training confers certain benefits upon the student himself. It enables him to
enter a respected occupation, and it usually assures him of a higher income than he would otherwise hope
to receive. More important, professional training provides our technological society with the trained men
and women it so sorely needs. In an age of space flight, automation, and nuclear research, there is an
increasing need for skilled personnel. Most important of all, professional training helps to safeguard our
way of life. (Unpublished Manuscript)

References:
Alabi, V. A., & S. T. Babatunde (eds.) (2005) Basic Communication Skills for Students and
Humanities. Ilorin: University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Babatunde, S. T., Alabi, V. A., Alabi, T. A. & Egbewole, W. O. (Eds.)(2018). Fundamentals of the
Use of English. Ilorin: Published by the GNS Division, University of Ilorin.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1973) A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.

Further Reading:
Amaudet, M. L., & Barret, M. E. (1990). Paragraph development: A guide for students of
English. (2nd Ed.). England: Pearson ESL.
Indiana University Bloomington. (2018). Paragraphs and topic sentences. Retrieved from
https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/paragraphs-and-topic-sentences.html
Meyers, A. (2002). Writing with confidence. Writing effective sentences and paragraphs.
(7th Ed.). Mishawaka (USA): Better World Books.
 CHAPTER 21
REGISTERS AND JARGONS IN SPECIALIST DOMAINS
Monsurat Aramide Nurudeen

Introduction:

People use different linguistic varieties in different situations and for different purposes.
Speech, thus, reflects and constructs the context in which language is used. The context of
situation determines language use and usage and as such, different fields of academia and other
varying spheres of human life are distinguished by the content and language use uniquely
associated to them. The ability of an individual to manipulate and understand language
discourses in different situations that confront her/him is one of the essential tools for her/his
success in the academia and the society at large. In this regard, it will be erroneous to say or use
words not associated with the context in which they are employed as this may impede effective
communication or cause chaos between or among participants in such situations. These various
contexts of speech situations are known as ‘Domains’; a term popularised by an American
Sociolinguist called Joshua Fishman in the early 1970s to depict “a socio cultural construct
abstracted from topics of communication, relationship between communicators, and locales of
communication, in accord with the institution, of a society and area of activity…”

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
(i) define the concepts of register and jargon;
(ii) mention and explain the types of registers; and
(iii) differentiate between various types of registers like frozen, formal, consultative, casual and
intimate.

Main Content:

Registers
The term ‘Register’ was coined by Thomas, B. Reid in 1956 and brought to fore by a group of
linguists in the 1960s notably Michael Halliday (Leckie-Tarry 1993 in Zequan 2003, p. 2)”. It is defined
as how the language we speak or write varies according to the type of situation (Halliday 1978, p.32). In
essence, we use appropriate codes in appropriate contexts. The context in which a word is used has an
effect on the meaning that is actually taken for granted. This is in tandem with Alabi (1994) cited in
Balogun, Durosinmi & Inyang (2015) who opines that registers are situational varieties of any language
mainly categorised according to phonological, syntactic, lexical and semantic levels of choice. The
situation or context always guides the selection of words in different social or official roles. For instance,
the language of the classroom is different from that of the home; also, ‘wife’ or ‘spouse’ is more formal
than ‘old lady’ or ‘missus’, such synonyms associated with these different fields may also portray positive
or negative attitude of the speaker, for example ‘naïve’ or ‘gullible’ seem more critical than ‘ingenuous’
(Saeed, 2009). In addition, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may decide to choose
more formal words such ‘sister’ as opposed to ‘sis’ child as opposed to ‘kid’ and so on and also avoid
using ‘chill’ as opposed to ‘relax’ than when speaking in informal settings.
Sometimes we say or use words not appropriate to the setting. Crystal (1987, p.52) submits that
“People often have different reasons for deviating from a particular norm at a particular time. This may be
as a result of a need to portray their personal, social, or religious identity. Other reasons may have to do
with the dislikes of the listener’s appearance or behaviour or a more deep rooted person”. Halliday (1985)
proposes three main levels of registers which are useful for distinguishing the nature of social interaction
of participants. They are field, mode and tenor. The field of a discourse refers to the social setting or
what the discourse intends to investigate (Idiagbon, 2007, p.130). What the text is all about, what is
happening or the subject matter of the discourse. The field is most clearly reflected in the lexical items
chosen and sometimes the way the language is structured. For instance, if two people are discussing on
health related matters, their vocabulary will reflect the topic. This depends on the specific area of health
they are discussing. Likely topics to be found in this field are: uterus, x-ray, haemorrhage, lesion,
vaccination, tremor, surgery, haemorrhoids, etc.
Mode is the medium or channel of communication. The three major channels of communication
are: speech, writing, and nonverbal means of communication which includes gesture, sign language, and
mime. These nonverbal communications are sometimes used to complement speech.
Tenor is concerned with participants and their role – relations; for example, teacher/student,
parent/child, preacher/congregation, boss/subordinate, buyer/seller and so on. Participants in a discourse
have social roles, which could be temporary or permanent. Different individuals may assume different
roles in different linguistic domains. This determines the choice of lexical items and may reflect equality,
power or solidarity. For instance, a lecture room where a student’s mother is the lecturer, the student in
questions calls her parent ‘Dr. Lawal’ instead of ‘mum’.
The level of formality of speech is the focal concern of register language usage. In a friendly chat,
people use colloquial language, the casual and/or intimate style. For instance, when having a casual
conversation with friends one is likely to use more colloquial words, contractions, and incomplete
sentences than one would when responding to a question posed during a lecture. Vocabulary also varies
with the situation of use or setting for example, one can either ‘buy’ or ‘purchase’ depending on the
setting, ‘munch’ with friends in an informal setting and ‘dine’ with the king or president of a country in a
formal setting. Also, the words ‘live’ and ‘reside’ are more casual than ‘domicile’. Joos (1961, p.13)
describes five major classification of degrees of formality. These style types in English include:

• Frozen register: They are static or unchanging scripted language such as preamble to
constitution, wedding vows, biblical quotations, pledges of allegiance of a particular country and
other static language. The wordings of this register are exactly the same every time it is spoken.
It sometimes contains archaic words. These are example of frozen usage:
Example 1. Wedding vow: I, ---, take you, ----- to be my lawfully wedded (husband/ wife), to
have and to hold, from this day forward, for better or worse, for richer or poorer, in sickness and
in health, until death do us part.
Example 2. Declaration of an election result to the populace by the chairman of an electoral
body:
I, …… hereby certify that ……., having satisfied the requirement of the law and scored the
highest number of votes is hereby returned the winner.
 • Formal register: They are complete sentences and specific word usage. - Formal English often
used to show respect, used in places such as work, academic environment public offices and
business settings. Thematic pre occupation include interviews, speeches etc. the use of difficult/
dictionary words are also common e.g. hegemony, bluster, juxtapose etc. These are sentence
example of formal usage:
Example 1: The students in the apex premises of education and learning worked collaboratively
on unfamiliar and open-ended problems.
Example 2: The professor of literature is an embodiment of knowledge, idolized by
contemporary youth and intellect alike.
• Consultative register: They are used in conversations between pairs or two-way participation; for
example, teacher/student, doctor/patient, expert/apprentice, colleagues, peers, strangers, etc.
And as such, it features more complex syntax or long phrases, interruptions and feedback fillers
such as ‘uh-huh’, ‘I see’, like, know what I mean, o.k., etc. In its use, prior knowledge is not
assumed. Sentence examples of this style are;
Example 1: Conversation between a man and a stranger
Man: pardon me: do you think you can give me the time?
Stranger: certainly, it’s nine o clock.
Man: thank you.
Stranger: not at all.
Example 2: Conversation between a doctor and a patient
Ms Adewale: Good morning, Dr. Gobir!
Dr. Gobir: Good morning, what is wrong with you?
Ms. Adewale: I have been suffering from fever since yesterday.
Dr. Gobir: Do you have any other symptoms?
Ms. Adewale: I also feel headache and chills.
Dr. Gobir: Let me take your temperature. At this time, the fever is 100 degrees. Don’t worry.
I would prescribe some drugs and you will be alright in a couple of days.
Ms. Adewale: Thank you doctor.
• Casual register: They are everyday words used by members of a group to signal membership,
friends and acquaintances; ellipsis, abbreviation and slangs are common. Interruptions are also
regularly used like the consultative register. Casual register is also found in communications in
social media platforms like chats, blogs, emails, etc.
Slangs and abbreviations common in this style include:
Bae: someone who is dear;
Slay/slayer: to describe someone looking attractive;
Shade: to slightly insult someone;
Stay woke: a reminder to people to be aware of happenings in the society;
TBT: means throwback Thursday; used with a hash tag for posting a reminiscence for example,
a picture (from a long time ago).
• Intimate: They usually express close relationship among the users e.g. lovers, spouses, siblings,
best friends etc. It involves private vocabularies not for public information such as pet names
(sweetie pie, honey, sunshine), inside jokes, etc.
More word examples of intimate style include: chairman (best friend), irawo (Yoruba
meaning for star), sweetGaf, sis/ sisterly (sibling or a female best friend), darling, dear,
babyboo, Joshy josh (best friend), stud, mushy face, orente, Jaybear, butter fingers, etc.
Students need to be familiar with these registers. To illustrate each of these register styles, we provide
five examples of different situations using different types of language to express similar effect:
Example: Order
Frozen - Participants should remain seated throughout the ceremony;
Formal -. Those taking part should sit during the proceedings;
Consultative - Would you please stay in your seats;
Casual - Don’t get up;
Intimate- sit tight.
Example: Greetings
Frozen – Good day listeners, you are listening to Unilorin 89.3FM, the official radio station of
the better by far community.
Formal - Good afternoon. May I speak to the Chairman, please?
Consultative - Hello, Dr. Johnson. How are you this morning?
Casual – Guy, what popping? (‘Guy refers to a male friend of the same peer, ‘popping’ is a slang
which means ‘how are you’?)
Intimate- How is my stud muffin doing? (referring to a lover or a child)
Example: Encouragement
Frozen - I offer you all my prayers.
Formal - Thank you for applying for this position. We'll let you know within a week if you are
been chosen for an interview.
Consultative - Thanks for following-up on the Nnamdi Kanu IPOB agitation case. Great job!
Casual - Whoa, way to go! Nice catch!
Intimate- I am crazy about you honey, you are the best.
Example: Complaints
Frozen - This is a complaint for damages and injunctive relief arising out of manipulative
activities in the gold market from 1994 to the present time.
Formal - I hope you don't mind my stating that the service is unsatisfactory. I would like a
refund.
Consultative - Excuse me Ms Wahab. As I understand the task, we need to focus on improving
our delivery times rather than blaming our suppliers.
Casual - Oh, Bash. Just a moment! Listen, you know... well... what was yesterday joke all about?
Intimate - I'm sick and tired of your crap!

