Faculty of

Engineering

Signals Theory

Classification of signals
Signals Theory
Dr. Ahmed Abdelhaleem
Fall 2022/23
 Dr. Ahmed M. Abd El-Haleem
Associate Professor at
Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering, BUE.

E-mail: ahmed_abdelkhaliq@h-eng.helwan.edu.eg
 Instructor Information
3

Instructor Name Associate Prof. Ahmed M. Abd El-Haleem

Room / Building

Office Hours

Email: ahmed_abdelkhaliq@h-eng.Helwan.edu.eg
 Syllabus
4

Week Items/Topics
1 Introduction to the Course
• Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time versus discrete-time signals, Analog
2
versus digital, Energy versus Power, periodicity,
odd/even signals ...
• Signal transformations of independent variables (time)
• Elementary signals: Unit impulse and unit step functions,
3-4
exponential and sinusoidal signals …

• Continuous-time and discrete-time systems, basic system

5-6 properties (memory, inevitability, causality, stability,
timer-invariance, linearity).
 Syllabus
5

Week Items/Topics
8-11 • Fourier series and Fourier Transform.
• Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) systems, the convolution
11-12 sums and integrals, impulse responses, LTI system
properties.

13-14 • Continuous-time random processes.

13 • Revision.
 Course Assessment Plan
6

Midterm 25%
Class work 25%
Final-Exam 50%
References:
1. Alan Oppenheim, Alan S. Willsky and S. Hamid Nawab, "Signals and
Systems (International Edition)", Pearson, 1996.
2. S. Haykin and B. Van Veen, "Signals and Systems", Wiley Higher
Education, 2005.
3. Michael J. Roberts, “Fundamentals of Signals and Systems”, McGraw
Hill Higher Education, ISBN: 978-0071259378, 2007.
4. Charles L Phillips, John Parr and Eve Riskin, "Signals, Systems and
Transforms", Prentice Hall; 4th edition, 2007.
 Introduction
7

 What is communication?
 Transportation of information from one point to another
 Every communication system has three essential elements
 transmitter,
 medium/channel
 receiver.
 Introduction
8

 Signals are part of our daily lives.

 We work with a wide variety of signals on a day-today
basis whether we realize it or not.
Fundamentals of Signals
 The electric signal is a function of one or more
independent variables.
 We will only deal with signals that are function of
single independent variable, particularly time (t), or
frequency (ω or f). You will love these t and its friend f.
 Electric signals (current or voltage) may represent:
voice, music, image, video, data, …etc

Voice
Music Image
Classification of Signals

Signals can be classified in different

manners, such as:
1) Continuous-time signals and Discrete-time
signals.
2) Analog and Digital Signals.
3) Deterministic and Random signals
4) Periodic and Non-periodic signals
5) Even and Odd Signals
6) Energy and Power signals
 1 ) Continuous- time signals and
11
Discrete- time signals
Continuous- Time signal
 A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal if t is a
continuous variable.
 i.e. If a signal exist (defined) at any instant of
time.

2
x(t ) = sin( t ) + 4
T
Graphical representation of
continuous-time signal
 1 ) Continuous- time signals and
12
Discrete- time signals
Discrete- time Signal
 If t is a discrete variable-that is, x(t) is defined at
discrete times-then x(t) is a discrete-time signal.
 If a signal exist (defined) at specific instants of
time, it is called discrete in time.
 Since a discrete-time
signal is identified as a
sequence of numbers,
denoted by x[n] where n
= integer.

Graphical representation of
discrete-time signal
 1 ) Continuous- time signals and
13
Discrete- time signals
Discrete- time Signal
 A discrete-time signal x[n] may be obtained by sampling
a continuous-time signal x(t) such as

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡𝑛 )

𝑥 0 , 𝑥 1 , … = 𝑥 𝑡0 , 𝑥 𝑡1 , …

x(t) x[n]
 1 ) Continuous- time signals and
14
Discrete- time signals
Discrete- time Signal (Sampling)
 When the sampling intervals are equal, then

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑛𝑇𝑠 )

 𝑓𝑠 = 1/𝑇𝑠 is called the sampling rate or sampling

frequency.
 1 ) Continuous- time signals and
15
Discrete- time signals
A discrete- time signal x[n] can be defined in two
ways:
1 ) We can specify a rule for calculating the nth value of
the sequence.

2)We can also explicitly list the values of the sequence.

𝑥[𝑛] = {1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2}
 2) Analog and Digital Signals
16

Analog signal
 If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take on any value in
the continuous interval (a, b), then the continuous-
time signal x(t) is called an analog signal.
Digital signal
 If a discrete-time signal x[n] can take on only a finite
number of distinct values, then we call this signal a
digital signal.
 3) Deterministic and Random signals
17

Deterministic signals
 Signals whose values are completely specified for any
given time.
 Thus, a deterministic signal can be modeled by a known
function of time 𝑡.
 The signals that we worked with in this course have all
been examples of deterministic signals.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
 3) Deterministic and Random signals
18

Random Signal
 The signal amplitude is not known at any given time

instant and cannot be expressed using a formula.

