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Chapter 1: Biomechanical Applications to Joint Structure and Function

Multiple Choice
Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

____ 1. When you raise a cup to your mouth, a ____________________ of motion occurs at the elbow
joint.
a. rotation only
b. translation only
c. translation and rotation
d. None of the above answers are correct.
____ 2. Hip abduction from an anatomic position would occur in which plane?
a. Sagittal
b. Frontal
c. Transverse
d. Horizontal
____ 3. Which of the following describes the phenomenon that when two forces come in contact, the
second force will respond to the contact by the first force with equal magnitude and in the opposite
direction?
a. Law of Inertia
b. Law of Reaction
c. Law of Acceleration
d. None of the above answers are correct.
____ 4. A ____________________ class lever is described by the fulcrum occurring at one end, followed
by the resistance (load or weight) and then the force (effort).
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth
____ 5. In what type of lever is the M Ad always less than one?
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth
____ 6. Which of the following best describes torque?
a. The force a muscle generates
b. A force times the perpendicular distance from the line of force to the axis of
rotation
c. A force times the distance measured along the lever from the line of force to the
axis of rotation
d. The distance a muscle can move

Figure 1-7

____ 7. In Figure 1-7, the biceps is acting on the forearm. What is the force of the biceps, FB, given the
following: moment arm of the biceps, d = 0.02 m and torque due to the biceps, TM = –5 Nm?
a. –0.1 N
b. 1,250 N
c. 5 N
d. –250 N
____ 8. As your patient abducts her shoulder from 90° to 120°, the moment arm decreases. If the torque
from the deltoid remains constant, the force of the deltoid would ____________________ as the
shoulder abducted.
a. remain the same
b. increase
c. decrease
d. become 0 N
 Figure 1-9

____ 9. In Figure 1-9, at which position does the weight have the greatest torque capabilities on the knee
joint?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
____ 10. In Figure 1-9, at which position does the weight produce the greatest distractive on the knee joint?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D

Figure 1-11

____ 11. Which of the following represents the magnitude of each of the two component forces of the
resultant, FR, in Figure 1-11?
a. F1 = 86.6 N, F2 = 50 N
b. F1 = 50 N, F2 = 60 N
c. F1 = 10 N, F2 = 90 N
d. F1 = 20.6 N, F2 = 79.4 N
____ 12. Considering the figure below, which of the following answers best represents the direction of the
resultant force?
 a.
b.
c.

d.

____ 13. Which of the following describes the phenomenon that causes a body moving at a constant speed
to remain at that speed, unless it is acted upon by another body or force?
a. Impulse
b. Energy level
c. Law of Reaction
d. Law of Inertia
____ 14. Which of the following statements describes the relationship between joint reaction forces and the
translational/rotatory component forces?
a. The contact force and translation component force run parallel to each other.
b. The contact force and rotatory component force run parallel to each other.
c. The shear force and translation component force run parallel to each other.

True/False
Indicate whether the statement is true or false.

____ 1. When the centers of mass (CoM) of two adjacent segments are combined, the combined CoM will
be located somewhere along a line connecting the two individual CoMs.

____ 2. The relative line of gravity changes with changes in body position.

____ 3. An eccentric muscle contraction is an example of a second-class lever system.

Short Answer

1. Is naming the plane of motion considered part of kinetics or kinematics? Why?

2. What happens to the center of gravity (CoG) of the body when the body segments are rearranged?
What happens to the CoG if the right upper extremity is amputated?

3. A student is carrying all his books for his Fall semester courses (first year) in his right arm. What
does the additional weight do to the combined center of gravity (CoG) of body and books? How
will his body most likely respond to this change?

4. Upon what variables is the magnitude of friction dependent?

5. What kind of force system do the fibers within a muscle form? Explain.

6. How do you determine the net effect of two muscle pulls applied to the same spot? What is this
process called?
 7. Explain how anatomical pulleys affect the magnitude and direction of a muscle force (Fms).

8. If a force is applied at an angle to a lever (not 90°, not 0°), what is the process by which you
determine the torque applied to the lever by that force?

9. If a force is applied at an angle to a lever (not 90°, not 0°), what is the process by which you
determine the torque applied to the lever by that force?

10. If not all of a muscle’s force is contributing to rotation, what happens to the “wasted” force?
Describe by resolution of forces.

