The coordinate systems relate to each other hierarchically, where the origin of each

coordinate system is defined as a position in one of its ancestries. Below are

descriptions of commonly used coordinate systems, starting at the top of the
hierarchy.

A. World coordinate system

The world coordinate system represents the entire station or robot cell. This is the top of
the hierarchy to which all other coordinate systems are related. All other coordinate systems are
defined relative to the WCS.
 Use: It provides a common reference point for multiple robots and other entities in a
shared space. used to represent the position and orientation of the robot with respect to
the environment or workspace.
 Example: In a factory, the world coordinate system might be defined with the origin at a
specific corner of the workspace, with axes aligned along the edges of the factory floor.
B. Base Coordinate System
Definition: A coordinate system fixed to the base of the robot, often used as a reference point for
the robot’s own movements. Used to define the home position or starting point of the robot The
origin of the base frame is typically at the robot’s base center.
Use: It simplifies the programming and control of the robot by providing a local reference frame.
Example: For a stationary industrial robot, the base coordinate system is usually centered at the
point where the robot is anchored to the ground.
here the z-axis is coincident with axis 1 of the robot. The origin is situated at the intersection of
axis 1 and the base mounting surface. The x-axis points forwards.
The y-axis points to the left (from the perspective of the robot). – The z-axis points upwards.

World coordinate system will be coincident with the base coordinate system if it is not
specifically defined. If several robots work within the same working space at a plant, a common
world coordinate system is used to enable the robot programs to communicate with one another.
It can also be advantageous to use this type of a system when the positions are to be related to a
fixed point in the workshop
 C. User Coordinate System
A customizable coordinate system defined by the user to suit specific applications or preferences.
A robot can work with different fixtures or working surfaces having different positions and
orientations. A user coordinate system can be defined for each fixture. By moving (translating or
turning) the user coordinate system as much as the fixture has been translated or turned, all
programmed positions will follow the fixture and no reprogramming will be required. The user
coordinate system is defined based on the world coordinate system. A user might define a
coordinate system for a custom fixture or jig used in a manufacturing process to streamline
programming and operation.

D. Task Coordinate System

Definition: A coordinate system defined relative to the specific task or operation being
performed.
Use: It is useful for tasks requiring complex movements or operations in a defined space.
Example: In assembly operations, a task coordinate system might be defined to align
components precisely as they are assembled.

1. Collaborative Robotics Scenario:

 o Imagine a scenario where two robots are assembling parts of a product on an
assembly line. Each robot has its own workspace, and they need to work together
seamlessly.
o For instance, Robot A might pick up a part from a conveyor belt and place it in a
specific location, while Robot B performs another task like tightening screws or
welding.
o To avoid collisions and ensure precise coordination, both robots need a consistent
reference point.
2. Task Frame Definition:
o A task frame is a local coordinate system that is specific to a particular task or
subtask.
o Each robot can define its own task frame based on the requirements of its
assigned task.
o The task frame allows the robot to express its movements and positions relative to
that localized reference point.
o It simplifies communication and coordination between robots because they all
agree on the same task frame.
3. Creating Task Frames:
o When setting up the collaborative system, engineers define the task frames for
each robot.
o These task frames are typically located at specific points on the robot (e.g., the
center of the end effector or a specific tool).
o The origin of the task frame might coincide with a critical point for the task, such
as the position where a part needs to be placed or a joint that needs to align
precisely.
4. Benefits of Task Frames:
o Localization: Each robot can perform its movements within its own task frame,
ensuring that it stays within its workspace.
o Coordination: By using the same task frame, robots can easily communicate
their positions and intentions to each other.
o Avoiding Collisions: Task frames help prevent collisions by ensuring that robots
understand their relative positions.
o Synchronization: When one robot completes its task, it can signal the other robot
to start its part of the operation.
5. Example:
o Suppose Robot A is assembling a car door, and Robot B is attaching the side
mirror.
o Robot A’s task frame might be centered at the door handle, while Robot B’s task
frame could be at the mirror mounting point.
o Both robots express their movements relative to these localized task frames,
allowing them to work together smoothly.

