Chapter 1 - The Nature of

Chemistry
1.1 Q’s
1. Referring to the periodic table, classify each of the following elements as
metals, metalloids, or nonmetals.

a. Iron is a metal.

b. Aluminium is a metal.

c. Gallium is a metal.

d. Carbon is a nonmetal.

e. Silver is a metal.

f. Oxygen is a nonmetal.

g. Silicon is a metalloid.

2. (a) The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

(b) The IUPAC has rules in place for naming elements and creating symbols,
which are referred to internationally. The international naming and giving of
symbols cannot be made without a vote from a IUPAC representative from
each country. This is necessary for chemicals and elements to be universally
referred to throughout the world without a language barrier in scientific
communication.

3. The names for elements come from Latin, or the country where the element
was discovered, or the name of a famous scientist.

9. (a) The periodic law stated that elements arranged in order of increasing atomic
mass showed reoccurring properties at regular intervals.
(b) I don’t think there are many limitations on the periodic law. Averaging atomic
masses and predicting that new elements would share properties of two other
elements in a “blank” space seems very logical.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 1

 10. I predict that Chlorine has an atomic mass of 49.5 as it is an average of the
atomic masses of Fluorine and Bromine. The actual atomic mass is 35.453.

16. 93 elements are metal, 17 are non-metal, and 8 are metalloids.

18. (a) Alkali metals:

physical

Solid at SATP

silver-coloured

chemical

react violently with water

reaction with halogens forms compounds similar to sodium chloride

(b) halogens:

physical

solid, liquid or gases at SATP

non lustrous

chemical

extremely reactive

reacts readily with hydrogen and metals

(c) noble gases:

physical

gases at SATP

low melting and boiling points

chemical

extremely unreactive

radon is radioactive

1. Magnesium and calcium, which are both alkaline earth metals, both share
properties like being solids at SATP, being very reactive and having a metallic

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 2

 appearance, because they are in the same periodic family. Calcium has a
greater atomic mass than magnesium, but shares these properties
nonetheless.

2. (a) My prediction for the melting point of Rubidium is 20 degrees Celsius. The
actual melting point is 39.48 degrees Celsius.
(b) I would classify these elements as metals since they have higher melting
points compared to nonmetals. The melting point of lithium is 190 ℃ whereas
the melting point of Fluorine is -219.6 ℃.
(c) Since Li, Na, and K are all alkali metals, they are soft, silver coloured, carry
metallic properties and are solids at SATP. They react violently with water.

1.2 Q’s
1. (a) A law is a statement of observable knowledge and a theory explains the
law with abstract concepts and is non-observable.
(b) Empirical knowledge comes from observations and is objective, and
theoretical knowledge are abstract ideas to explain empirical knowledge.

2. Models are important because they give visual representations of theoretical

knowledge, which are usually abstract and non-observable, which allows us to
understand them better.

3. Yes, because the law states that during a chemical reaction, such as a fire,
matter is neither created nor destroyed, but in a fire, mass is being destroyed
as the wood turns into ash.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 3

 4.

5. (a) The nucleus is the centre of the atom made up of protons and neutrons.
(b) The proton is a positively charged particle which makes up part of the
nucleus.

(c) Electrons are negatively charged particles which surrounds the nucleus.

(d) The neutron is an electrically neutral particle which also makes up part of
the nucleus.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 4

 1.3 Q’s
2. The protons and neutrons are responsible for most of the mass of an atom.

4. The mass number is 27 u.

5. (a) 15

(b) 16 neutrons

(c) Phosphorus

6. 20 neutrons can be found in the nucleus of chlorine-37.

7. They are not isotopes of each other because they contain different atomic
numbers.

9. An isotope is a variation of an element that contains a different atomic mass. A

radioisotope is an isotope which contains atoms that decay and produce nuclear
radiation.
12. Radon-222 has a half-life of 4.0 d (abbreviation for “diem”—Latin for “day”). If
the initial mass of the sample of this isotope is 6.8 g, calculate the mass of radon-
222 remaining in the sample after
(a) 8.0 d

1.7g

(b) 16.0 d

0.425g

(c) 32.0 d

0.053125g

20. Describe at least two advantages and two disadvantages associated with the
use of nuclear power.

Advantages:

Not associated with other environmental pollution, mainly greenhouse

gases

Nuclear reactors can be built close to where power is needed

Disadvantages:

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 5

 Creates a lot of radioactive waste

Radioactivity can be lethal to humans

22. (a) What is heavy water?