 A Random Signal is a signal which has some degree of

uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant

of time.
 3) Deterministic and Random signals
19

Random Signal
 A random signal takes on one of several possible
values at each time for which a signal value is
defined.
i.e. - It can not be calculated exactly.
 Random signals are defined by statistical
averages such as the Mean value and the Moments.
 4) Periodic and Non- periodic
20
signals
CT- Periodic Signal
 A continuous- time signal which repeats its waveform

after a fixed period of time To.

 So, x(t) is periodic if and only if

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇𝑜 ∀𝑡
Or generally the periodic signal satisfies
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑇𝑜 ∀𝑡
 for any integer value of k.
 4) Periodic and Non- periodic
21
signals
CT- Periodic Signal
 The smallest value of To is called the fundamental
period and is expressed in seconds.
 The fundamental frequency of a periodic signal is
defined as the reciprocal of its fundamental period:
1
𝑓𝑜 = 𝐻𝑧
𝑇𝑜
 Angular frequency 𝜔𝑜 = 2𝜋/𝑇𝑜 rad/sec.
 Any continuous- time signal which is not periodic is
called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic) signal.
 4) Periodic and Non- periodic
22
signals
DT- Periodic Signal
 The discrete- time signal x[n] is periodic if and only
if
𝑥 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛+𝑁 ∀𝑛, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 ≠ 0
 4) Periodic and Non- periodic
23
signals
DT- Periodic Signal
 Generally
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑘𝑁 ∀𝑛, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁 ≠ 0
 The smallest positive value of N that satisfies the
above equation is called the fundamental period.
 The normalized fundamental frequency of a discrete-
time periodic signal is the reciprocal of its fundamental
period, i.e.,
1
𝐹𝑜 =
𝑁
 Angular frequency Ω𝑜 = 2𝜋/𝑁 rad.
 4) Periodic and Non- periodic
24
signals
DT- Periodic Signal

𝑁 = 𝑘/𝐹𝑜

 The fundamental period of the sinusoidal signal is then

obtained by using the smallest integer value of k, if any,
that results in N being an integer.
 4) Periodic and Non- periodic
25
signals
x (t)
Expressing Periodic Signal
t
T
x p (t ) = ... + x−1 (t ) + x(t ) + x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) + ...
x1(t)=x(t-2)
x p (t ) = .. + x(t + 2) + x(t ) + x(t − 2) + x(t − 4) + ..
 t
x p (t ) =  x(t − 2k )
k = −
2
x2(t)=x(t-4)
T+2

Period of xp(t)
xP(t) t
4 T+4
….
…. X-1(t)=x(t+2)

t
T-2 T 2 T+2 4 T+4 t T-2
 5) Even and Odd Signals
26

 A real-valued continuous- time signal is said to have

even symmetry if it has the property
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∀𝑡
 A real-valued discrete- time signal is said to have even
symmetric if it satisfies
𝑥[−𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∀𝑛
 A signal with even symmetry remains unchanged when
it is time reversed.
 5) Even and Odd Signals
27

 A real-valued signal is said to have odd symmetry if it

has the property
𝑥 −𝑡 = −𝑥 𝑡 ∀𝑡
 A real-valued discrete-time signal is odd symmetric if
it satisfies
𝑥 −𝑛 = −𝑥[𝑛] ∀𝑛
 Time reversal has the same effect as negation on a
signal with odd symmetry.
 5) Even and Odd Signals
28

Notes:
 The product of two even signals or two odd signals is an
even signal.
 The product of an even signal and an odd signal is an
odd signal.
Decomposition into even and odd components
 Any real-valued signal, x(t), can be written as the sum
of its even part (xe(t)) and odd part (xo(t)), i.e.

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
 5) Even and Odd Signals
29

Decomposition into even and odd components

where the two components xe(t) and xo(t) are defined
as

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 =
2
And
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 =
2
 5) Even and Odd Signals
30

 Similarly any real- valued DT signal, x[n], can be

written as the sum of its even part (xe[n]) and odd part
(xo[n]), i.e.

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥𝑒 [𝑛] + 𝑥𝑜 [n]

where the two components xe[n] and xo[n] are defined as

𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑥[−𝑛]
𝑥𝑒 [𝑛] =
2
And
𝑥[𝑛] − 𝑥[−𝑛]
𝑥𝑜 [𝑛] =
2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
31

Energy of CT signal
 A signal such as x(t) could represent a voltage or a current.