E. Tool Coordinate System (End-Effector Coordinate System)

It is used to define the position and orientation of the tool relative to the robot's arm.
Example: In a welding robot, the tool coordinate system would be defined at the tip of the
welding torch to precisely control its movement. If a tool is damaged or replaced, the tool
coordinate system must be redefined. When a Tool Coordinate System (TCS) is not explicitly
defined for a robot, the Flange Coordinate System (FCS) is used by default. The flange is the
mounting point where tools or end-effectors are attached to the robot.
The tool frame is made up of three orthogonal axes (X, Y, and Z) that define the orientation of
the tool. These axes are typically aligned with the tool’s physical structure
The TCP is the origin of the tool frame. It represents the exact point on the tool where actions
(e.g., gripping, welding, cutting) occur.
Together, the tool frame and TCP allow the robot to precisely control the tool’s movements and
interactions with the environment.
The default TCP (often called “tool0”) is located at the robot’s tool mounting point.
Additional TCPs can be defined for specialized tasks, such as using a different end effector for
welding, painting, or handling different objects.
F. Joint Coordinate System:
This is a set of coordinate systems, one for each joint of the robot. Each joint coordinate system
is used to describe the position and orientation of the corresponding joint with respect to the
previous joint or the base of the robot. used in the kinematic modeling of robots, allowing for the
calculation of forward and inverse kinematics.
 Forward kinematics involves determining the position and orientation of the robot's end-
effector (tool) given the joint parameters (angles for revolute joints and displacements for
prismatic joints).
Process:
 Input: Joint parameters (e.g., angles for each rotational joint).
 Output: Position and orientation of the end-effector in the workspace (typically given in
Cartesian coordinates).
Inverse Kinematics
Definition:
 Inverse kinematics involves determining the joint parameters needed to achieve a desired
position and orientation of the robot's end-effector.
Process:
 Input: Desired position and orientation of the end-effector.
 Output: Joint parameters that will achieve the desired end-effector pose.

ROBOT JOINTS
Mechanical joints of the robots:

1. Linear joint- type L joint – the relative movement between the input link and
the output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links
parallel
Linear joints enable robots to move in a straight line. These joints typically consist of a movable
element that slides or glides along a set of rails or guides.

The most common types are prismatic and slider joints:

 Prismatic joints allow for sliding motion in one direction. An example is a drawer — it
can only move in and out along one axis. Industrial robots often use prismatic joints to
extend and retract robotic arms. This allows the arm to reach farther without needing a
larger base.
 Slider joints enable two plates to slide over each other in a plane. They’re commonly
found in X-Y tables that move in two dimensions. These joints give robots a wide range
of motion within a flat surface. 3D printers frequently use slider joints to control the print
head. By moving it in the X and Y axes, the print head can access the entire print bed.
 2. Orthogonal joint- type O joint – the relative movement between the input link
and the output link is a translational sliding motion, but the output link is
perpendicular to the input link Orthogonal joints provide motion along
mutually perpendicular axes.

3. Rotational joint- type R joint – this provides rotational relative motion, with
the axes of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links
Rotary joints: Movement around an axis
Rotary joints, as the name suggests, enable rotational movement around an
axis. These joints allow robots to twist and turn, which is essential for mobility
and manipulation.
There are several types of rotary joints out there:
 Single-axis rotation (revolute joints). The most common type is the revolute joint,
which provides rotation around a single axis. Robotic arms typically have more than one
revolute joint, allowing them to bend at the elbow and move from side to side.

 Multi-directional mobility (spherical joints). For more complex movement, spherical

joints provide rotation in multiple directions. Allows rotational movement around three
perpendicular axes. This joint type mimics the human shoulder joint. Degrees of
Freedom: 3 DoF
  Combined rotation and sliding (cylindrical joints). Cylindrical joints enable both
rotation around an axis and sliding along that axis. Combines a revolute joint and a
prismatic joint, allowing both rotational and linear motion along the same axis. Degrees
of Freedom: 2 DoF
Example: Telescopic arms in some robots, where the arm can both rotate and extend.
 Twisting joint- type T joint – this provides rotary motion, but the axis of rotation is
parallel to the axis of the two links
One link stays fixed, while the other rotates around the pin. Many twisting joints can rotate a full
360 degrees, but often have limits built in for specific uses. allows for continuous rotation around
a single axis, providing one DOF. It is commonly used in robotic wrists and turntables.