Heavy water is water that contains deuterium.

(b) What purposes does heavy water serve in the function of a CANDU nuclear
reactor?

Heavy water is used as a moderator to slow the movement of neutrons in

nuclear fission. The water cools the reactor and also heats regular water to
create steam, which turns turbines that are connected to electric generators.

1. (a) What are the relationships among the number of protons, number of
neutrons, and number of electrons in an atom?

The number of protons is the same as the number of electrons, and the
number of neutrons together with the number of protons make up the
atomic mass.

(b) Which of the numbers in (a) is/are related to the atomic number?

The number of protons and electrons is equal to the atomic number.

(c) Which of the numbers in (a) is/are related to the mass number?

Protons and neutrons.

(d) If the atomic mass of an element is not the same as the mass number of
one atom of the element, what conclusions can you draw about that element?

The element with the different mass number would be an isotope.

3. Two atoms respectively have Z = 12, A = 26 and Z = 14, A = 26.

(a) Can these two atoms be classified as isotopes of the same element? Give
reasons for your answer.

No, because the atomic numbers are not the same, which means they are
different elements entirely.

(b) Suggest an alternative classification for these atoms. Justify your choice.

We can show the atoms by their atomic numbers instead of their atomic
masses, which shows that two elements with different atomic numbers are not

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 6

 the same elements.

1.4 Q’s
1. When a gas is heated, the gas will emit light. Explain why this phenomenon
occurs using the Bohr model of the atom.

Bohr’s model contains electrons, which become excited and gain energy
when the gas atoms are heated, and they jump from a lower to a higher
energy level. When the electrons drop back to lower energy levels, they
release energy which produces certain wavelengths.

2. What do the different colours in a line spectrum represent?

They represent the colour that is created when the gas is heated, and the
different colours represent certain drops in energy levels.

3. Why do different substances show different spectra?

They may produce different colours of light which can be separated into
different colours of spectra.

4. Sodium vapour lamps emit a characteristic yellow light. What can we deduce
about sodium atoms, based on this observation?

The energy change in sodium electrons is smaller, as the distance the

electrons fall from the outer energy level is less, which creates a yellow
light.

7. “Spectral lines are the fingerprints of elements.” Explain what is meant by this
statement.

Each element has a distinct emission spectrum, which means when they
are heated in a flame, each element will give the flame a specific colour,
which is a give-away to which element it is, just like how our fingerprints
can identify who we are.

10. What are valence electrons, and what is their significance?

Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell or highest energy

level of an atom. The number of valence electrons, which is the same for

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 7

 every element in the same chemical group, shows that electron
arrangement and periodic trends are connected.

12. Use the periodic table and theoretical rules to predict the number of occupied
energy levels and the number of valence electrons in each of the following atoms:

a. beryllium

2 occupied energy levels and 2 valence electrons

b. chlorine

3 occupied energy levels and 7 valence electrons

c. krypton

4 occupied energy levels and 8 valence electrons

d. iodine

5 occupied energy levels and 7 valence electrons

e. lead

6 occupied energy levels and 4 valence electrons

f. arsenic

4 occupied energy levels and 5 valence electrons

g. cesium

6 occupied energy levels and 1 valence electron

1. By custom, hydrogen is put at the top of Group 1 in the periodic table. There
are other places it could go. Suggest one other place, using the concepts of
periodicity and atomic structure to justify your answer.

Hydrogen could belong at the top of the halogens group right beside
helium, since it wouldn’t break the pattern of increasing atomic mass and
atomic number going from left to right. Since hydrogen is also a gas, it
would also fit in with the halogens, as hydrogen doesn’t fit in with the rest
of group 1, which are metals.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 8

 1.5 Q’s
1. Describe what, in theory, happens to the radius of an atom as it
(a) gains an electron;

The radius increases as the more energy levels there are, the less the
nuclear attraction is as the electrons go further from the nucleus.

(b) loses an electron.

The radius decreases as the less energy levels there are, the more the
nuclear attraction is as the electrons get closer to the nucleus.

2. Explain, with diagrams of specific examples, the difference between the ionic
radius and the atomic radius of an atom.

