16-Feb-10

Conductors
3.6 CONDUCTORS
How is the charge distributed on the surface?
In a conductor electrons are free to move around at the influence
of an electric field E . Thus for an equilibrium static charge E E E
distribution it is necessary (and sufficient) that there be no E
electric field (E = 0) anywhere inside the conductor. Otherwise r
Gn pillbox
with E ≠ 0 inside, charges would move i.e. non-static case. + + + + + + + +

Since E = 0, ∫ E.dA = 0 for any surface A within the conductor. E on the surface must be normal to the surface (E // dA).
Any other direction would give a tangential component Et.
Qencl Any tangential Et would cause the charges to move (i.e. non-static)
But
∫ E.dA = εo
; thus if E = 0, ⇒ no net charge can exist within
in the direction of Et (until Et is cancelled).
the conductor, i.e. in a conductor, all excess charge Q must reside
on the surface outside the conductor. r
For the Gaussian pill-box above:
∫ E.dA = E . A n

Conductors ? What about potential-difference inside a conductor

Note: ∫ E.dA = E . A n
We shall very soon see that the potential difference between
(i) there is no tangential contribution, Et = 0 points a and b is given by:
(ii) no contribution from inside the conductor, Einside = 0 b

(iii) Qencl by Gn. pillbox is σA = σ(π

πr2) Vb − Va = − ∫ E.dl
a
σA
⇒ ∫ E.dA = E. A = εo
But since inside a conductor E = 0, then
b
Vb − Va = − ∫ E.dl = 0
∴ E=σ
for any path dl inside a conductor.
[E-field on the surface of a conducting plane]
εo
a

⇒Vb = Va for any two points within the conductor, i.e. the
Compare this, with that for an infinite plane of charge, where: potential V is constant throughout the conductor.
σ
E= [ E-field of an infinite plane of charge ]
2ε o

Example: (Conducting Spheres) Conducting Spheres

A solid conducting sphere is placed inside Solution

a conducting spherical shell. The solid Construct Gn. spheres at positions (I) – (IV)
sphere of radius a has net charge 3Q;
the spherical shell has inner radius b, (i) At Gn. sphere (I); r < a: (inside conductor)
outer radius c and net charge –Q. ⇒ Qencl = 0.
⇒ ∫ E.dA = E (4π r 2 ) = encl = 0 ∴ EI = 0
Q
εo
(a) Find the electric field at points marked
(I), (II), (III) and (IV) on the diagram.
(ii) At Gn. sphere (II); a <r < b:
(b) Sketch a plot showing the variation of
Qencl = 3Q.
E with the radius r, covering the
points (I) – (IV). ⇒ ∫ E.dA (
= E 4π r 2 = ) Qencl
εo
=
3Q
εo
∴ E II =
3Q
(c) Evaluate the charge distribution on the 4π ε o r 2
spherical shell.

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Conducting Spheres Conducting Spheres

(iv) At Gn. sphere (IV), r > c :
(iii) At Gn sphere (III), b < r < c:
Qencl = +3Q + (-Q) = 2Q
(this is inside a conductor)
Note: The charge on the inner surface of ( Q
⇒ ∫ E .dA = E 4π r 2 = encl =
2Q
) εo εo
spherical shell must be -3Q to cancel the
net +3Q charge of the solid sphere; -3Q is ∴ EIV =
2Q
=
Q
4πε o r 2 2πε o r 2
induced by the +3Q. ∴ Qencl = 0
E
⇒ ∫ E.dA = E 4π r =
2
( ) Qencl
εo
=0 (b) EI = 0 EII ∝
1
r2
EIII = 0 E IV ∝
1
r2
E IV < EII

∴ E III = 0 This is as expected, since E inside a conductor

must be 0.