The examples above adequately illustrate how we vary our language to suit particular situations,
particular media or particular human relationships (Tinuoye, 2003). We can clearly see how the tenor of
interaction influences the register and other language choices, from the most rigid-frozen, to the least
rigid- intimate. However, there may be overlaps in the use of the registers and their related styles, that is,
a person can move from one register to another, this is influenced by a number of social factors.
As earlier explicated on the discussion on tenor, it is pertinent to note that people’s roles in formal
contexts determine the appropriate register regardless of the social relationship that exists between them.
For instance, a very formal setting such as a law court will influence language choice regardless of the
personal relationship between the speakers. In a classroom where a child’s mother or father is the teacher,
the same pattern is usually found. A catholic priest will be addressed as ‘father’ even by his own father
during a religious ceremony.
A register can also reflect the specific style of language one uses. For instance, one could speak or
write in an academic register, a business register, a legal law or legalese register, medical register,
computing register and so on. We shall give a full explication of various vocabularies associated to some
of these specialist fields in our next discussion on jargons.

Jargons
Jargons are the actual compendium of technical words of a particular topic, field or profession. Yule
(2007, p.245) emphasises that jargons help to connect those who see themselves as ‘insiders’ in some way
and to exclude ‘outsiders’. In juxtaposing register and jargons as a single and related language variations,
Holmes (2008, p.259) describes Jargons as registers which a group of specialists often develop to talk
about their specialty. Journalese, legalese/legal language, medical language and so on are all to be
considered as examples of different jargons. Occupation, therefore, is another factor that can cause
language to vary; the use of technical terms constitutes jargons of one’s vocation. Unlike registers which
takes cognisance of formality, setting, task, participants and topic as determining factors, jargons are
concerned with specialised terminologies. For example, words like atom, catalyst, solvent, and
spectroscopy indicate scientific jargon; likewise, words like virus, bacteria, syndrome, tremor, and
abdomen indicate medical jargon. Jargons can also have ordinary word alternatives. Ofuya (1996) states
that specialised vocabularies (scientific jargons as the basis for her discussion) grew out of the ordinary
usage and have in turn influenced it. She gave the following illustrative expressions to substantiate her
submission: God is the architect of one’s life; he shuttles between Ilorin and Abuja on a weekly basis.
Likewise, these medical jargons also have ordinary word alternatives; for example, sign-symptom, eye
problem-ocular defect, fear-anxiety-phobia, etc.
Occasionally, Jargon words are shared by different professions; two or numerous professions/ fields
might use similar vocabularies for different purposes. For example, the word ‘port’ is used in computing
to mean the act of converting software so that it can run on a different operating system, in the military; a
small opening in an armoured vehicle, in the maritime field; a place by the sea or river or other waterways
where ship and boats can duck, load and unload. Also, the word ‘register’ is used varyingly in different
fields. In English or Linguistics it is often referred to level of formality of a speech, however in music it
refers to the sound quality of a note or melody, and in computing it refers to a device used for storing
information. Similarly, the word ‘bond’ is used in the scientific field (Basic Science/ Chemistry to be
precise) to mean attraction and repulsion between atoms and molecules while in the legalese or legal
language it means an agreement with legal force. So it is with the word ‘virus’ used in the fields of
computing and medicine.
Most of these specialised words are also used in our daily interactions. Consider the following
examples:

Field Word specialised Usage Ordinary Usage

Law minor under aged/not legally an adult insignificant
bill proposal for law amount you owe

Banking freeze to legally stop the supply of when liquid turns to

money to somebody solid

Stock share one of the equal part of a A part of the total

Exchange company that you can buy number of something

Computing notebook A portable computer A book for recording

notes

Students should therefore selectively attend to only the specialised meanings of words in the course of
their study.

To use jargons effectively, you must know your audience. Hence, you should avoid using terms your
readers or listeners will not understand, well- placed jargon in speaking or writing can lend the voice of
authority or the face of genuineness on the speaker. Oloruntoba-Oju (1996, p.195) notes that, the use of
vocabularies in their appropriate specialisation shows erudition and competence in that discipline and
therefore wins greater respect for the user. In essence specialised terms must be used where, whom and
when appropriate. In the domain of medicine for instance:

A Medical student can say to an Obstetrician:

‘Dr. Chuma, we have a case of primiparous woman in obstructed labour with failure to progress at 6cm
dilation. She may need a Ceasarian Section’
A doctor should not say to his patient:
‘It must be a viral attack’ but instead say ‘it must be some kind of infection’ or;
‘You are suffering from an unestablished syndrome’ but instead say ‘you seem to have a fairly
uncommon ailment and we are not too sure of its characteristics yet’.
‘Jaundice refers to yellow pigmentation of the skin due to an accumulation of the pigment bilurbin in the
blood owing to acute liverishness’ but instead say ‘Jaundice refers to yellow colour of skin or the
changing of skin colour to yellow due to the accumulation of yellow substances in the blood owing to
certain disorders in the functions of the liver’
(Adapted from Oloruntoba-Oju, 1996)
These medical jargons evident in these statements may hinder the patient’s comprehension, scare them
away and or present the doctor as being egotistical.
The context is also paramount in jargon use and usage. For example, you cannot say ‘I domicile
in….’ to a friend but rather ‘I live or reside in….’ this is also applicable when speaking to a boss. The
word ‘domicile’ is a legal jargon which means a permanent legal residence as such it is not applicable in a
casual setting.
Ferguson 1994 cited in Wardhaugh (2010) gives the significance of specialised use and usage by
asserting “that people participating in recurrent communication situations tend to develop similar
vocabularies, a characteristic bit of syntax and phonology that they use in these situations …seem to
facilitate speedy communication, establishing feeling of rapport…”(p.48.). A person can control a variety
of jargons: you can be a lawyer and a stockbroker, or medical personnel, and an academic.

Summary:

1. This module explained the use of English in some specialist domains through the use of
registers and/or jargons.
2. It is evident that there are many features of language use that are exclusively related to
specific domains.
3. The appropriate use of registers and jargons can enhance effective communication while the
incorrect use can hinder comprehension and send the wrong message.
4. However, in order to communicate well in English, it is important that students involve
themselves in constant practice in understanding and mastering the fundamentals of correct
register use in various domains especially in their specific disciplines as well as have the
ability to manipulate such registers outside of their respective domains of use.

Self-Assessment Questions:

1. What are Registers?

2. Mention and explain the main types of Registers.
3. Differentiate between various types of registers like frozen, formal, consultative, casual and
intimate;
Tutored Marked Assignment:

1. Draw a distinction between the following pairs; frozen / consultative registers;

formal/intimate registers.

References:

Abdullahi-Idiagbon, M.S. (2007). Trends in sociolinguistics discourse. In O. Obafemi, G. A.