The ionic radius of lithium, in this example, is smaller than that of the
atomic radius of lithium. The lithium ion has a positive charge because it is
missing an electron shell, therefore, the radius of the lithium ion
decreases.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 9

 Here, the charge of the fluorine ion is negative, because it has gained an
electron, which makes the radius of the fluorine ion bigger than the radius of
the fluorine atom.

3. (a) Describe the periodic trend in ionization energy.

Ionization energies decrease as you move down a group in the periodic

table.

(b) Provide a theoretical explanation for this trend.

The decrease is related to the size of atoms in a group. As the atomic

radius increases, the valence electrons and nucleus is further apart, and
so the attraction between them becomes weaker and less energy is
required to remove the first valence electron.

(c) Give empirical evidence in support of your explanation in (b).

Elements on the left side of the periodic table are more likely to form
positive ions than the elements on the right side.

4. Which element in the periodic table would you expect to be

(a) the most reactive metal? Give your reasons.

Francium, as this element is in the bottom left corner of the table, it is the
most reactive as metals near the bottom of the alkali metals group and
metals to the left side of the middle of the periodic table are the most
reactive.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 10

 (b) the most reactive nonmetal? Give your reasons

Fluorine, for the same reasons as Francium, except it’s located at the top
right of the periodic table (excluding noble gases), and for nonmetals,
reactivity increases towards the top of groups and to the right of the
middle of the periodic table.

1. Explain how the number of valence electrons is related to the properties of the
elements in each group in the periodic table.

The number of valence electrons is equal to the group number, with each
element from groups 1-10 have 1-10 valence electrons respectively, and
groups 11-18 only counting the second digit of the group number (e.g.
group 11 has 1 valence electron, group 12 has 2, 13 has 3, etc.).

2. Describe the relationship between

(a) ionization energy and electron affinity;

Ionization energy describes how much energy is required to remove an

electron from an atom/ion in the gaseous state, but electron affinity
describes how much energy is released when an atom/ion receives an
electron.

(b) electron affinity and electronegativity.

Electronegativity is a scale that describes how well a bonded atom can

attract electrons, whereas electron affinity describes how much energy is
released when the atom receives the electron.

3. (a) S, Al, K, Mg, and Sr are all representative elements. Use your
understanding of trends in the periodic table to predict their order of
increasing ionization energy, atomic radius, electron affinity, and
electronegativity.

Ionization energy from least to greatest:

Sr → K → Mg → Al → S

Atomic radius from least to greatest:

S → Al → Mg → K → Sr

Electron affinity from least to greatest:

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 11

 Sr → K → Mg → Al → S

Electronegativity from least to greatest:

K → Sr → Mg → Al → S

(b) Explain each prediction in terms of electronic structure.

The elements Sr, K and Mg in the far left of the table have lower ionization
energy because their valence electron shells are further away from the
nucleus, so there is less energy required to remove electrons. These
elements have less electron affinity and electronegativity because they
have a weaker ability to attract electrons as they have a more empty
valence shell and they have less valence electrons to be pulled into the
nucleus, respectively. The case is the opposite for Al and S. Mg, K and Sr
have high atomic radii because the strength of the attraction between the
protons and electrons is lower.

4. Would you expect the first ionization energies for two isotopes of the same
element to be the same or different? Justify your answer.

Since two isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number, I
believe their ionization energies are the same, because they both have the
same number of valence electrons, and the only thing that changes in an
isotope is the number of neutrons.

Chapter 1 review Q’s

1. Metals are usually solids with the exception of Mercury, and have metallic
properties such as lustre and conductivity. Nonmetals are usually liquids or
gases, with the exception of halogens which can be solids at SATP. Nonmetals
are usually nonconductive, non-lustrous, and more reactive than metals with
the exception of noble gases.

2. No, because ‘A’ in ‘CA’ is capitalized, which is incorrect. The correct symbol
would be ‘Ca’. Only the first letter can be capitalized, according to the IUPAC.

3. It was accepted because it had proved to successfully predict the properties

of a new element, which was Germanium.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 12

 4. Use the periodic table to answer the following
questions.
(a) At SATP, which elements are liquids and which are
gases?

Halogens can be either gases or liquids at SATP, and noble gases always
remain as gases at SATP.

(b) What is the significance of the “staircase line” that

divides the periodic table into two parts?