Conducting Spheres 4.0 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Suppose that we release a positive test
(c) Charge distribution on the shell E
charge +q near plate I, the test charge
E will accelerate towards plate II. Clearly
the test charge possesses potential
Since EIII = 0, the inner side of the shell must have charge
energy (due to E ) which gets changed to
qinside = -3Q to counter the charge (+3Q) on the surface of kinetic energy.
the solid sphere. E
Work, Potential Energy and Potential Difference
The net charge of the shell (-Q) is the sum of charge on
E The electric force on a test charge (+q) is
the inner surface and outer surface,
F = qE . When we want to move the charge
i.e. -Q = -3Q + qoutside ⇒ qoutside = -Q + 3Q = 2Q B A
from A to B we apply an external
r r +q
F = − qE
r r
F = qE
“quasi-static” force against the field,
F = - qE .
E

The work done against the electric field is

4.1 Potential Difference due to a Point Charge
E Q
dW = F .dl = − q E .dl E= rˆ
4π ε o r 2
B B
⇒ W = ∫ dW = − q ∫ E.dl
B B

E VB − VA = − ∫ E.dl = − ∫ E .dr
A A E A A
Since the electric field is conservative, the work done can be dl dl
Note: from A to B, the direction
considered as simply the change in potential energy, i.e. of E is opposite the direction of dl
( )
B
W = PE B − PE A = U B − U A = − q ∫ E.dl E E.dl = E dl cos 180o = − E dl
A

The change in PE per unit positive charge is called As we move a distance dl to the left, we are moving in a direction of
Potential Difference (p.d), ∆V, i.e. decreasing r, so that, dl = - dr

UB −U A
B
B
∴ E.dl = − E dl = E dr
∆V = VB − V A =
q
= − ∫ E .dl ∫
i.e. ∆V = − E.dl
A
A

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E
B B
⇒ VB − VA = − ∫
Q Q 1 4.2 Electric Potential at a Point
4π ε o ∫A r 2
dr = − dr
A
4π ε o r 2
E E The potential difference (p.d) is the most useful concept, but
dl dl
Q  1
B
Q 1 1 sometimes the potential at a point is sought; hence a reference point
VB − V A = − − =+  − 
4π ε o  r  A 4π ε o  rB r A  must be chosen at which we shall say potential equals to zero.
E
For spherical symmetry V∝ 1/r hence its convenient to choose V = 0
Q 1 1 1 1 for r → ∞. With this definition, the potential V at a distance r is
VB − V A =  −  = kQ  − 
4π ε o  rB r A   rB rA  given by r
Q 1 1  Q kQ
Vr = − ∫ E.dr ⇒ Vr = +  r − ∞  = 4π ε r = r
How about VBC? ∞
4π ε o o

For B → C , dl ⊥ E ⇒ E.dl = 0 Summary: For point charges, Q

C
∴ VBC = VC − VB = − ∫ E .dl = 0 ⇒ VBC = VC − VB = 0 Q kQ Q kQ Q2 kQ 2
V= = ; E= = 2 ; F= = 2
B
4πε o r r 4πε o r 2
r 4πε o r 2
r
or VC = VB i.e. path B → C is an equipotential

4.3 Electric Potential due to several charges 4.4 Electric Potential due to Continuous
Charge Distribution
q1
The potential at point P is due to the
r1 Here again the derivation of the potential requires that we
sum of the contributions from each charge.
P work out the potential dV due to an elemental section with
r2 q1 q2 qi charge dq cut out of a larger structure.
r3 VP = + +
q2 q3 4π ε o r1 4π ε o r2 4π ε o ri k dq
kq1 kq2 k qi dV =
= + + r
r1 r2 ri
Then the total potential is given by

qi
VP = k ∑ V = ∫ dV = k ∫
dq 1 dq
4π ε o ∫ r
=
i ri r

Potential Energy of Point Charges

4.5 Potential Energy of Point Charges
A point charge q1 establishes a potential
V1 at a point P, given by If there are more than two charges,
kq the total potential energy , U, is
V1 = 1
r obtained by calculating U for
The work (qV) required to bring a second charge q2 from infinity every pair (Uab) and summing
to point P (quasi-statically) is over the terms.
k q1 q2
W = q2 V1 = q q qq q q 
r12 U = k  1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3 
r
 12 r13 r23 
But this work is the potential energy of the system of charges, i.e

k q1 q2 qq
U= = 1 2
r12 4π ε o r12

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5.0 OBTAINING E-FIELD FROM ELECTRIC POTENTIAL In vector notation

