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2013 - Fundamental Gas Turbine Heat
2013 - Fundamental Gas Turbine Heat
2013 - Fundamental Gas Turbine Heat
Transfer
Gas turbines are used for aircraft propulsion and land-based power generation or
industrial applications. Thermal efficiency and power output of gas turbines increase
Je-Chin Han with increasing turbine rotor inlet temperatures (RIT). Current advanced gas turbine
Turbine Heat Transfer Laboratory,
engines operate at turbine RIT (1700 C) far higher than the melting point of the blade
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
material (1000 C); therefore, turbine blades are cooled by compressor discharge air
Texas A&M University,
(700 C). To design an efficient cooling system, it is a great need to increase the under-
College Station, TX 77843-3123
standing of gas turbine heat transfer behaviors within complex 3D high-turbulence
e-mail: jc-han@tamu.edu
unsteady engine-flow environments. Moreover, recent research focuses on aircraft gas
turbines operating at even higher RIT with limited cooling air and land-based gas tur-
bines burn coal-gasified fuels with a higher heat load. It is important to understand and
solve gas turbine heat transfer problems under new harsh working environments. The
advanced cooling technology and durable thermal barrier coatings play critical roles for
the development of advanced gas turbines with near zero emissions for safe and long-life
operation. This paper reviews fundamental gas turbine heat transfer research topics and
documents important relevant papers for future research. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4023826]
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications JUNE 2013, Vol. 5 / 021007-1
Copyright VC 2013 by ASME
heat transfer. These include publications by “Film Cooling” by review papers) edited by Shih [13], Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine
Goldstein [3], “Turbine Cooling” by Suo [4], “Cooling Techni- Systems (included 10 keynote papers) edited by Simon and Gold-
ques for Gas Turbine Airfoils” by Metzger [5], “Some Considera- stein [14]. Meanwhile, many review papers related to gas turbine
tions in the Thermal Design of Turbine Airfoil Cooling Systems” heat transfer and cooling problems are available: “Convection
by Elovic and Koffel [6], and “Turbine Cooling and Heat Trans- Heat Transfer and Aerodynamics in Axial Flow Turbines” by
fer” by Lakshminarayana [7]. Several review articles related to Dunn [15], “Gas Turbine Heat Transfer: 10 Remaining Hot Gas
gas turbine heat-transfer problems by Graham [8] and Simoneau Path Challenges” by Bunker [16], “Gas Turbine Film Cooling” by
and Simon [9] are also available. Bogard and Thole [17], “Turbine Blade Cooling Studies” at Texas
A&M 1980–2004 by Han [18], “Turbine Cooling System Design-
Several Books Have Been Published Since 2000: Gas Turbine Past, Present and Future” by Downs and Landis [19], and
Heat Transfer and Cooling Technology by Han et al. [10], Heat “Aerothermal Challenges in Syngas Hydrogen-Fired and Oxyfuel
Transfer in Gas Turbines edited by Sunden and Faghri [11], Turbines” by Chyu et al. [20].
Heat Transfer in Gas Turbine Systems edited by Goldstein [12], The ASME Turbo Expo (IGTI International Gas Turbine Insti-
Special Section: Turbine Science and Technology (included 10 tute) has made conference CDs available to every year’s attendees
since 2000. These conference CDs contain all gas turbine heat to leak from the pressure side through a tip gap to the suction side.
transfer papers presented in each year’s IGTI conference. The This often causes damage on the blade tip near the pressure side
numbers of heat transfer related conference papers have increased trailing-edge region. It is important to understand the complex 3D
from about 100 in the year 2000 to about 200 in the year 2010. flow physics and associated heat-transfer distributions on the rotor
Approximately 25–30% of each year’s conference heat transfer blade, particularly near the tip region, under typical engine flow
papers have been subsequently published in the ASME Journal of conditions. It is important to note that rotation causes the peak gas
Turbomachinery. These tremendous amounts of conference and temperature to shift from the blade pitch line toward the tip
journal papers are the main research sources of gas turbine heat region. It is also important to correctly predict the RIT profile as
transfer and cooling technology for interested readers. well as the associated unsteady velocity profile and turbulence
levels. Many papers were reviewed and cited in Chapter 2 of Han
et al. [10].