The staircase divides metals from nonmetals, and elements touching the
staircase line are metalloids, which carry the properties of both metals and
nonmetals.

(c) Why was the group of elements on the far right of

the periodic table discovered relatively late?

They were discovered late as they were very unreactive. They also don’t
form compounds, so they couldn’t be discovered in compounds.

(d) What are the atomic numbers of hydrogen, oxygen,

aluminum, silicon, chlorine, and copper?

1, 8, 13, 14, 17, and 29.

(e) Identify an element with six electrons in the outer

energy level.

Chromium.

(f) Identify an element with its second energy level half

full.

Carbon

(g) Identify an element that would tend to lose two

electrons.

Magnesium

(h) Identify an element that would tend to gain one

electron.

Fluorine

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 13

 5. Mendeleev organized elements according to their
atomic mass in his periodic table, but the modern periodic table organizes
elements according to their atomic number. Did the order of elements change?
Give reasons for your answer.

The order did not change, as the elements in the modern periodic table
arrange elements with both increasing atomic numbers and atomic masses
horizontally.

6. (a) Sketch an outline of the periodic table and label the

following: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, staircase line,
halogens, noble gases, metals, and nonmetals.

(b) Determine the number of valence electrons for the

alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and halogens. Explain the trends in number
of valence electrons in terms of the Bohr theory of atomic structure.

Alkali metals - 1

Alkaline earth metals - 2

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 14

 halogens - 7

The number of valence electrons depends on the group number in the

periodic table. Groups 1-10 have 1-10 valence electrons respectively, and
from 11-18, only the second digit is counted when counting valence
electrons. For example, every element in group 14 has 4 valence electrons.

7. (a) What is the most reactive metal? Nonmetal?

The most reactive metal is Francium and the most reactive nonmetal is
Fluorine.

(b) Explain the trends in reactivity within alkali metals

and within halogens.

Alkali metals become more reactive as you go down the group and
halogens become more reactive as you go up the group in a periodic table.

(c) What model did you use to explain the trends?

I used the model provided in Figure 1 on page 50.

8. What is unusual about the atomic structure of

hydrogen compared with other elements?

Hydrogen only has 1 proton and 1 electron, and has no neutrons. It is the
only element to have no neutrons.

10. Why has there been a series of atomic theories?

To explain and figure out the composition of atoms as they have been an
enigma to scientists.

11. List the three main subatomic particles, including their

location in the atom, their relative mass, and their charge.

The proton, neutron, and electron. Protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus, the core of an atom. Electrons are particles orbiting the nucleus.
Protons carry a positive charge of 1, neutrons carry no charge, and
electrons carry a negative charge of 1. The relative masses of electrons,
protons and neutrons are 1, 1836.12, and 1838.65 respectively.

15. Write the chemical name and symbol corresponding to

each of the following theoretical descriptions:

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 15

 (a) 11 protons and 10 electrons

Sodium ion; Na^+1

(b) 18 electrons and a net charge of 3–

Phosphorus; P

(c) 16 protons and 18 electrons

Sulfur; S

17. Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons present in an atom
of each of the following
isotopes:
(a) calcium-42

20 protons, 20 electrons, 22 neutrons

(b) strontium-90

38 protons, 38 electrons, 52 neutrons

(c) cesium-137

55 protons, 55 electrons, 82 neutrons

(d) iron-59

25 protons and electrons, 34 neutrons

(e) sodium-24

11 protons and electrons, 13 neutrons

20. Describe the trends in the periodic table for each of the following atomic
properties, and give a theoretical
explanation for each trend:
(a) atomic radius

Increases the further left you go from the centre of the table and
downwards in a group. The reason for this is because elements in these
regions have lower attraction strength between the protons and valence
electrons.

(b) ionization energy

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 16

 Increases the further right you go from the centre of the table and upwards
in a group. This is because the atoms of elements in these regions have
their valence electrons further from the nucleus, which makes them easier
to remove.

(c) electronegativity

Increases the further right you go from the centre of the table and upwards
in a group. This is because the atoms of elements in these regions have a
higher nuclear charge, which increases the nuclei’s ability to attract
electrons.

(d) electron affinity

Increases the further right you go from the centre of the table and upwards
in a group. This is because the atoms of elements in these regions have a
more full valence shell, which makes gaining an electron more likely.

Chapter 1 - The Nature of Chemistry 17