Ajadi, & V.A. Alabi. (Eds.), Critical perspectives on English language and literature.
(pp.123-144). Ilorin: Department of English, Unilorin.
Balogun, J., Durosinmi M., & Inyang, U.(2015). Register and lexical relations. In V.A. Alabi, &
S.T. Babatunde. (Eds.), Basic communication skills for students of science and
humanities. (pp. 73-88). Ilorin: Department of English, Unilorin.
Crystal, D. (1987). Cambridge encyclopaedia of language. London: Cambridge University
Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language
and meaning. Edward Arnold: London.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
Holmes, J. (2008). An introduction to sociolinguistics. (3rd ed.). England: Pearson Education
Limited.
Ibe, C.U. (2005). Complete English course for secondary schools. Enugu: Africana.
Joos, M. (1961). The five clocks. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Lawal, A. (1996). Intensive reading as a study skill for MESTA students. In E. Adegbija, & S.
Ofuya. (Eds.), English language and communication skills for medical engineering,
science, technology and agriculture (MESTA) students. (pp.63-71). Ilorin: English
language outer circle.

Further Readings:
Ofuya, A. (1996). Word formation in medical engineering, science, technology and agriculture
MESTA English. In E. Adegbija, & A. Ofuya. (Eds.), English language and
communication skills for medical engineering, science, technology and agriculture
(MESTA) students. (pp.1-19). Ilorin: English language outer circle.
Oloruntoba-Oju, O. (1996). Aspects of communication in the medical class. In E. Adegbija, & A.
Ofuya. (Eds.), English Language and Communication skills for medical engineering,
 science, technology and agriculture(MESTA) students. (pp.187- 201). Ilorin: English
language outer circle.
Oladunjoye, O. (2005). Systematic English for schools and colleges. Ilorin: SO41publishers.
Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvic, J. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the
English language. Longman: Harcourt.
Saeed, J.I. (2009). Semantics. (3rd ed.) London: Blackwell.
Tiersma, P. M. (1999). Legal language. The university of Chicago press: Chicago.
Tinuoye, M. (2003). What is language? In O. Obafemi, & S.T. Babatunde. (Eds.), Studies and
discourse in English language. (pp 1-27). Ilorin: Haytee press.
Trudgill, P. (1983). Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society. England: Penguin
Book.
Wardaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to sociolinguistics. (6th ed.) UK: Blackwell.
Yule, G. (2007). The study of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zequan. L. (2003). Register analysis as a tool for translation quality assessment. Translation
theory.7 (3). Retrieved fromhttp://accurapid.com/journal/25register.htm on October 5,
2017.
 CHAPTER 14
REPORT WRITING
Oyinkan C. Medubi (Ph.D.)

Introduction:
As a researcher, when you have gathered the materials relevant to your subject matter through the
various means discussed in other aspects of this book, you need to package the findings in such a way as
to facilitate easy absorption by your readers. It is often in the form of a report. Thus, a completed research
work is presented as a report. Our focus in this chapter is thus to take you through the process of writing
reports in ways that will adequately answer a reader’s questions such as what happened, where, why,
when and how it happened.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the module, you should be able to:
(i) organise report according to their structure, language and tone;
(ii) specify if the types of reports accurately achieve their purposes; and
(iii) compose a report of any type.

Main Content:
What is a Report?
Generally, a report is said to be a body of facts written down for preservation. Specifically, a report
is a description of the investigation that you as an individual or your group have completed. Weissberg
and Buker (1990 p. 1) describe the experimental research report as ‘a paper written by an investigator to
describe a research study that he or she has completed.’ In this instance, the report explicitly explains the
problem investigated, steps taken in the experiment and results obtained from the investigation.
A report is also the record of events or activities of a group of people neatly encapsulated for the
consumption of the appropriate person or body. Such events are simply and faithfully set down as they
occur, and may be disseminated to the public immediately or filed away for future reference. A report
thus sets down events in such a way that all pertinent questions regarding what has been done, where the
event took place, who are those directly and indirectly involved, how an action has been done, and what
effects have been noticed or envisaged, and so on, are answered. For instance, when one narrates how an
accident happened, one is giving a report. The sequences of events and utterances at a formal meeting of a
group of people will also constitute a report.

Purpose of Reports
To make sure that your reader understands your report, you need to ensure that the pieces of
information you give are neatly categorised so that all future actions expected from it are clearly
recognised. This way, it can fulfill its purpose. How can you recognize the purpose of reports? You can
recognise the purpose of reports by the things they do such as:

a) Explaining: When you give a report, your reader must be able to understand exactly what happened
and why. The main objective of your report in this case is to explain an action from all angles and
provide interpretations of the event so that the reader can understand all its implications. It attempts
to provide the basis for, and examines the underlying causes of, people’s actions and the possible
 consequences of such actions. Examples of this category are your reports on experiments,
researches and investigative matters.
b) Informing: This means that you recount a sequence of events for the purpose of acquainting your
reader with the order in which these events occur. In most cases, the report simply keeps the record
of events and satisfies the desire of the reader to know exactly when an event begins, what happens
as it unfolds, at what points the significant happenings occur, and how it all ends. It satisfies the
urge to know; there is no judgement involved neither does it require any significant interpretive
processes. Examples of such reports are news reports and business meetings.
c) Documenting: A report presents the facts of an event in the sequence and order in which it happens. In
this way, it documents the event for posterity. In other words, it sets down the record of the event in
written form so that it is never forgotten, even long after the main actors in the event have gone.
This means that all books ever written are reports since they document events surrounding man and
all his activities from the beginning of time. So also your activities, utterances and/or researches
may someday be put together in a report that may be a story, biography or autobiography.
d) Summarising: A report is only a record of events set down in a brief form. It is almost impossible to
put down everything regarding an event or a subject or an experiment since such a venture would
not only be wasteful but also boring. For example, it is unnecessary for an autobiographer to relate
how many times in a day his heart beat or he breathed or an ant walked across his path, etc. We do
not need to know the frustrations an experimenter endures during an experiment or how many
times his beaker falls to the ground and breaks. We do not need to know how many times members
of a group nearly exchange fisticuffs during a meeting. However, in concentrating on the important
things about the day, e.g. location, dates, events, etc., the reader is given an idea of the event.
Therefore, the highlights of the event or sequence are presented in such a way that they would
represent the whole picture.
e) Teaching: This brings us to the very important part that a report plays: it helps us to learn from events.
An experimenter’s report helps us to replicate the experiment. A narrator helps us to recognise
mistakes made in an event through the causes and effects. An autobiographer helps us to learn from
his/her decisions in life. From the minutes of a meeting, we learn what the group is doing, what
mistakes are made and how to move forward. The didactic role that reports play cannot be
downplayed. They exist to teach us great lessons about life.

Structure of Reports
Now, purpose alone is not the only thing that distinguishes reports from other writings. One of the
other things that differentiate reports concerns their structure. The structure of a report depends largely on
its purpose and the use to which it is put. In the section above, we mentioned that reports could be
employed either to explain, inform, document or teach. Each of these implies changes in structure in
terms of length and language use.
In general, reports can be formal or informal. Formal reports provide accounts of projects,
experiments or meetings, hence they are usually lengthy. From the long accounts, the reader can obtain
some recommendations. On the other hand, informal reports may be brief and directed at specific groups.
Business correspondences such as memoranda, letters or circulars may fall in this category.
Formal reports do not have any specifiable length. A report can range from a few paragraphs to a
few pages to even volumes. The law report is published in volumes, experimental reports take only a
number of pages while news reports are often only a few paragraphs or columns.
Greater differences lie in the sentence structure. In most cases, reports are written in declarative
sentences which simply state facts. The sentences in the reports of business meetings, for instance, occur
in the reported or indirect speech, since the utterances of participants are often just reported, hardly
quoted directly. Only news reports sometimes resort to the direct statements of participants to give the
sense of greater authenticity, recency and thus credibility while those reporting experiments are quite
often in the passive voice. As we examine the types of reports below, we will see how the structures differ
from one to the other.

Types of Reports

In general, reports can be classified into any of the following:

a) Experimental
b) Investigative
c) Field Research
d) Factual Reports
e) Business Meetings
f) Reviews

Language and Style of Reports

The language of report writing is generally formal and impersonal. The form or structure
is predominantly constrained by the genre. For instance, the format of memorandum report is
different from minutes of as report of proceedings at a meeting. Remember that the strength of your
own report lies in its accessibility. This is why you need to strive to use clear, concise and lucid prose that
will not only make reading easy but will also make comprehension easy. Demarcate your sections
appropriately and choose your words carefully. These will ensure that the purpose of your report is
achieved.

Summary:
This chapter has examined report writing with samples of the common genres provided as illustrations.
Also, the chapter presents the various rungs, and how to write them.

Self-Assessment Questions:
Putting yourself in the shoes of the Secretary, and following the structure of Minutes writing, write a
report of the proceeding of a meeting you attended in the recent past.

Tutor Marked Assignment:

In about 400 words, conduct a review of one of the products you consider to be new on the market, taking
care to highlight what it is about, what you like or dislike about it, and how successful you think the
product can be in the market.