Gas Turbine Heat Transfer
Fundamentals of Gas Turbine Heat Transfer. Current tur- Heat Transfer Through Turbine Stator Vanes. For typical
bine designs are characterized by an inability to accurately predict NGV designs, heat-transfer coefficients on the pressure surface
heat-transfer coefficient distributions under turbomachinery flow decrease rapidly from the leading edge to about 20% surface dis-
conditions. This results in a nonoptimized design using inordinate tance and then gradually increase toward the trailing edge. The
amounts of cooling air, which ultimately causes significant penal- heat-transfer distribution on the pressure surface is not affected by
ties to the cycle in terms of thrust and specific fuel consumption. changing the exit Mach number (Mach ¼ 0.75–1.05). On the suc-
Hot-gas path components include turbine stator vanes and turbine tion surface, heat-transfer coefficient distributions show laminar
rotor blades. Turbine first-stage vanes (so called nozzle guide boundary layer separation, transition, and turbulent reattachment
vane, NGV) are exposed to high-temperature, high turbulence hot at about 25% surface distance. The location of the laminar bound-
gases from the exit of the combustor as sketched in Fig. 1 [1]. It is ary layer transition seems to move upstream with decreasing exit
important to determine the heat load distributions on the first- Mach number, and downstream of that location, heat-transfer
stage vanes under engine flow conditions for a typical gas turbine coefficients are higher with decreasing exit Mach numbers. In
engine. An accurate estimate of the heat-transfer distributions can regions where the boundary layer remained attached (before tran-
help in designing an efficient cooling system and prevent local sition), there is no apparent effect of the exit Mach number. More-
hot-spot overheating. Gas to airfoil heat transfer can be affected over, the transition location on the suction surface moves closer to
by airfoil shape (surface curvature and pressure gradient), bound- the leading edge with an increase in exit Reynolds number
ary layer transitional behavior, free-stream turbulence, airfoil sur- (Re ¼ 1–1.5 106). Overall, heat-transfer coefficients over the
face roughness, film coolant injection location, flow separation entire airfoil surface showed significant increases with an increase
and reattachment, and shock/boundary layer interaction, exit in exit Reynolds number reported by Nealy et al. [21].
Mach number and Reynolds number.
After accelerating from the first-stage vanes, hot gases move Turbulence and Roughness Effects. Combustor generated tur-
into the first stage rotor blades to produce turbine power as bulence (high turbulence intensity up to 20% and large scale) con-
sketched in Fig. 1 [1]. At the inlet of the first-stage rotor blade, tributes to significant heat transfer enhancement. Turbulence can
both the temperature and turbulence levels are lower compared to strongly affect laminar heat transfer to the stagnation region, pres-
the inlet of the first-stage vane. However, the inlet velocity could sure surface, transition, and turbulent boundary layer heat transfer
be two to three times higher. Besides, the blade receives unsteady by Ames [22]. Another severe heat-transfer enhancement factor
wake flows from the upstream vane trailing edge (turbulent inten- for NGV heat transfer is the surface roughness effect. Combustion
sity up to 20%). More importantly, blade rotation causes hot gases deposits may make the vane surface rough after several hours of
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Leading-Edge Film Cooling. A large semicylinder is conven- Trailing-Edge Film Cooling. A comprehensive survey of film
tionally used as a good approximation to the stagnation region on cooling investigations prior to 1971 was done by Goldstein [3]
a turbine vane. Initial studies into film cooling effectiveness near and included data for slots as well as discrete holes. Emphasis was
the leading edge were performed by Luckey et al. [72]. Ekkad on two-dimensional slots. Taslim et al. [83] found that the lip-to-
et al. [73] presented the effect of coolant density and free-stream slot height ratio has a strong impact on film cooling effectiveness.
turbulence on a cylindrical leading edge model using a transient Martini et al. [84] measured the film cooling effectiveness and
liquid crystal technique to obtain the detailed film effectiveness heat transfer on the trailing edge cutback of gas turbine airfoils
distributions. They showed that the film cooling effectiveness val- with different internal cooling structures using the IR thermogra-
ues for air as the coolant are highest at a low blowing ratio of 0.4 phy method, showing the strong impact of internal design on the
and decrease with an increase in blowing ratio up to 1.2. In the film cooling performance downstream of the ejection slot. The
meantime, for CO2 as the coolant, the highest film cooling effec- fast decay in film cooling effectiveness was attributed to vortex
tiveness is obtained at a blowing ratio greater than 0.8. Gao and shedding from the pressure side lip. Recently, Cakan and Taslim
Han [74] reported showerhead film cooling effectiveness measure- [85] measured the mass/heat transfer coefficients on the trailing
ments using pressure sensitive paint method for a cylindrical lead- edge slot floor, slot sidewalls and lands using naphthalene subli-
ing edge model. Leading edges with up to seven rows of radial mation method. They found that averaged mass-transfer on the
and compound angled shaped and cylindrical holes were studied land sidewalls are higher than that on the slot floor surface. Choi
for blowing ratios studied range from 0.5 to 2.0 with DR ¼ 1.0, et al. [86] measured film cooling effectiveness values for different
Tu ¼ 7%. Results showed that radial angles performed better than internal cooling configurations on a cut-back trailing edge using
compound angles; shaped holes performed better than cylindrical the transient liquid crystal method.
holes for the range studied.