From the definition of the potential difference, we know that r
B E = − ∇V = grad V
∆V = VB − VA = − ∫ E.dl
dV r
A
where the gradient (del operator) is,
⇒ r = −E
dl ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
This means that ∂x ∂y ∂z
r dV
E=− r is a component of the vector E in the direction of dl, i.e. Note: The del operator (∇∇) turns a scalar function (e.g. V)
dl
into a vector function (e.g. E).
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − ; Ey = − ; and E z = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
r  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V  where iˆ, ˆj , kˆ ≡ xˆ, yˆ ,kˆ
i.e. E = − iˆ + j +k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

Example 5.1 Examples of V and E calculations

Suppose that V = 3x2y + y2 + yz volts. Determine E. 5.1.1 Point Charge
E
Solution q kq
Vr = =
dA

r  ∂V ˆ ∂V ∂V  4π ε o r r
E = − ∇V = − iˆ + j + kˆ
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂z  E r
dA
E
E = − ∇V since E is radial
dA
∂V ∂V r ∂V
Ex = − = −6x y; E y = − = − (3x 2 + 2y + z ); E = E rˆ = − rˆ
∂x ∂y dA
∂r
E
∂V ∂V d  kq   d  1 
Ez = − = −y E=−
kQ
= −   = − k q    = − k q ( −1) r − 2 = 2
∂z ∂r dr  r   d r  r  r
r
{
∴ E = − iˆ(6 xy ) + ˆj 3 x 2 + 2 y + z + kˆ( y ) ( ) } r kq
E = 2 rˆ =
q
rˆ
r 4π ε o r 2

5.1.2 Electric Dipole Electric Dipole

k qa kP
VM = =
a/2 a/2
M
[r 2
− (a / 2 )
2
] [r 2
− (a / 2 )
2
]
-q
x
+q E
r
EM = −
∂VM
∂r
= −k P
∂ 2
∂r
r − (a / 2 )
2
{[ ] −1
}
 +q −q   (r + a / 2 ) − (r − a / 2 ) 
VM = k  +  = k q  (r − a / 2 )(r + a / 2 )  [
= − k P ( −1) r 2 − ( a / 2) 2 ] −2
( 2r ) =
2k r P
 (r − a / 2 ) (r + a / 2 )  (r )
2
  2
− a2 / 4

⇒ VM =
k qa
=
kP r 2k r P 1  2r P 
[r 2
− (a / 2 )
2
] [r 2
− (a / 2 )
2
] EM =
(r 2
−a /4 2
)
2
iˆ =  2
( 2
4π ε o  r − a / 4 
2
iˆ
) AS BEFORE

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5.1.3 Ring of Charge

6.0 CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS
k dQ dQ
dV = ⇒ VP = k ∫ For a spherical conductor of radius R,
r r with charge Qo, we know that the charge
As we sum around the ring both resides on the surface (an equi-potential).
θ
θ
x and r are constant. The potential is given by
k kQ kQ
r∫
∴ VP = dQ = = Vo =
kQo
=
Qo
r a2 + x2 R 4π ε o R
The electric field at point P is (by symmetry) along the x-axis, i.e.
If the charge Q on the surface of the sphere is changed to Q1
∂V
E = Ex = −
∂x
d
= − kQ a 2 + x 2
dx
( ) −1 / 2
(without changing the radius of the sphere), then the new potential
on the sphere is kQ Q1
⇒ E = − kQ (−1 / 2 ) a 2 + x 2 ( ) (2x ) = kQ x(a
−3/ 2 2
+ x2 ) −3/ 2 V1 = 1 =
R 4π ε o R

kQx i.e. in general: V ∝ Q , or Q ∝ V ⇒ Q = CV

E= iˆ
(a )
AS BEFORE
2 3/ 2
2
+x where the constant of proportionality C, is called the capacitance.