References:
Alabi, V. A., & S. T. Babatunde (eds.) (2005) Basic Communication Skills for Students and
Humanities. Ilorin: University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Babatunde, S. T., Alabi, V. A., Alabi, T. A. & Egbewole, W. O. (Eds.)(2018). Fundamentals of the
Use of English. Ilorin: Published by the GNS Division, University of Ilorin.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1973) A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.
Further Reading:
Alabi, V. A. (1998). Writing paragraphs, reports, academic and technical texts’. In E. E. Adegbija (ed.)
Effective communication in higher education: The use of English (pp.11-242). Ilorin: General
Studies Division.
Sobowale, I. (1985). Journalism as a career. Ikeja: John West Publications Limited.
The Guardian. (August, 2009). Lagos, Nigeria: Guardian Newspapers Limited.
The Nation on Sunday. (January, 2012). Lagos: Vintage Press Limited.
The Writing Center, University of North Caroline at Chapel
Hill,http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/book-reviews/ Accessed on 22/3/13.
Weissberg, R., & Buker, S. (1990). Writing up research: Experimental research report writing for
students of English. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall.
 CHAPTER 17
REVISING AND EDITING
Kifayat Gambari-Olufadi

Introduction:

Writing is one of the four basic communication skills of listening, speaking, reading and
writing. Writing is considered the most difficult, tasking and demanding of the four language
skills because the writing process calls for the writer’s rapt attention. Apart from the information
a piece of writing contains, it also tells us much about the ability of the writer. A good writer is
that person who is able to combine ideas, beliefs, styles and all other activities involved in
effective writing.
In this module, we shall discuss revising and editing as post-writing processes. The
writing process begins when the writer pens the last word of the first draft. It is in the process of
revising and editing that the draft takes a shape and becomes a piece of art. Writing, according to
Smith (2003), is an art. A good writer continues to work on a piece until it has the desired shape.
In writing, revising and editing are two distinct processes. Revising looks at ways of improving
your writing. Editing on the other hand, is the process of correcting the inappropriateness of your
writing like sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Since revising and editing
are post-writing tasks, we shall start our discussion with writing as a process.
Writing is a major task involving a number of steps which must be taken one after the
other so as to have a good product. Three major activities are identified as writing stages, these
are: pre-writing, writing and post-writing (revising, editing).

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. understand the processes and stages involved in writing;
2. understand the major disparities between revising and editing as post writing activities; and
3. Get accustomed to the basic tenets of revising and editing.
Main Content:

Pre-Writing Activities
Pre-writing is the first stage of the writing process and it incorporates the prerequisites for
the actual writing of the first version of your piece. It has been proven that those writing- related
activities we are involved in have great effect on the product of our writing in terms of the
structure, style and arrangement. Adegbija (1991) cited in Babatunde (1998) summarised pre-
writing activities as follows.
1. Global: brainstorming on the topic, analysis of points, definition, conceiving of a good
answer, etc.
2. Content-Related: gathering and noting key points, reading, researching, conducting
interviews, holding discussion, etc.
3. Order-Related: organizing, classifying, outlining and integrating information, facts and
ideas.
4. Language-Related: determining essay type and style, knowing register and the suitable
language for a given audience and occasion.

From the pre-writing activities mentioned above, we can infer that the success of a good
writing depends on how well the language and content are structured to suit the topic. Also, a
good writer must consider factors such as topic, audience and purpose in writing.
At the pre-writing stage, a good writer is concerned with the “what” question, which
dictates the topic or theme of your writing. A learner may have to deal with two different types
of topics, assigned topics during lectures or chosen topics by the learner. If the topic is assigned,
the direction for the assignment will limit and determine the approach to take in the writing
process. If the student is free to choose a topic, s/he should select a topic s/he is interested in and
knowledgeable about. If this is done, the writer will be able to compose a text that would reflect
her/his passion, and the readers, too, will likely find the piece of writing highly captivating and
informative. The main purpose of pre-writing activities is to create the focus of the paper. If the
topic is too broad, the write-up will be vague and likely be disorganised.
 After considering the topic, one can proceed to gather materials to develop the topic
effectively in the write-up. The next question to ask after a good topic is chosen is ‘what is the
aim or purpose of writing?’ Are you writing to inform, explain, describe, narrate, persuade, or
entertain? If these questions are answered, the writer should consider the audience, which
constitute the target of the writing. The audiences experience and knowledge of the subject
matter need to be considered for effective communication purpose. It is worthy to note that
highly technical and specialised information may be above the reader’s level of comprehension;
a too simple or basic approach could also bore the readers.
When the contextual variables (audience and purpose) have been considered, the writer
can collect or gather ideas and make a note by doing any or more of the following writing
activities.

1. Brainstorming: It is a creative technique that involves generating new ideas on the topic.
All ideas at this stage should be noted down for evaluation during the writing process.
2. Note-taking: A good writer, after finding good materials from reliable sources, should
begin taking notes. A writer must be able to separate the more important from the less
important information in a text (oral or written) and record it as appropriate.
3. Outlining: outlining helps the writer to categorise the main points and organise the
supporting points under them. Outlining helps in developing each paragraph and in the
overall organisation of the writing. It should be in a logical order that would suit the
general essay structure of opening/introduction, body and conclusion.

Writing Stage
Once a writer feels he has generated enough ideas or information about a specific topic
during the pre-writing stage, he makes an attempt to put his idea down in writing. This part of the
writing process is called drafting. Typically, the first draft is usually very rough, which is why it
is often referred to as rough draft. The rough draft provides raw materials that can be shaped and
refined in the third stage of writing (revising and editing). When writing the first draft of your
essay, the writer should pay attention to the content and ignore the language and mechanical
aspects such as grammar, spellings and punctuations. The writer should write freely and try to
find the best way to communicate his ideas. When the writer begins to draft his writing, he needs
to keep in mind some techniques that will help his readers or audience to understand his writing.

1. Thesis statement: This is the most important part of your paper because it states the
purpose of your writing. A good thesis statement lets your readers know what your paper
will cover and prove. The form of your thesis statement will vary, depending on the form
of your writing. If the writer’s aim is to inform, he will adopt the expository form of
writing. This form of writing is often used in the sciences and other academic disciplines;
it is also a mode used by journalists. Expository writing is adopted to give factual
information. Another form of writing is the descriptive, which describes, convey the
emotion and attitude of the writer. If the writer is telling a story, he will adopt the
narrative style. As a student, you should let your thesis statement reflect the aim and form
of writing. A good thesis statement must identify the subject matter and make assertion
regarding the subject.
2. Topic sentence: The central idea of a paragraph is summed up in its topic sentence. A
topic sentence also states the point the writer wishes to make about the subject. The topic
sentence must be general enough to express the paragraph overall intent. It should be
easily accessible for readers to understand. Just like the thesis statement, the topic
sentence exposes the readers to the content of the paragraph. A topic sentence should not
be too general or too narrow.
3. Sufficient support: The writer needs to support his topic sentence or ideas by developing
the paragraphs with evidence from credible sources (journals, magazines, internet
materials etc.). This development can come in different forms such as description,
reasons or illustration, depending on the purpose of the paragraph. If the form of writing
is descriptive, the writer is expected to use supporting sentences that create mental
images in the mind of his readers.
4. Cohesion: This refers to the device used for making words, phrases, and sentences
connect logically. If a paragraph does not have a logical order, and does not have a
consistent view point, the reader is unlikely to understand the point or the message of the
paragraph. Cohesion can be achieved through the use of transitional markers which help
the readers to understand the direction of the writer’s argument or thought. Transitional
 markers indicate relationship between the sentences that make up the essay. They help
the writer to properly link up the ideas in the essay.
5. Unity: This underscores the connection between the topic sentence and the supporting
sentences. The writer should make sure that all sentences are related to the topic sentence,
and all paragraphs are well-connected in the essay. It is worthy of note that, if the
supporting sentences are off-topic, your paragraph will be unclear.