11. Using the values given in the following problem, determine whether the lever is in rotational or
linear (translatory) equilibrium.
Fms = 50 lb. (rt. of axis) Wt = 10 lb. (rt. of axis)
Fr = 15 lb. Wr = 6 lb. (clockwise)
(counterclockwise)
Ft = 40 lb. (toward jt) Wt = 6 lb. (away from joint)
la = 1 (rt. of jt) la = 12 (rt. of jt)

12. If you have a patient with a recent ligamentous injury to his knee, which of the following positions
would you want to avoid and why: sitting, prone, supine, sitting with legs over the edge of the bed,
or prone with knees flexed to 90°.
Chapter 1: Biomechanical Applications to Joint Structure and Function
Answer Section

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. ANS: C
Rotatory and translatory motions in the human body most commonly occur together.

PTS: 1
2. ANS: B
The frontal (coronal) plane divides the body into front and back halves. Movements in this plane
occur side to side, such as the case in abduction of the hip.

PTS: 1
3. ANS: B PTS: 1
4. ANS: B PTS: 1
5. ANS: C
A mechanical advantage occurs when the effort arm is greater than the resistance arm. This is
always the case in a third-class level if all forces are equal.

PTS: 1
6. ANS: B
Torque equals force times distance. The distance must be represented by the moment arm of the
force, not just the direct distance as measured up the lever. The moment arm is the perpendicular
distance of the line of the force from the axis of rotation.

PTS: 1
7. ANS: D
Because T = (F) (MA) therefore, F = T/MA: (–)5 Nm/0.02 m = (–)250 N. The negative sign is
used to show direction of the force. Due to the small moment arm, the force necessary to produce
(–)5 Nm of torque is quite large.

PTS: 1
8. ANS: B
If the torque were to remain the same, the force would have to increase as the moment arm
decreases. Force and moment arm have an inverse relationship if torque is to remain constant.

PTS: 1
9. ANS: D
The force of the weight did not change from position to position; therefore, position D would have
the greatest torque capabilities due to this position offering the largest moment arm of the weight
on the lever.

PTS: 1
 10. ANS: A
When the line of force is parallel with the moving segment, it will create either a distractive or
compressive force between the two boney segments. Distraction occurs when there is a pull or
movement of one bony segment away from another. Because the weight would be moving the tibia
away from the femur, it will create a distractive force.

PTS: 1
11. ANS: A
Sin 60 = 0.866 multiplied by the force of 100 N = 86.6 N, and Cos 60 = 0.05 multiplied by the
force of 100 N = 50 N.

PTS: 1
12. ANS: C
You find the resultant pull of the two forces by drawing the two forces, creating a parallelogram by
adding sides parallel to each of the forces, and drawing a diagonal within the parallelogram. The
resultant is the diagonal with its point of application at the original source and whose arrow head
(limit of magnitude) is at the opposite corner of the parallelogram. This is called composition of
forces.

PTS: 1
13. ANS: D
Newton’s Law of Inertia addresses the conditions under which an object will be in equilibrium.

PTS: 1
14. ANS: A
The contact force runs perpendicular to the joint surface which is in the same plane as the lever.
The translational force runs parallel with the lever; therefore, these two forces run parallel to each
other.

PTS: 1

TRUE/FALSE

1. ANS: T PTS: 1
2. ANS: T

The human body can be considered as a single rigid object. Even though the center of gravity does
not change base on position, the relative line of gravity will shift so that it remains vertically
downward.

PTS: 1
3. ANS: T
 In this case, the force of gravity would be considered the effort force, and the muscle resisting this
force would be considered the resistance force. Because gravity typically acts at a distance farther
from the axis than does the pull of the muscle, this would mean that the force involved is acting on
the system as a second-class lever.

PTS: 1

SHORT ANSWER

1. ANS:
Kinematics. It is purely a description of motion without regard to the forces causing it.

PTS: 1
2. ANS:
(1) The CoG shifts in the direction(s) of the location of the segments with the greatest mass. (2)
The CoG shifts down and to the left once the mass of the right arm is removed, because the lower
and left halves of the body are now relatively heavier.)

PTS: 1
3. ANS:
The center of gravity (for body and books) will be higher and to the right of S2. Because this new
location of the CoG would bring the line of gravity (LoG) to the right side of his base of support,
he will lean to the left to bring the LoG back to the middle of the base of support (most stable
place). The shift in the CoG is unavoidable. The shift of the LoG is an automatic adaptation but
under some volitional control.