6.1 Example Derivations of Capacitance 6.1.1 Capacitance of a Solid Conducting Sphere

Capacitance is a function of only the geometry For a charge Q on the sphere

(e.g. radius, length, area etc.) of the conductor and Q V 1
is independent of the charge Q or voltage V on the V= ⇒ =
4π ε o R Q 4π ε o R
conductor.
Q 1
C= = 4π ε o R =   R
Although the defining equation for the capacitance V k 
CAPACITANCE ON A SPHERE
involves charge and voltage, the result of a calculation
or derivation for C should depend only on the geometry Note: since π and εo are constants, C is considered to be dependent
of the conductor. only on the geometrical parameter of the sphere – the radius, R.

6.1.2 Parallel-plate Capacitor Parallel-plate Capacitor

(i) the top of the pillbox is inside the conducting

Assume d << A so that E is almost uniform; E
plate; where E = 0,
the +Q charge at the bottom of the top plate
(ii) on the sides of the pill-box E ⊥ dA, ⇒ E.dA = 0
E induces –Q at the top of the bottom plate.
Qencl Q
Applying Gauss’ Law on the top plate ∴ ∫ E.dA = E. Abottom = ⇒ E= ; or Q = ε o AE
εo εo A
Qencl
∫ E.dA = εo r
From E = −
dV r ∆V V
⇒ E = =
For the Gaussian pillbox dl ∆l d
r r r r r r where V is the p.d between the plates.
⇒ ∫ E.dA = ∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA + ∫ E.dA V
∴Q = ε o A 

; Q εo A Parallel-plate
top sides bottom C= =
E d  V d
Capacitance
= 0 + 0 + E. A

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Dielectrics (Insulators) Effect on Capacitance Examples

An of
Assortment of Parallel-plate
Parallel-plate
Capacitors
Recall that the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by: Capacitors
ε o A where ε is the permittivity of the “free” space between the
C= o
d
plates of the capacitor.

εoA εA εo κ A
εo C = Co = ε = κεo C= =
d d d

When the “free” space between the plates is replaced by a

dielectric (insulator), of dielectric-constant κ, the capacitance
increases linearly with κ ; C = κ Co.

6.1.3 Capacitance between Concentric

Capacitance between Concentric Conducting Spheres
Conducting Spheres

E A charge Q on the inner sphere induces Q 1 1 Q b − a 

V= − ⇒ V=
(an equal but opposite charge) –Q on the
4π ε o  a b  4π ε o  ab 
inner surface of the outer sphere. E is
radially outward.
The potential difference V between the spheres is V 1 b − a 
so that: =
a a Q 4π ε o  ab 
Q
V = Va − Vb = − ∫ E.dr = − ∫ dr
4π ε o r 2
b b
Q  ab 
a
or that: C= = 4π ε o  
Capacitance for

b − a 
a
Q 1 Q  1 Q 1 1 V Concentric Spheres

4π ε o ∫b r 2
⇒ V =− dr = − − =+ −
4π ε o  r  b 4π ε o  a b 

Capacitance between Coaxial Cylinders

6.1.4 Capacitance between Coaxial Cylinders
Note: at the ends, E ⊥ dA ⇒ E.dA = 0
A charge +Q on the inner cylinder
Qencl Q
⇒ E=
will induce –Q on the inner
surface of the outer cylinder. E is ∫ E.dA = E (2π rL) = εo 2π ε o rL
rˆ
radial, perpendicular to the axis
L of the cylinders. Determine E a a
Q
of the Gaussian cylinder first, then V = Va − Vb = − ∫ E .dr = − ∫ dr
find V = Va - Vb. b b
2π ε o r L
a
Using the Gaussian cylinder (radius r, length L) Q 1 Q
[ln r ] Q
[ln a − ln b ]
L∫r
⇒V = − dr = − =−
a
Q 2π ε o 2π ε L b
2π ε o L
∫ E.dA = εenclo b o

r r r r
ln (a / b ) = + ln (b / a )
Q Q
⇒ ∫ E .dA = ∫ E.dA +
ends
∫ E.dA = 0 + E (2π rL)
curved
⇒V = −
2π ε o L 2π ε o L
surface