Post-Writing Stage

This is the third stage in the writing process. This stage comprises revising and editing.
Revising and editing are two important tasks a writer undertakes to improve his essay. They are
vital elements in the writing process. The two elements are two different aspects of the writing
process which must not be taken as an entity. When you revise, you take a second look at your
ideas, the writer may want to add, remove, or change information in order to make his ideas
clear, accurate, convincing to his audience or readers. Editing on the other hand improves the
syntax and deals with correction of errors. These elements shall be discussed separately in the
next section.
Revising
Revision in a simple term means re-vision. Revising implies re-writing, re-thinking,
reconstructing and transforming one’s write-up and evaluating whether there is still more to be
done. Revising is a deliberate attempt to counteract the normal process of reading. It requires the
writer to read, pay attention to the details and be open to re-thinking and re-working crucial
issues. Revising follows drafting and precedes editing. Drafting and revising often form a loop as
a work moves back and forth between the two stages. Revision according to Murray (1982) is the
heart of the writing process—the means by which ideas emerge and evolve, and meanings are
clarified.
The following are useful techniques for revising in any writing process.
1. The writer, first of all, considers the basic elements of writing. These important elements
are purpose, audience or readers and form. To start with, purpose determines the focus of
the write-up. The main purpose of writing may be to persuade, inform, educate or
describe. If the purpose is known, then one can consider the audience and the form or
style to use. Your purpose of writing must be clearly stated. The audience helps to know
 how to structure a write-up, it determines if the write-up will be formal or informal. The
type of audience the writer has determines the type of information the essay will contain.
The type of the writing determines the form it will take. The format for an academic
writing is different from other forms of writings. You need to follow the established
format of writing.
2. Thesis statement: The writer must consider the thesis statement in writing because it
states clearly the purpose of writing, the audience and the form the writing will adopt. It
is also determined by the scope of the writing. A good thesis must be precise and must
present a controlling idea about the subject of the essay.
3. Introduction: This serves two main purposes, it gives readers an idea of what the text is
all about and it provides a reason for readers to keep reading. However, you can ease the
process when you choose a topic not too broad or too simple. The writer can attract his
audience by making use of the following:

i. An interesting quote:

Example: ‘In the name of the Supreme Council of the Revolution of the Nigeria Armed
Forces, I declare a martial law over the Northern province of Nigeria. The constitution is hereby
suspended and all the regional government and elected assemblies hereby dissolved. All
political, cultural, tribal and trade union, together with all demonstrations and unauthorized
gatherings, excluding religious worship, are banned until further notice’. (The Nigerian
Vanguard Newspaper, January 15, 1966, the first Military Coup speech by Major General
Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu).
The above quotation can serve as an introduction for the topic “Military rule in Nigeria:
strengths and weaknesses”.

ii. Use a rhetorical question:

Example:
Where is my refuge?
Where am I safe? (Oswald Mtshali: Nightfall in Soweto).
These rhetorical questions can serve as an introductory part of the topic “Insurgency in Nigeria”.
iii. Tell a short interesting story related to the topic of study.

Techniques in writing the introductory part of your essay; you may

start with:
i. a surprising or interesting fact
ii. a question
iii. a quotation
iv. a definition
v. background information.
Avoid the following
openings:
i. dictionary definitions of words your readers should know,
ii. beginning too far away from the topic,
iii. do not use stereotypes, clichés (over-used expressions with little meaning left in them)
or boring expressions
.
Format of a good introduction.
An introductory paragraph must have the following:
1. it must introduce the topic of the study,
2. it must indicate the structure or methodology of the essay,
3. it must state the thesis of the essay.

If the introductory part is clearly stated and well-structured, the body of the work is the
next. The body of a write-up refers to any paragraph that follows the introduction and comes
before the conclusion. Most essays consist of multiple body paragraphs, and this is where the
main information is presented. A paragraph constitutes a group of sentences, all of which are
connected to a central theme. The following are important aspects of paragraphs that a good
writer must consider at the revising stage:

i. a clear topic sentence,

ii. supporting sentences,
iii. unity and cohesion,
iv. transitions between sentences and paragraphs, and,
v. a concluding sentence that ties the evidence or details back to the main point and brings
the paragraph to a close.
Topic Sentence: it is the central theme or idea of a paragraph. One of the functions of a
topic sentence is to introduce the theme of a paragraph and to demonstrate how ideas are
connected in the paragraph. Also, all topic sentences must relate to the thesis statement. This
gives the write-up unity and focus.
Tips for Topic Sentence.
i. It states the main point of a paragraph.
ii. It helps to protect readers from confusion by guiding them through the
argument.
iii. It helps to strengthen the coherence of your essay

If the topic sentences in each paragraph are clearly stated, the next things to check are the
supporting sentences. Supporting sentences are the sentences within a paragraph that help to
explain, illustrate or provide evidence for the topic sentence in a paragraph. Supporting sentences
must fit the context and flow with the paragraph. A writer must be able to relate the main idea of
his essay through signal words and paragraph transition. Paragraphs may be introductory,
developmental, transitional or concluding. The introductory paragraph tells the reader the focus
of the essay while in the developmental paragraphs the writer explicates the ideas or points in the
essay. Transitional paragraphs are meant to link paragraphs together while the concluding
paragraph is expected to be the last one in an essay since it brings the write-up to a close. The
concluding paragraph is the last chance the writer has to impress the readers. The aim of
conclusion is to summarise all that has been written, not to introduce ideas to the readers.

Goals of Conclusion
i. Rephrase the main idea of your essay or the thesis statement.
ii. Summarise the sub-points of your essay.
iii. Recommend solutions, if the need arises.
iv. Leave your readers something to think about.
v. Avoid using phrases such as in summary, in conclusion, in closing, etc.
 The next step in the revising stage after the structure of the essay (the introduction, body
of paragraphs and conclusion) is well laid out is referencing. Referencing is a way of
acknowledging the use of other scholars or writers’ opinion, ideas, theories and inventions. Any
academic essay that draws from the ideas, words or research of other writers must contain
citations. Referencing in body of paragraphs is referred to as in- text citation, while at the end of
the essay, it is tagged reference list. To avoid plagiarism, a good writer must reference not only
direct quotes, but also ideas, and information that have been summarised or paraphrased. There
are many ways in citing resources from your research. The citation style depends on the
academic discipline.

Examples of the different citation styles are:

i. APA (American Psychological Association) is used by researchers in Education,

Humanities, Psychology and Social Sciences.
ii. MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used in the Humanities
iii. Chicago style is generally used by Business, History, and the Fine Arts.

Editing
Editing is the process of correcting grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors (see Mauk
& Metz, 2010). Editing is simply the process of finding minor problems with a text- the type that
can easily be fixed by deleting a word, phrase or even sentence, or cutting and pasting a
paragraph, and so on. The goal of editing is to improve a paper’s organization and the coherence
of its sentences.

Summary:

1. Revising and editing as post-writing tasks are necessary tools that ensure good writing
product.
2. It is noteworthy that the achievement of textual coherence is impossible without these two
aspects of the third stage of the writing process. Therefore, discussions in this module
 focused on specific guidelines and tips for revising and editing which will ease the problem
of prospective learners of English.

Self-Assessment Questions:

Language is indeed a miracrlefar from being fantastic. this miracle is occurring at the
moment. Any one reading this page know essentially what I was thinking what I wrote it.
Whereva this page goes, to denver or dublin, people know I was thinking. Similarly. If any of
these people were here in this room, and instead of writing. I were to start creating: with my
tongue and my teeth and the holes in my head, the intermittent sounds which we call speech,
they would know immediately what I am thinking. furthermore; for all or any of this to occur,
neither you or I need be conscious of the way it occurs. I need only what you know and you need
only refrain from leaving the room or throwing down the book:
(Adapted from Laird, C. (1975). The miracle of language. New York: The World
Publishing Co.)
1. Edit the punctuation and spelling errors from the above paragraph.
2. Make a list of the transition marker or phrase from the paragraph.
3. Give the functions of the items you listed 2.
4. Re-write the paragraph.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
4. understand the processes and stages involved in writing;
5. understand the major disparities between revising and editing as post writing activities; and
6. Get accustomed to the basic tenets of revising and editing.

Tutored Marked Assignment:

1. Correct the following fragments.

a. Because his car was in the shop. He took the bus.
b. Even though it was raining. The party continued.
c. Liza, the winner of the award. She was voted in by the consensus.
d. She should be reprimanded. Because of her inadequacies.
e. Because it is going viral. Investigated the cure of the disease by the doctor.
2. Correct the mis-spelt words in the following
a. She missed yellow and blue to make green.
b. The zoo keeper knocked the door with a chain.
c. She rejected the disk from the DVD player.
d. The doctor adviced that cold water is not good for drinking
e. I am working towards the end of the road.

References:

Alabi, V.A. (2013). The paragraph. In F.A. Adekola, V.A. Alabi, & S.T. Babatunde (eds.), The
use of English in higher education (pp 127-132). Ilorin: Unilorin Press.
Babatunde, S.T. (1998). Developing effective writing skills: basic requirement. In E.E. Adegbija
(ed.) Effective communication in higher education: The use of English (pp. 185-196).
Ilorin: Department of English.
Laird, C. (1975). The miracle of language. New York: The World Publishing Co.
Mauk. J., & Metz (2010). The composition of everyday life: A guide to writing. United States:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Further Readings:
Murray, D. (1982). Learning by teaching: selected articles on learning and teaching. Montclair,
NJ. Boynton/Cook.
Nzeogwu, C.K. (1966, January 15). Military coup speech. The Vanguard Newspaper. Retrieved
from http://www.vanguardngr.com
Smith, B. (2003). Proof reading, Revision, and editing Skills: Success in 20 minutes a day. New
York: Learning Express.
 CHAPTER 13
SPEECH WRITING AND MAKING
Ibukun Titilayo Osuolale-Ajayi

Introduction:
The productive aspects of language, i.e., writing and speaking are reflection of a person’s mastery
of a language. A communicative craft that involves these two aspects of language is speech writing and
speech making. Speech writing can be defined as the act of graphically representing one’s thoughts.
Speech making, on the other hand, is the formal or informal address conveyed to an audience which can
be rehearsed, impromptu or read from a manuscript. It can thus be inferred from the above that speech
writing and making involve both written and oral aspects of language. Speech writing and speech making
are cognitive acts that require mastery and research. In the following sub-sections, efforts shall be geared
toward uncovering the intricacies of rhetoric and speech writing in order to encourage their mastery.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
(i) enumerate the peculiarities of speech;
(ii) identify different speech varieties and their features;
(iii) specify speaking functions, types of delivery and effective speech strategies;
(iv) suggest and justify the ideal type of speech delivery based on a given topic; and
(v) (form a speech group and have each group member) deliver a brief speech on a given topic.