PTS: 1
4. ANS:
The magnitude of friction is dependent upon (1) the magnitude of contact between the two surfaces
on which the friction is occurring—increased contact increases the maximum value of static
friction or the absolute value of kinetic friction; (2) the nature of the contacting surfaces—the
rougher one or both of the surfaces (increased coefficient of static or kinetic friction), the greater is
the maximum value of static friction or the absolute value of kinetic friction; and (3) the shear
force(s) on the objects—friction has magnitude only when there is attempted motion (static
friction) or actual motion (kinetic friction) between the two surfaces—the magnitude of friction on
a static object will always equal the net shear force on that object; the magnitude of friction on a
moving object is always the product of the contact force and the coefficient of kinetic friction.

PTS: 1
5. ANS:
Concurrent. Each fiber represents a separate force vector with the same general point of
application but which pulls at an angle to each other.

PTS: 1
6. ANS:
 You find the resultant pull of the two forces by drawing the two forces, creating a parallelogram by
adding sides parallel to each of the forces, and drawing a diagonal within the parallelogram. The
resultant is the diagonal with its point of application at the original source and whose arrow head
(limit of magnitude) is at the opposite corner of the parallelogram. This is called composition of
forces.

PTS: 1
7. ANS:
Anatomical pulleys (always single pulleys) do not affect the magnitude of Fms but do change the
direction of pull. The change in action line generally brings the action line away from the joint
axis, thus increasing the moment arm or rotatory component of the applied force.

PTS: 1
8. ANS:
Resolve the force into its components, which are perpendicular (rotatory) and parallel (translatory)
to the lever. Torque for the force is then determined by multiplying the magnitude of the rotatory
component by its distance (lever arm) from the joint axis.

PTS: 1
9. ANS:
Resolve the force into its components that are perpendicular (rotatory) and parallel (translatory) to
the lever. Torque for the force is then determined by multiplying the magnitude of the rotatory
component by its distance (lever arm) from the joint axis.

PTS: 1
10. ANS:
The “wasted” force goes toward translation. The translatory component (ft) is a force applied
parallel to the shaft of the bone, either toward the joint (compression or joint reaction force) or
away from the joint (distraction).

PTS: 1
11. ANS:
In this instance, the lever is rotating clockwise with a magnitude of 57 in-lb. The lever is not in
linear equilibrium according to the information given. There is a net joint compression of 34 lb.

PTS: 1
12. ANS:
Sitting with legs over the edge of the bed. In this position, gravity is parallel to the limb, creating a
full distractive force. Because this is usually a position of relaxation for the muscles, the only force
to counteract the distraction of the limb weight is tension in the injured ligaments.

PTS: 1
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floor; I holding on for dear life to the tomahawk ... fastened to his
wrist by a strong thong of leather.... At last he got a lock round my
leg; and had it not been for the table on which we both fell, and
which in smashing to pieces, broke our fall, I might have been
disabled.... We now rolled over and over on the floor like two mad
bulldogs; he trying to bite, and I trying to stun him by dashing his
bullet head against the floor. Up again! another furious struggle in
course of which both our heads and half our bodies were dashed
through the two glass windows, and every single article of furniture
was reduced to atoms. Down again, rolling like made, and dancing
about among the rubbish—wreck of the house. Such a battle it was
that I can hardly describe it.
“By this time we were both covered with blood from various
wounds.... My friend was trying to kill me, and I was only trying to
disarm and tie him up ... as there were no witnesses. If I killed him, I
might have serious difficulties with his tribe.
“Up again; another terrific tussle for the tomahawk; down again
with a crash; and so this life and death battle went on ... for a full
hour ... we had another desperate wrestling match. I lifted my friend
high in my arms, and dashed him, panting, furious, foaming at the
mouth—but beaten—against the ground. His God has deserted him.
“He spoke for the first time, ‘Enough! I am beaten; let me rise.’
“I, incautiously, let go his left arm. Quick as lightning he snatched
at a large carving fork ... which was lying among the debris; his
fingers touched the handle and it rolled away out of his reach; my life
was saved. He then struck me with all his remaining fire on the side
of the head, causing the blood to flow out of my mouth. One more
short struggle and he was conquered.
“But now I had at last got angry ... I must kill my man, or sooner
or later he would kill me.... I told him to get up and die standing. I
clutched the tomahawk for the coup de grace. At this instant a
thundering sound of feet ... a whole tribe coming ... my friends!... He
was dragged by the heels, stamped on, kicked, and thrown half
dead, into his canoe.
 “All the time we had been fighting, a little slave imp of a boy
belonging to my antagonist had been loading the canoe with my
goods and chattels.... These were now brought back.”
In the sequel this desperado committed two more murders “and
also killed in fair fight, with his own hand the first man in a native
battle ... which I witnessed.... At last having attempted to murder
another native, he was shot through the heart ... so there died.”
Mr. Maning was never again molested, and making full
allowance for their foibles, speaks with a very tender love for that
race of warriors.
 LVI
A.D. 1840
A TALE OF VENGEANCE