 It would be desirable to have a definition of signal energy

that is based on the mathematical model of the signal alone,
without any reference to the load and to the physical
quantity from which the mathematical model may have been
derived.
∞ 2 ∞
𝜈 (𝑡)
𝐸=න 𝑑𝑡 = න 1 × 𝑖 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
−∞ 1 −∞
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
32

Energy of CT signal
 The energy of a real-valued signal x(t) as
∞
𝐸𝑥 = න 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
 If the signal x(t) is complex valued, then its normalized
energy is computed as
∞
𝐸𝑥 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
 Energy is the accumulation of absolute square of the
signal magnitudes.
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
33

Example
 Compute the normalized energy of the right-sided
exponential signal
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0 and α > 0
 If the signal x(t) is complex valued, then its normalized
energy is computed as
∞
𝐸𝑥 = න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
= න 𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝐴 2
=
2𝛼
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
34

Energy of DT signals
 The energy of a real-valued discrete-time signal is
computed as
∞

𝐸𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥 2 [𝑛]
−∞

 If the signal under consideration is complex-valued, its

energy is given by
∞

𝐸𝑥 = ෍ |𝑥 𝑛 |2
−∞
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
35

Time averaging of CT signals

 In preparation for defining the power in a signal, we
need to first define the time average of a signal.
 The signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, its time
average can be computed as
𝑇𝑜
1 2
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐸 𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑇 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑜
2
 If the signal x (t) is non-periodic,
𝑇
1 2
𝑥(𝑡) = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
36

Time averaging of DT signals

 If the signal x[n] is periodic with period N, its time
average can be computed as
𝑁−1
1
𝑥[𝑛] = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛]
𝑁
𝑛=0

 For a signal x[n] that is non-periodic,

𝑀
1
𝑥[𝑛] = lim ෍ 𝑥[𝑛]
𝑇→∞ 2𝑀 + 1
𝑛=−𝑀
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
37

Power of CT signal
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) = 𝐸 𝑥 2 𝑡
 For a periodic signal,
𝑇𝑜
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝑇 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑜
2
 For a non-periodic signal
𝑇
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = lim න 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
38

Power of CT signal
 For complex-valued signals, then the definition of signal
power can be:
𝑃𝑥 = |𝑥 𝑡 |2
 Thus, the power of a periodic complex signal Is
𝑇𝑜
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝑇 |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑜
2
 The power of a non-periodic signal complex signal Is
𝑇
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = lim න |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
39

Example
 Calculate the power of the signal
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜃)
Solution
The period of the signal is T0 = 1/f0,
𝑇𝑜
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑜
2
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
1 2 𝐴2 1 2
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 − න 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠(4𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝑡 + 2𝜃) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑜 2 𝑇𝑜 − 𝑜
2 2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
40

Example: Solution
 The second integral evaluates to zero, since we are
integrating a cosine function with the frequency 2f0
over an interval of T0
𝑇𝑜
1 2 𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑃𝑥 = න 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇𝑜 − 𝑜 2
𝑇 2
2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
41

Power of DT signal
 For a periodic signal,
𝑁−1
1
𝑃𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥 2 [𝑛]
𝑁
𝑛=0
For a non-periodic signal
𝑀
1
𝑃𝑥 = lim ෍ 𝑥 2 [𝑛]
𝑇→∞ 2𝑀 + 1
𝑛=−𝑀

For a signal x[n] that is non-periodic,

 7) Power and Energy of Signals
42

Power of DT signal
 For complex-valued signals, then the definition of signal
power can be generalized:
𝑃𝑥 = |𝑥 𝑡 |2
Thus, the power of a periodic complex signal Is
𝑁−1
1
𝑃𝑥 = ෍ |𝑥 𝑛 |2
𝑁
𝑛=0
The power of a non-periodic signal complex signal Is
𝑀
1
𝑃𝑥 = lim ෍ |𝑥 𝑛 |2
𝑇→∞ 2𝑀 + 1
𝑛=−𝑀
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
43

Energy Signals
 Signal with finite energy and zero power
 A signal x(t) is Energy signal if 0 < Ex < , Px=0
 e.g.
−t
x(t ) = e
is energy signal, since

0  

   dt = 1  
−t 2 − 2t
Ex = ( e t 2
) dt + ( e ) dt = 2 e
− 0 0
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
44

Power Signals

 Signal with finite power and infinite energy

 A signal x(t) is Power signal if 0 < Px < , and Ex = .

◼ e.g. x(t) = sin (ωt) is power signal, since

2t
T /2 T /2
1 1 1
Px =  sin (t )dt =  )dt =
2 2
sin (
T −T / 2
T −T / 2
T 2
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
45

Neither Energy nor Power Signals

◼ They are the signals for which both E and P are

infinite or zero.
◼ Example

x (t ) = e t
 7) Power and Energy of Signals
46

Notes:
 Any energy signal is not power signal because it
has zero average power.
 Any power signal is not energy signal because it
has infinite energy.
 Periodic signals are power signals.
 Non periodic signals that are used in
communication engineering are energy signals