Main Content:
Speech Varieties
Speeches are classified based on the speaking occasion or the actual situational context. Broadly,
speeches can be categorised into formal and informal varieties. Examples of formal speeches incude:
i. Academic discourse
ii. Job interviews
iii. Presidential debates

Examples of informal speeches are:

i. Wedding speech
ii. Social media chatroom discourse
iii. Married couple discourse
iv. Colloquial discourse such as street talk, etc.

Speech Genres and their Functions

It is a known fact that people do not speak in void and that words are used to perform certain
actions. It is very important to identify the goals you want to achieve before selecting the type of speech
to be used. Some functional types of speech writing or making are discussed in the following:

a. Informative speech: This type of speech seeks to inform the audience on issues, processes, events,
concepts and objects unknown or unclear to them. This ensures that the audience gets clear and
credible information. A good informative speech must be devoid of abstractions and too many
technical terms. It is important that the knowledge of the audience should not be overestimated
 and the subject of the speech must be related directly to the audience by personalising ideas. An
example of an informative speech is: “The role of Nigerians in the 2019 General Election”.
b. Persuasive speech: The chief aim of this type of speech is to convince the listener or audience to
support or believe the points being pushed by the speaker. This requires the speaker to engage
and sustain the attention and interest of the audience. S/he is expected to provide logical
explanations that do not, in any way, insult or discredit the audience. This type of speech is used
by crusaders of specific causes to either gain passive agreement or trigger immediate action from
their audience. This speech can be formal or informal and its style is usually argumentative. An
example of an argumentative speech is “The increment of workers’ minimum wage and its effects
on national development”.
c. Entertainment speech: A speech that is satirical often tends to entertain. The aim of this type of
speech is to stimulate the humour sense of the audience while covertly criticisng any societal ill
the speaker decides to bring to fore. This type of speech is usually given at comic monologues
and weddings, etc. Speeches that aim to amuse people through illustration, stories, jokes, etc. are
entertainment speeches. This type of speech, which is usually short, can be categorised as
informal speech.
d. Demonstrative speech: Some speeches are aimed at giving vivid description of a thing or concept.
This type of speech can be facilitated via the use of visual aids and even audio recordings. A
speech that performs this function is known as demonstrative speech. This type of speech
educates the audience and it is usually expository in nature. An example is “How to Make an
Auto-Gele”. This speech can either be formal or informal.
e. Commemorative speech: A commemorative speech is a testimonial, tribute, or praise about a
person, an organisation and an institution. The goal of this speech is to earn the appreciation of
the audience and inspire them to take an action. It should be noted that this type of speech goes
beyond biography. Facts and laudable achievements of the subject or personality should be the
point of departure of the speech in order to stir desirable emotion and respect. Examples of
commemorative speech include eulogies and testimonial addresses.
f. Introductory speech: The objective of this speech is to get the audience acquainted with the
speaker or an awardee. This speech highlights the importance/achievements of the speakers, his
or her personal/educational background, as well as, his past and current positions/offices. It is
important to state why the speaker has been selected in order to create a longing for an experience
with him or her. A good introductory speech is usually brief and accurate.Heuristics in speech
composition

Heuristics in Speech Writing

Speech writing involves the pre-writing stage, the writing stage and the post-writing stage. The
stages would be discussed in turn in the following:

i. The pre-writing stage: the writer is expected to carry out research on the topic he wants (or is
expected to speak on). At this stage, a good speech writer brainstorms on how to make his
audience think the way he wants them to. The speech writer is expected to source for information
by carrying out research, interviews and survey.
ii. The writing stage: This is the main part of the writing. The structure of a scripted speech can be
divided into five parts:
a. The Heading/Title: It is obligatory for a scripted speech to have a specific title. The Heading
must include: the subject or topic of the speech (which may be omitted in some cases), the
date, venue, the occasion or the audience (which may not be included) and the name of the
person delivering the speech. It must be noted that there is no full stop after the title.
b. The Salutation: The speaker is expected to recognise, acknowledge, and appreciate members
 of the audience by mentioning them accordingly, that is, from the most ‘senior’ to ‘junior’ in
hierarchy. Hence, a good speech writer should have an idea of the dignitaries that would be
present at the occasion. It is pertinent that if a speaker notices that an important guest is
omitted on the script of the speech, s/he should acknowledge that person.
c. The Introduction: This part should be concise and it should be able to draw the attention of
the audience. That is, it should be able to heighten the interests of the audience in the speech.
The introduction should also serve as a preview of the body of the speech. Useful devices that
can help catch the attention of the audience are: “reference to the audience, reference to the
occasion, reference to the relationship between the audience and the topic, as well as, raising
a rhetorical question, telling a joke or giving an anecdote (Olowe, 2003, pp. 85-87)”.
d. The body should be written in a way that would ensure that the objectives of the speech
would be easily achievable. The body should also be written in clear language and thoughts
should be arranged in a chronological order. The writer must use discourse/transitional
markers and cohesive devices to link or connect his thoughts in order to achieve clarity.
Examples of discourse and cohesive markers include expressions such as: as well as, in order,
while, in addition to, etc. Ambiguous expressions should be avoided and if they must be used.
e. The Conclusion: The conclusion is very important in speech writing. It is not just good to
start well but it is better to start well and finish well. The audience should be given clues that
the speech is coming to an end and this is effectively done by summarising the main points in
the body of the work and giving a sentence to show the speech is about to be concluded. The
concluding paragraph of a speech should end on a very strong note, which may include: the
use of rhetorical questions, popular sayings, memorable quotes, anecdotes or proverbs. A
good conclusion is also courteous. The audience must be appreciated for listening.

Heuristics in Speech making

Speech making is one of the sides of the coin of speech. It is the act of delivering an address to an
audience. The peculiarities of speech making according to Oloruntoba-Oju and Alabi (2013, p.181)
include:

i. Audience/ Interlocutor presence or absence: While delivering speech, the audience is often
present. However, in some instances, the audience may not be physically present, for
example, in lectures given through virtual means.
ii. Immediacy of feedback: The decoders are able give immediate, elicited or not elicited
responses.
iii. Locutionary Range: Speech writing generates a vaster vocabulary than speech making
(impromptu and extempore speeches). That is, there are fewer communicative options in
speech making in terms of detail, precision and coherence compared to writing.
iv. Performative Instability: Speech making is often characterised with false-starts, hesitation,
performance slips, vocabulary and content grope, among others.
v. Topic Instability: Topics change occurs a lot in speech making as it is evident in most natural
occurring conversations/ informal discourse.
vi. Extra-linguistic and Paralinguistic Reinforcement: Non-verbal cues are important aspects of
communication. These cues can be used to substitute, contradict, reinforce and complement
spoken words. It is thus important for a speaker to constantly maintain eye contact with the
audience.

Speech Delivery Modes

Method of speech delivery depends on the audience, occasion, context or situation of the speech.
The following are the speech making methods:
1. Impromptu speech: As the name suggests, this type of speech is delivered with no forethought.
According to Ubong and Tonga (1997, p.55), it entails the sudden selection of speakers who may
not have the chance of premeditating on what to say. That is, the speaker finds himself or herself
giving a talk or responding to a question without preparation. Students are expected to always be
ready to engage in this type of speech as they can be called upon by their lecturer to answer
questions or defend their submissions without prior notice. The speaker, here, is expected to
quickly garner his or her thoughts in a coherent unit in order to have a successful communication.
Impromptu speech is a good means of evaluating the ability or competence of a person as it is
usually spontaneous. This type of speech, however, tends to lack a coherent or organised structure
as speakers engaged in it often use repetitive structures, vocal fillers, etc.
2. Manuscript speech: This type of speech occurs in written form. Manuscript speech is an
organised and thought-out text. “The written speech has the potential of enhancing vital and
accurate information within a given space and time; it also makes room for preparation,
premeditation and evaluation of all sides of the subject involved (Ubong and Tonga, 1997, p.
56)”. Manuscript speech has been criticised for being boring as it often disallows the speaker
from maintaining long eye-contact with his or her audience; it also does not encourage from
having diverse stage movements by the speaker which could actually engage the audience and
also reduce the distance between the speaker and the audience.
3. Extemporaneous speech: Extemporaneous speech, also known as an ‘extempore,’ is an act of
speaking without a detailed script or a note. This type of speech is in between impromptu and
manuscript speeches as the speaker puts his points down and then speaks to the points in his or
her words. This type of speech engages the attention of the audience more than impromtu speech.
It does not only reflect the expertise of the speaker in what s/he is saying but it also flexible in a
way that allows the audience to make contributions to what the speaker is saying. The use of a
defined speech outlines by speakers also makes the extemporaneous speech more coherent and
guarantees that no point is left out. The advantages of this type of speech may not be achievable if
the vocabulary of the person giving the speech is not wide as it discourages the use of detailed
manuscripts.
4. Memorised speech: Memorised speech is different from the earlier mentioned ones. This type of
speech delivery can be used to get the audience admirations as they can be carried along in fast
and coherent line of thought. “With this method, it is easy for an orator to prod his audience into
taking a particular line of action even before they have enough time to consider the consequences
of such action” (Ubong & Tonga, 1997, p.56). Some disadvantages of memorised speech are: it
does not encourage eye contact which is necessary in order to detect signs of boredom in the
audience; the speakers can have brain-block at some points, that is, s/he is at a risk of forgetting
part or the entire speech. It can be time consuming as more effort is needed in committing to heart
a prepared speech.
5. Discussion speech: Discussion speech delivery strategy involves deliberation between an anchor
person and the interviewees or respondents. The anchor person raises questions and that s/he
expects the members of his or her panel to answer. An example of this type of speech is lecturer-
student interaction in the classroom. This speech delivery technique engages the members raptly.
However, since it is usually time-bound, it does not encourage a contributor to give an extensive
response. It also allows discourse interruption which may have an adverse effect on the flow of
thoughts of the respondents/resource persons or the anchor.