IN the days of the grandfathers, say ninety years ago, the

Americans had spread their settlements to the Mississippi, and that
river was their frontier. The great plains and deserts beyond, all
speckled now with farms and glittering with cities, belonged to the
red Indian tribes, who hunted the buffalo, farmed their tobacco,
played their games, worshiped the Almighty Spirit, and stole one
another’s horses, without paying any heed to the white men. For the
whites were only a little tribe among them, a wandering tribe of
trappers and traders who came from the Rising Sun Land in search
of beaver skins. The beaver skins were wanted for top hats in the
Land of the Rising Sun.
These white men had strange and potent magic, being masters
of fire, and brought from their own land the fire-water and the
firearms which made them welcome among the tribes. Sometimes a
white man entered the tribes and became an Indian, winning his rank
as warrior, marrying, setting up his lodge, and even rising to the
grade of chief. Of such was Jim Beckwourth, part white, part negro,
a great warrior, captain of the Dog Soldier regiment in the Crow
nation. His lodge was full of robes; his wives, by whom he allied
himself to the leading families, were always well fed, well dressed,
and well behaved. When he came home with his Dog Soldiers he
always returned in triumph, with bands of stolen horses, scalps in
plenty.
Long afterward, when he was an old man, Jim told his
adventures to a writer, who made them into a book, and in this
volume he tells the story of Pine Leaf, an Indian girl. She was little
more than a child, when, in an attack of the Cheyennes upon the
village, her twin brother was killed. Then, in a passion of rage and
grief, she cut off one of her fingers as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit,
and took oath that she would avenge her brother’s death, never
giving herself in marriage until she had taken a hundred trophies in
battle. The warriors laughed when she asked leave to join them on
the war-path, but Jim let her come with the Dog Soldiers.
Rapidly she learned the trade of war, able as most of the men
with bow, spear and gun, running like an antelope, riding gloriously;
and yet withal a woman, modest and gentle except in battle, famed
for lithe grace and unusual beauty.
“Please marry me,” said Jim, as she rode beside him.
“Yes, when the pine leaves turn yellow.”
Jim thought this over, and complained that pine leaves do not
turn yellow.
“Please!” he said.
“Yes,” answered Pine Leaf, “when you see a red-headed Indian.”
Jim, who had wives enough already as became his position,
sulked for this heroine.
She would not marry him, and yet once when a powerful
Blackfoot had nigh felled Jim with his battle-ax, Pine Leaf speared
the man and saved her chief. In that engagement she killed four
warriors, fighting at Jim’s side. A bullet cut through his crown of
eagle plumes. “These Blackfeet shoot close,” said Pine Leaf, “but
never fear; the Great Spirit will not let them harm us.”
In the next fight, a Blackfoot’s lance pierced Jim’s legging, and
then transfixed his horse, pinning him to the animal in its death
agony. Pine Leaf hauled out the lance and released him. “I sprang
upon the horse,” says Jim, “of a young warrior who was wounded.
The heroine then joined me, and we dashed into the conflict. Her
horse was immediately after killed, and I discovered her in a hand-to-
hand encounter with a dismounted Blackfoot, her lance in one hand
and her battle-ax in the other. Three or four springs of my steed
brought me upon her antagonist, and striking him with the breast of
my horse when at full speed, I knocked him to the earth senseless,
and before he could recover, she pinned him to the earth and
scalped him. When I had overturned the warrior, Pine Leaf called to
me, ‘Ride on, I have him safe now.’”
She was soon at his side chasing the flying enemy, who left
ninety-one killed in the field.
In the next raid, Pine Leaf took two prisoners, and offered Jim
one of them to wife. But Jim had wives enough of the usual kind,
whereas now this girl’s presence at his side in battle gave him
increased strength and courage, while daily his love for her flamed
higher.
At times the girl was sulky because she was denied the rank of
warrior, shut out from the war-path secret, the hidden matters known
only to fighting men. This secret was that the warriors shared all
knowledge in common as to the frailties of women who erred, but
Pine Leaf was barred out.
There is no space here for a tithe of her battles, while that great
vengeance for her brother piled up the tale of scalps. In one
victorious action, charging at Jim’s side, she was struck by a bullet