Rotational Joint (R-Joint): Allows rotation around an axis (e.g., a revolute joint in a robotic arm).
Prismatic Joint (P-Joint): Allows linear translation along an axis (e.g., a sliding joint).
Spherical Joint (S-Joint): Provides rotation in multiple axes (3 DoF).
Planar Joint (Pl-Joint): Allows movement in a plane (2 DoF).
Cylindrical Joint (Cy-Joint): Combines rotation and translation (2 DoF).
Helical Joint (H-Joint): Combines rotation and linear motion along an axis (e.g., a screw joint).

Right-Hand Rule:
 Description: The right-hand rule is a convention used to determine the orientation of the
coordinate axes in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.
 Application: To apply the right-hand rule:
o X-axis: Point your thumb in the direction of the positive X-axis.
o Y-axis: Point your index finger in the direction of the positive Y-axis.
o Z-axis: Point your middle finger in the direction of the positive Z-axis,
perpendicular to both the X and Y axes.
World Coordinate System in Robotics:
 Origin: The world coordinate system (WCS) is typically fixed in the environment or
workspace where the robot operates.
  Axes Orientation:
o X-axis: Often aligned with a reference direction in the environment, such as east-
west or front-back.
o Y-axis: Typically aligned perpendicular to the X-axis, defining a left-right or
north-south direction.
o Z-axis: Generally points upward from the ground, perpendicular to both the X
and Y axes.
Example:
 Factory Environment: In a factory setting:
o The X-axis might align with the direction of the assembly line or conveyor belt.
o The Y-axis could align with the width of the workspace.
o The Z-axis would point vertically upward from the floor.

Electric Motors:
DC Motors (Brushed and Brushless):
Brushed DC motors are simple, affordable, and provide good torque control, but have a
relatively shorter lifespan due to brush wear.
Brushless DC (BLDC) motors offer higher efficiency, better speed control, and longer lifespan,
but are more complex and expensive.
Stepper Motors:
Stepper motors provide precise position control through incremental steps, making them suitable
for applications that require high positioning accuracy.
They are commonly used in robotic joints, 3D printers, and CNC machines.
Servo Motors:
Servo motors combine a DC motor, gearbox, and feedback control system to enable precise
control of position, velocity, and torque.
They are widely used in robotic manipulators, humanoid robots, and other applications that
require high-precision motion control.
Hydraulic Systems:
Hydraulic Cylinders:
Hydraulic cylinders use pressurized fluid to generate linear motion and high forces, making them
suitable for heavy-duty applications.
They are commonly used in construction equipment, heavy-duty industrial robots, and mobile
robots.
Hydraulic Pumps and Valves:
Hydraulic pumps generate the necessary fluid pressure, while valves control the flow and
direction of the fluid.
Hydraulic systems offer high power density and can operate in harsh environments, but require
complex and bulky components.
Pneumatic Systems:
Pneumatic Cylinders:
Pneumatic cylinders use compressed air to generate linear motion, providing a simpler and
lighter alternative to hydraulic systems.
They are commonly used in pick-and-place robots, assembly lines, and other applications where
clean operation and low maintenance are important.
Pneumatic Valves and Compressors:
Pneumatic valves control the flow and direction of the compressed air, while compressors
generate the necessary air pressure.
Pneumatic systems have lower power density compared to hydraulic systems, but are generally
more cost-effective and easier to maintain.
Hybrid Systems:
Combining electric and hydraulic/pneumatic components:
Hybrid systems leverage the advantages of both electric and hydraulic/pneumatic systems, such
as high power density and precise control.
These systems are often used in industrial robots, humanoid robots, and other applications that
require high force and precise control.