Audience Analysis
The decoders of speech are the audience. A successful speech is one which has effectively
communicated its intentions to the audience. It is necessary for a speaker or writer to have a prior
knowledge of his or her audience in order to decide on the best channel of passing his or her goals. A
person delivering an impromptu speech may need to quickly evaluate his audience and carefully
 select or adjust what s/he would say in order to be clear and convincing for the audience. Olowe
(2003, p. 76) identifies three types of audience:

a. Passers-by or Drifters Audience: This type of audience is not primarily there because of the
speech event. Members of the audience who belong to this category are either at the speech event
to while away the time or for other personal reasons. It is important for the speaker to catch and
retain the attention of such people.
b. Captive or Hostage Audience: A captive audience is one that is forced to be at a speech event. An
example of a hostage audience includes secondary school students who are made to listen to a
health talk organised for them by their school authorities in conjunction with the National
Primary Healthcare Agency. The speaker must ensure s/he gets the rapt attention of this type of
audience.
c. Volunteer Audience: Audience that intentionally listens to a speech are referred to as volunteer
audience. They are usually interested in the speech and rarely complain about an unsuccessful
speech situation. A good orator must ensure that s/he enhances and sustains the interests of the
audience in order to “justify their confidence in him or her” (Olowe, ibid).

Information about the audience can be acquired before the speech situation via tools such as
interview, observation and questionnaire, etc. The following are the necessary facts about the
audience that must be considered before selecting the topic of speech, the style or diction and the
delivery strategies:

i. The psychology of the audience: The speaker must consider the emotional state of the
audience before delivering his speech. It would be inappropriate to crack unending jokes at
the burial of a young person.
ii. The age: The age of audience would determine the topic and the diction of the speech.
Delivering a speech on menopause is not relevant or appropriate to an audience made up of
primary and secondary school students. The style of speech delivery to young people should
be lively and interesting than one addressed to aged people. For instance, catch phrases such
as: “Greatest Nigerian Students…. Greatest NASELITES…” could be used to start a speech
addressed to Nigerian English students. Also, the speech must be relevant to the current
situation in the actual situational context. A speech on ‘the devaluation of the Nigerian
cowries’ is obsolete and irrelevant as cowries are no longer the legal tender.
iii. Gender: The gender of the majority of the expected audience should be considered at the pre-
delivery and even delivery stages. A speech titled “Being a Virtuous Woman” is appropriate
at a women conference.
iv. Racial, Religious and Ethnic background: It is important that a speaker considers the beliefs
and ideologies of his expected audience. It would be unacceptable to speak to a Christian
audience about the benefits of having two wives. It is advisable that the speaker should use
some in-group identity markers of his audience. This is could make him have a better
reception from them.
v. Educational Status: Words should be selected based on the educational status of the audience.
For instance, a speech targeted at the Association of Oja-Oba Market Women should be in
simple English, Nigerian Pidgin or the wider language of the immediate environment in order
to carry the audience along. The use of registers and jargons are highly necessary when
speaking to learned people who share similar educational background with the speaker as the
chances of miscommunication or misunderstanding is slim based on the affordances provided
by the common ground between them.

Summary:
 The structure of speech writing reveals five basic components: the title or heading, the salutation,
the introduction, the body and the conclusion. The language of the speech must be civil, simple and
uncontroversial. Four speech deliveries strategies are discussed in the chapter; extemporaneous speech
was recommended (especially to students as it shows lectures or examiners that the content of the speech
has been well researched and mastered by such students). However, some occasions, like inauguration
speech by presidents, usually does provide affordance for extemporaneous speech. When manuscript
speech is to be used, it is important that the speaker maintains regular eye contact while reading it.

Self-Assessment Questions:
(i) Discuss the peculiarities of speech.
(ii) Distinguish among any three speech varieties.
(iii) Discuss two modes of speech delivery you are familiar with.
(iv) Compose a speech of about 500 words on any subject of your choice.
(v) Considering with close adherence to the heuristics of speech making, attempt a delivery of the
speech composed in (iv) above to your group members.

Tutor Marked Assignment:

(i) Distinguish between the following sets of speech delivery modes:

(a) Discussion and Extemporaneous
(b) Manuscript and Memorised
(c) Impromptu and Extemporaneous
(ii) Discuss the imperativeness of audience analysis in speech writing and delivery.

References:
Alabi, V. A., & S. T. Babatunde (eds.) (2005) Basic Communication Skills for Students and
Humanities. Ilorin: University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Babatunde, S. T., Alabi, V. A., Alabi, T. A. & Egbewole, W. O. (Eds.)(2018). Fundamentals of the
Use of English. Ilorin: Published by the GNS Division, University of Ilorin.
Quirk, R., & Greenbaum, S. (1973) A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.

Further Reading:
Oloruntoba-Oju, T., & Alabi, T. A. (2015). Speech making and oratory. In V. A. Alabi, S. T. Babatunde,
& F. A. Adekola (Eds.) The use of English in higher education (pp.181-193). Ilorin:
Department of English, University of Ilorin.
Olowe, D. (2003). Speeches. In B. Aremo. (Ed.), Advanced English compositions (pp.73-91). Nigeria:
Daily Graphics Limited.
Ubong, J., & Tonga. S. (1997). Speech making. In A.N. Tonga. (Ed.) Use of English for polytechnics
(pp.55-69). Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.
 CHAPTER 18
STUDY TYPES AND HABITS
Kifayat Gambari-Olufadi

Introduction
Effective studying is quite essential for successful learning at the university.
There are usually many courses you take across several semesters, and it is your
performances in the courses that shall cumulate into the class you will attain in the target
Degrees. Interestingly, every course you take involves a myriad of human and material
resources that must be accessed/procured, read, understood and efficiently applied in
problem solving. One problem students have with study is their inability to grasp the
meaning (and appreciate the nature) of study. You cannot give that you do not have,
hence without some insight into what constitutes study you may not be able to engage in
it well. When you have an appropriate view of study, you would know how best to
adjust yourself to it.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

(i) Define effective studying.

(ii) Explain the types of study you know.
(iii) Explain study habits.
(iv) Discuss the relationship between study types and study skills.
(v) Explain the role of reading skills in effective study types and habits.
(vi) Distinguish between “skimming” and “Scanning” as learning skills.