which broke her left arm. With the wounded arm nursed in her
bosom she grew desperate, and three warriors fell to her ax before
she fainted from loss of blood.
Before she was well recovered from this wound, she was afield
again, despite Jim’s pleading and in defiance of his orders, and in an
invasion of the Cheyenne country, was shot through the body.
“Well,” she said afterward, as she lay at the point of death, “I’m
sorry that I did not listen to my chief, but I gained two trophies.” The
very rescue of her had cost the lives of four warriors.
While she lay through many months of pain, tended by Jim’s
head wife, her bosom friend, and by Black Panther, Jim’s little son,
the chief was away fighting the great campaigns, which made him
famous through all the Indian tribes. Medicine Calf was his title now,
and his rank, head chief, for he was one of two sovereigns of equal
standing, who reigned over the two tribes of the Crow nation.
While Pine Leaf sat in the lodge, her heart was crying, but at last
she was able to ride again to war. So came a disastrous expedition,
in which Medicine Calf and Pine Leaf, with fifty Crow warriors and an
American gentleman named Hunter, their guest, were caught in a pit
on a hillside, hemmed round by several hundred Blackfeet. They had
to cut their way through the enemy’s force, and when Hunter fell, the
chief stayed behind to die with him. Half the Crows were slain, and
still the Blackfeet pressed hardly upon them. Medicine Calf was at
the rear when Pine Leaf joined him. “Why do you wait to be killed?”
she asked. “If you wish to die, let us return together. I will die with
you.”
They escaped, most of them wounded who survived, and almost
dying of cold and hunger before they came to the distant village of
their tribe.
Jim’s next adventure was a horse-stealing raid into Canada,
when he was absent fourteen months, and the Crows mourned
Medicine Calf for dead. On his triumphant return, mounted on a
piebald charger the chief had presented to her, Pine Leaf rode with
him once more in his campaigns. During one of these raids, being
afoot, she pursued and caught a young Blackfoot warrior, then made
him her prisoner. He became her slave, her brother by tribal law, and
rose to eminence as her private warrior.
Jim had founded a trading post for the white men, and the United
States paid him four hundred pounds a year for keeping his people
from slaughtering pioneers. So growing rich, he tired of Indian
warfare, and left his tribe for a long journey. As a white man he came
to the house of his own sisters in the city of Saint Louis, but they
seemed strangers now, and his heart began to cry for the wild life.
Then news came that his Crows were slaying white men, and in
haste he rode to the rescue, to find his warriors besieging Fort Cass.
He came among them, their head chief, Medicine Calf, black with
fury at their misdeeds, so that the council sat bewildered, wondering
how to sue for his forgiveness. Into that council came Pine Leaf.
“Warriors,” she cried, “I make sacrifice for my people!” She told them
of her brother’s death and of her great vengeance, now completed in
that she had slain a hundred men to be his servants in the other
world. So she laid down her arms. “I have hurled my last lance; I am
a warrior no more. To-day Medicine Calf has returned. He has
returned angry at the follies of his people, and they fear that he will
again leave them. They believe that he loves me, and that my
devotion to him will attach him to the nation. I, therefore, bestow
myself upon him; perhaps he will be contented with me and will
leave us no more. Warriors, farewell!”
So Jim Beckwourth, who was Medicine Calf, head chief of the
Crow nation, was wedded to Pine Leaf, their great heroine.
Alas for Jim’s morals, they did not live happily ever after, for the
scalawag deserted all his wives, titles and honors, to become a
mean trader, selling that fire-water which sapped the manhood of the
warrior tribes, and left them naked in the bitter days to come. Pine
Leaf and her kindred are gone away into the shadows, and over their
wide lands spread green fields, now glittering cities of the great
republic.
THE END
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in the
original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was
obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between
paragraphs and outside quotations.
The pages in the introductory chapter “Adventurers” were
not numbered. Transcriber did so with Roman numbers.
Page 210: “the overload Joy” may be a misprint for “the
overloaded Joy”.
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