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Capacitance between Coaxial Cylinders 6.2 Energy in Capacitors

ln (b / a ) ln (b / a )
Q V 1 Suppose that an elemental charge
V = ⇒ =
2π ε o L Q 2π ε o L E dq is brought in from infinity
to a charged spherical capacitor.
Since the capacitor is charged, an
∴ C = Q = 2π ε o L Capacitance for elemental work dW is done (against
V ln (b / a ) Coaxial Cylinders the electric field E). Thus the
capacitor will acquire energy equal
The characteristic capacitance of a practical coaxial cable to the work done;
is defined as the capacitance per unit length, i.e. a a
 q 
dW = dq.V = − dq ∫ E .dr = − dq ∫   dr
∞
4πε o r 2 
C 2π ε o ∞
i.e. = Characteristic Capacitance
L ln (b / a ) of a Coaxial Cable  q a 1  q  1 
a
q
⇒ dW = − dq   ∫ 2 dr = − dq    −  = + dq
 4π ε o ∞ r  4π ε o  r  ∞ 4π ε o a

Energy in Capacitors 6.2.1 Energy Density in a charged Capacitor

Any additional charge dq brought in requires additional work to be Consider a Parallel-plate Capacitor (as an example).
done. Thus the total work W done to build the charge up to Q is

1  Q2 
Q Q
q 1
W =∫ dq = ∫ q dq =   =U εo A
0
4π ε o a 4π ε o a 0
4π ε o a  2  C=
d
Q Q Q 1
i.e. U=   = V   = QV 1 1 ε A 1 ε A d 
4π ε o a  2  2 2 ⇒ U = V 2C = V 2  o  = V 2 .  o . 
2 2  d  2  d d 
Q Q 1 V 2 
but C=
V
⇒ Q = CV or V =
C
2 d 
1
2
( )
⇒ U = ε o  2 ( Ad ) = ε o E 2 .(vol )
Energy in a Capacitor,
∴
2
1 1 1Q
U = QV = C V 2 = in the E-field, or due U 1
2 2 2 C to the charge, Q. i.e. = u = εoE2 Energy Density of an Electric Field
vol 2

Energy Density in a charged Capacitor Capacitor Combinations (Review)

U=
1
2
( )
ε o E 2 .(vol )
1. Parallel combination
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ......
C1 C2 C3

Thus, the general expression for energy, U, is given by

2. Series combination
1
U = ε o ∫ E 2 dτ 1 1 1 1 C1 C2 C3
= + + + .......
2 C C1 C2 C3
where dτ is the elemental volume. For just two capacitors in series…
1 1 1 CC C1 C2
= + ; ∴C= 1 2
C C1 C2 C1 + C2

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Electric Dipole in an Electric Field (Review) Electric Dipole in an Electric Field

+q + r Suppose that an electric dipole, pivoted at Suppose that the electric

F
r O, is placed in a uniform electric field E dipole is placed in a uniform
p r as shown in the figure. The electric forces electric field E and makes
O E
r
F acting on the two charges are equal in
an angle θ with the field
_ magnitude (F = qE), but are opposite in
F -q direction, hence they form a torque τ. as shown.

Since the separation between the charges is a, the moment arm for
each force is ½a; thus the torque on each charge is F(½a), so that
the total torque on the dipole is τtotal = 2F(½a) = aF = aqE. This is
the maximum torque on the dipole.
τmax = aqE = pE
In this example, the dipole is perpendicular (⊥) to the E field giving
maximum torque; what if the angle θ was other than 900?
The electric forces acting on the two charges are equal in
magnitude (F = qE), but opposite in direction, forming a
torque (τ), or turning moment. The torque about O for each
charge is: τ = F(½a)sinθ, giving the total torque as
τtotal = 2F(½a)sinθ = aFsinθ = aqEsinθ = pEsinθ
r r r
i.e. τ = p× E