Main Content
Meaning and Nature of Studying
Studying here means going about knowledge acquisition methodically, paying
attention to time, organization of learning experiences and the utilization of the
knowledge gained in problem-solving. The entire education process revolves study. No
matter the level, every serious learner has periods of reviewing what he/she has learnt and
preparing for that which will be learnt later. Studying becomes the most serious task
before the university student. The more effectively the student is able to organize his/her
study, the better the learning outcome.
Effective studying has neither beginning nor ending for the university student.
Every situation and experience count for knowledge building at that level. Even
encounters in dreams would seem to be relevant for developing attitude and skills at the
university.
Study Types
The more frequently and persistently the student practices the study types, the greater the
tendency for the skills obtained to become a habit (Grace, 2013). With the right skills,
you can study independently in differing situations and obtain good results.
Classroom Skills
One of the vital skills of studying has to do with the classroom. You need to appreciate
the nature, structure and purpose of the classroom, so that you could learn effectively
from that space. The classroom involves listening and lecturing at the university. Thus,
you should:
• Prepare ahead of lecture.
• Compose yourself in the classroom.
• Listen attentively.
• Note the points emphasized by the lecturer. Such points may become the foci of tests and
examinations.
• Gather the points made by the lecturer and relate them to the facts you already know; you
must avoid prejudice against the new points made by the lecturer.
• Record the lecturer (on tape) if you have the right gadgets, without constituting a
nuisance to fellow students.
Studying Textbook
The textbook is a very import source of learning for the university student. On the
different courses offered across the disciplines, the student must read textual materials of
different front lengths and authors. The structures and linguistic textures of the materials
place considerate thrust on you. In certain situations, you may need to borrow the
textbooks, especially when your library could not procure them, or you lack the fund with
which to purchase personal copies.
Gaining Initial Insight into the Textbook
In order to maximize your gains from a textbook, you need to familiarize yourself with its
key features such as the title, prefatory pages, the major headings, sub-headings and
illustrations. The skill you will apply here is surveying.
Setting Your Purpose
Ahead of surveying the textbook, you must set your purpose for studying. You should
determine the types and quantity of information you require. Purpose setting will prevent
you from attempting to grasp irrelevant details.
Use the SQ3R Method
This is a study strategy five steps involving: survey, question, read, recite, and review.
Survey
As already explained, survey involves you going through the textbook to identify the
sections relevant for your purpose of study. In the process, you reduce the volume of
reading you would do, and stand the chance to preserve your energy for the actual mental
processing of the facts you will encounter in print.
Read
Then read the material with concentration. See if you could locate where answers to
specific questions may be found and underline the places cautiously. As you read
sections, pause to ask questions, and attempt to answer the questions relying on the
knowledge just gained. The more correctly you answer the questions, the more efficient
your reading. While reading, you may:
i make short notes in the margins on pages to summarize points.
ii build an outline of the ideas that you have imbibed from the textbook. Such an outline
may be strengthened by the lectures or discussions you would later engage in.
iii consult sources, such as the dictionary and thesaurus, for meaning.

The study type of reading is known as scanning, while skimming is appropriate for
surveying the text.
The Use of Study Group
 By his nature, man is a gregarious animal, tending to go along with his peers. Studying
can benefit well from this aspect of man’s life. You could organize or join an existing
study group. In doing so, you must be sure that members are focused, friendly and
committed to fellow students that could contribute to the advancement of group goals.
Study group, if properly managed, will:
Study Habits
• Study habit may be considered as the time-tested attitude to, and practice of extracting
information from texts, which include books, journals, notes, social media, and relevant
others. In other words, study habit is formed cautiously, steadily and fairly
unconsciously. Persistent practice of result-oriented learning strategies leads to study
habit.
• Note that no two people are the same. You cannot study and learn the same way as any
other student (or person) on earth. Your own learning preference may never tally with
anyone else’s.
Strategies for Improving Study Habits
You will develop appropriate study habits if you employ good strategies,
including knowing yourself, planning your time well, constantly reminding yourself of
the purpose for your studying, preparing ahead of lectures, taking useful notes, visiting
the library regularly, surfing the Internet suitably, studying in conducive environment,
and engaging in a group discussion. These strategies are:
knowing yourself
plan your time
remember your purpose of study
prepare good notes
organize the place where you study
know the position in which you study best

Summary
Studying means the various steps taken to acquire knowledge by paying attention
to time, organising learning experiences and utilising the knowledge gained in problem-
solving. Studying is therefore a necessity for students.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. What is effective studying?
2. Explain the types of study you know.
3. What are study habits?
4. Discuss the relationship between study types and study skills.
5. Explain the role of reading skills in effective study types and habits.

Tutor Marked Assignment

1. Give any five (5) advantages, and five (5) disadvantage of study group.
2. List the steps you will take in organizing a study group

References
Grace, F. (2013). Would study group improve your grades? Retrieved from
www.about.com. 11/3/2016.
Husain, A. (2000). Developing study habits. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Knight, T.O. (1993). Study strategies for college. USA: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.

Further Reading

Olajide, S.B. (2009). Types of reading. In V.A. Alabi, & S.T. Babatunde (eds.), The use
of English in higher education (pp. 43-52). Ilorin: University of Ilorin, General
Studies Division.
Olajide, S.B. (2010). Linking reading and writing in the ESL classroom for national
reconstruction. International Education Studies, 3 (3), 195 - 200.
Online: http://ccsenet.org/journal/in dex.php/ies/article/viewFile/5889/466.
Olajide, S.B. (2018). Employing the cognitive content of student-teachers reading
comprehension performance in Nigerian Colleges of Education. KIU Journal of
Social Sciences, 4(1), 271-278.
Online: http://www.ijhumas.com/ojs/x.php/kiujoss/issue/current. :
 CHAPTER 11
TWO TYPES OF WRITING: CREATIVE AND LETTER WRITING
Patrick O. Balogun (Ph.D.) & Bamitale J. Balogun

Introduction

Writing is one of the invaluable four skills of learning in the English language.
The other three skills are Reading, Speaking and Listening. In terms of chronology,
it is not feasible to substantiate the oldest, the most important, or perhaps the
strongest in application among these four skills. On the other hand, an
incontrovertible issue about writing in particular and the other three skills identified
above in general, is the fact that the subject of this discourse is employed to
document the activities of the other three. In other words, writing performs the
function of putting in black and white visibly the operations of the other three skills.

Learning Outcomes At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(i) mention the types of letters.

(ii) identify the similarities among the letter types.
(iii) distinguish among informal, semi-formal and formal letters.
(v) highlight and illustrate the stages in the formats of formal, semi-formal
and informal letters.
Main Content
The meaning and Nature of Writing
Writing is a means of communication through the use of graphic symbols to
sensitise a reading audience about a contextual experience. The experience to be
represented in writing is also reflected in sounds that a speaker makes. In other words,
writing is “the use of symbols of letters of the alphabets and their combination in order to
relate to the sound we make when we speak” (Byne, 1979, p. 8). The realisation of the
above requires the use of a number of sentences orderly arranged and linking one another
depending on what is intended in a particular writing.

Two Types of Writing and their Characteristics

Creative Writing: Creative writing is a type of writing where the writer’s imagination is
solely at work. Also, fiction and in few cases non-fiction are the conventions with which
a creative writer’s imagination is demonstrated. Simple narrative and complex verse are
the two dominants literary devices and language styles adopted by creative writers to
send across their messages.
Creative writing has three broad aspects artistically referred to as genres which are prose,
essay and poetry
Letter Writing
Letter writing is a correspondence which could be formal, informal and semi-formal
between two parties; (a person or an organisation, an establishment representing a
person). There are three types of letters; formal or official letter, informal or friendly
letter and semi-formal letter. Though the three types are meant to communicate, each has
its unique formats or formal features what could generally be referred to as conventions.
 Formal/ Official Letter and its Formal Features: A formal or an official letter is the
correspondence between a superior and a subordinate in an establishment or any
correspondence done in an official setting for official purpose(s).
Below are the formal features of a formal letter :

- The writer’s address and date

- The recipient’s address
- Salutation
- The title or heading of the letter
- The body of the letter
- Complimentary close/subscription and name

Informal/Friendly Letter and its Features: This type of letter is termed a friendly letter
because it does not carry any element of formality. Rather, it uses much familiarity in its
presentation. Its formal features (FF) are:

- The writer’s address and date

- Salutation
- The Body
- Complimentary close or subscription and name

Semi-formal Letter and its features: This type of letter has dual nationality in the sense
that it has a few formal features of a formal letter and other formal features of an
informal letter. It is neither formal nor informal. Other than this duality, its
writer’s address and date, recipient’s address and body have the same format and
structure with those letter types already discussed.
The formal features of a semi-formal letter are the writer’s address and date, the
recipient’s address, salutation, the body, complimentary close or subscription and name.
The possession of a recipient’s address and a complimentary close that is peculiar
makes this type of letter semi-formal.
Summary
It is vivid that writing is the peak of all the four learning skills of English language.
Though the four major language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are
invaluable and cannot be despised by a person who wants to be literate, it will be very
safe to submit that writing has an edge over the other three because it is through it that the
other learning skills remember that they are alive. Writing is a skill that is interactive.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Identify the three types of letters.
2. Identify the essentials (formal features) of these types of letters.
3. Differentiate among their formal features.
4. Identify the similarities among them.
 Tutor Marked Assignment
On your way back home on a journey, you had an accident on Lagos-Ibadan express way
and you were taken to a private hospital near Ibadan where you were adequately taken
care of. Write a letter of about two hundred and fifty words expressing your appreciation
to the Medical Director of the hospital.

References
Aluko, T. M. (1970). Chief the honourable miniter, London: Heinemann.
Balogun, J. (2010). The desert in the river. Ilorin: Haytee Publishers.
Byne, D. (1979). Teaching writing skills. London: Longman.
La Guma, A. (1974). A walk in the night. London: Heinemann.

Further Reading

N.T.I. (1990). Course book on English language. Cycles1, 2, 3, 4. Kaduna: National

Teachers’ Institute (N.T.I).
Okpewho, I. (1976). The last duty. London: Longman.