Effect of Thermal Barrier Coating Spallation. Thermal bar-
End-Wall Film Cooling. Due to the large difference in pres- rier coatings (TBC) are often used to protect turbine component
sure between the pressure and suction side of the blade, secondary metal surfaces from high temperature gases. The spallation can
vortices are formed in the hub end wall region by Langston [39] occur at random; that there is no defined shape or size of the spall
as shown in Fig. 3(b). These vortices increase heat transfer, neces- makes it difficult to analyze the actual spallation phenomena
sitating provisions for aggressive film-cooling of the end wall. To occurring on a real turbine blade. Thus, it needs to be modeled
achieve this end, film coolant is typically ejected from the with predefined shape, size, and location to understand its effect
combustor-vane gap and the stator-rotor gap to cool the NGV end on local heat transfer coefficients and film cooling effectiveness.
wall and rotor blade platform, respectively. Besides this, engine Ekkad and Han [87] studied the detailed heat transfer coefficient
designs also incorporate discrete film cooling holes along the end and film cooling effectiveness distributions on a cylindrical
wall and platform. Friedrichs et al. [75] used an innovative leading-edge model with simulated TBC spallation using a tran-
ammonia-diazo mass transfer analogy to measure film cooling sient liquid crystal technique. The two rows of film cooling holes
effectiveness on the end wall due to discrete holes. The effective- located at þ 15 deg and 15 deg from stagnation. The simulated
ness corresponding to the film coolant discharged through the spallation cavities were rectangular in shape and had rounded
combustor-stator gap has been studied by Oke et al. [76] and edges and are similar to the spallation that typically occur on the
Zhang and Jaiswal [77]. The additional momentum introduced in turbine blade. In general, presence of spallation enhances heat
the near wall region by the slot coolant tends to reduce the transfer coefficients and causes variation in film cooling effective-
strength of the secondary flows. More recently, the improvement ness distributions.
in film cooling due to the usage of shaped holes in the end wall
has been studied by Colban et al. [78] and Gao et al. [79]. Results Effect of Deposition and Blockage on Hole Exits. Bunker
show that shaped holes offer significantly better coverage than cy- [57] presented an experimental study to determine the effects of
lindrical holes. The effect of hub secondary flows (horseshoe vor- typical turbine airfoil protective coatings on film cooling effec-
tices, etc.) on film cooling is evident from the film cooling tiveness due to the partial blockage of film-hole exits by the TBC
effectiveness contours. The effect of coolant density ratio on film coatings. The measurements indicated significant degradation to
cooling effectiveness was studied by Narzary et al. [80], with the film performance can result from coatings which are deposited in
conclusion that higher density coolants are more resilient to lift- the hole-exit regions, or inside the holes themselves, during the
off and result in higher film cooling effectiveness. spray application process. Results also show that shaped film
holes are generally very tolerant of coatings and do not show the
Blade-Tip Film Cooling. Film cooling on the blade tip has a degradation shown for cylindrical holes. Sundaram and Thole
dual purpose-to protect the tip by forming an insulating film, and [88] used a large-scale turbine vane cascade to study endwall film
to reduce hot-gas tip leakage from pressure side to the suction cooling. They showed that partially blocked holes had the greatest
side, reducing heat transfer coefficients on the tip. A review of the detrimental effect on degrading film-cooling effectiveness down-
work done on tip-gap film cooling by Metzger’s group is available stream of a film-cooling row. Somawardhana and Bogard [89]
in Kim et al. [81]. More recently, Kwak and Han [82] used liquid indicated that as much as 50% degradation occurred with
crystal imaging technique to measure detailed film cooling effec- upstream obstructions, but downstream obstructions actually
tiveness contours on the squealer tip with tip hole cooling. In gen- enhanced film cooling effectiveness. The transverse trench config-
eral, the literature agrees that a higher blowing ratio and a smaller uration performed significantly better than the traditional cylindri-
tip clearance result in better film cooling performance. Mhetras cal holes, both with and without obstructions and almost
et al. [33] used a model rotor blade with a cut-back squealer tip to eliminated the effects of both surface roughness and obstructions.
allow the film coolant accumulated on the tip to discharge, in the Ai et al. [90] performed particulate deposition experiments in a
process cooling the trailing edge region of the tip, as shown in turbine accelerated deposition facility to examine the effects of fly
Fig. 4 [33]. Results (using the pressure sensitive paint method) ash particle size and trench configuration on deposits near film
show that for the tip film cooling holes, the effectiveness increases cooling holes. Deposits that accumulated on the downstream side
with blowing ratio. The cutback allows the coolant to flow of the trench between cooling holes eventually changed the geom-
over the trailing edge region, resulting in higher effectiveness. etry of the trench and clogging cooling holes.
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