7439

Ch 4.
Continuity, Energy, and Momentum Equation
Chapter 4 Continuity, Energy, and Momentum Equations
4.1 Conservation of Matter in Homogeneous Fluids
• Conservation of matter in homogeneous (single species) fluid → continuity equation
dA1 - perpendicular positive

to the control
surface
negative
4.1.1 Finite control volume method-arbitrary control volume
- Although control volume remains fixed, mass of fluid originally enclosed (regions A+B)
occupies the volume within the dashed line (regions B+C).
Since mass m is conserved:
 m A t   mB t   mB t  dt   mC t  dt (4.1)
 mB t dt   mB t  m A t   mC t  dt
 (4.2)
dt dt
•LHS of Eq. (4.2) = time rate of change of mass in the original control volume in the limit
 mB t dt   mB  t   mB  
  dV 
t CV
  (4.3)
dt t
4−1
Ch 4. Continuity, Energy, and Momentum Equation
where dV = volume element
•RHS of Eq. (4.2)
= net flux of matter through the control surface
= flux in – flux out
=  qn dA1   q
n dA2

where qn = component of velocity vector normal to the surface of CV  q cos 

  dV  
t CV  
  qn dA1   qn dA2 (4.4)
CS CS
※ Flux (= mass/time) is due to velocity of the flow.
• Vector form
  
 
t CV  CS  dA
 dV    q (4.5)

where dA = vector differential area pointing in the outward direction over an enclosed
control surface
   
 q  dA  q dA cos 
 positive for an outflow from cv,   90

 
 negative for inflow into cv, 90    180
 
If fluid continues to occupy the entire control volume at subsequent times
→ time independent
4−2
 
  dV  
t CV CV t dV
LHS: (4.5a)
Eq. (4.4) becomes
  
CV t dV   CS  dA  0
 q
(4.6)
→ General form of continuity equation - integral form
[Re] Differential form
Use Gauss divergence theorem
F
V xi dV   A
FdAi
Transform surface integral of Eq. (4.6) into volume integral
  
  q  dA       q  dV
CS CV
Then, Eq. (4.6) becomes
   
CV  t
     q  dV  0
  (4.6a)
Eq. (4.6a) holds for any volume only if the integrand vanishes at every point.
 
  q   0
t (4.6b)
→ Differential form
◈ Simplified form of continuity equation
(1) For a steady flow of a compressible fluid
4−3
V

CV t dv  0
Therefore, Eq. (4.6) becomes
 

CS
 q  dA  0 (4.7)
(2) For incompressible fluid (for both steady and unsteady conditions)
 d
  const.   0,  0
t dt
Therefore, Eq. (4.6) becomes

 

CS
q  dA  0 (4.8)
[Cf] Non-homogeneous fluid mixture
→ conservation of mass equations for the individual species
→ advection - diffusion equation
 c q 
= conservation of mass equation    0
 t x 
 c 
+ mass flux equation due to advection and diffusion  q  uc  D 
 x 
c   c 
  uc  D   0
t x  x 
c uc   c 
   D 
t x x  x 
4−4
4.1.2 Stream - tube control volume analysis for steady flow
There is no flow across the longitudinal boundary
∴ Eq. (4.7) becomes
 
  q  dA   1q1dA1   2 q2 dA2  0 (4.9)
 qdA  const.
If density = const.
q1dA1  q2 dA2  dQ (4.10)
where dQ = volume rate of flow
(1) For flow in conduit with variable density
V   qdA → average velocity

A
4−5
    dQ → average density
Q
1V1 A1   2 V2 A2 (4.11)
(2) For a branching conduit
 
  q  dA  0
  1q1dA1    2 q2 dA2    3q3dA3  0
A1 A2 A3
1V1 A1   2 V2 A2  3 V3 A3
4−6
[Appendix 4.1] Equation of Continuity
→ Infinitesimal (differential) control volume method
At the centroid of the control volume:  , u, v, w
Rate of mass flux across the surface perpendicular to x is
    u  dx 
flux in    u   dydz
 x 2 
    u  dx 
flux out    u   dydz
 x 2 
  u 
net flux = flux in  flux out   dxdydz
x
  v 
net mass flux across the surface perpendicular to y   dydxdz
y
   w
net mass flux across the surface perpendicular to z   dzdxdy
z
   dxdydz 
Time rate of change of mass inside the c.v. =
t
4−7
Time rate of change of mass inside = The sum of three net rates
   dxdydz     u  v    w 

     dxdydz
t  x y  z 
By taking limit dV  dxdydz
  u  v    w  
        q  div   q 
t x y z
 
   q  0 (A1)
t
→ general point (differential) form of Continuity Equation
  u  v    w  
[Re]       q  div   q 
x y z
By the way,
  
  q  q    q
Thus, (A1) becomes
  
 q     q  0 (A2)
t
1) For incompressible fluid
d
 0 (   const.)
dt
  d
  q    0
t dt
4−8
Therefore Eq. (A2) becomes

 
  q  0   q  0 (A3)
In scalar form,
u v w
   0 (A4)
x y z
→ Continuity Eq. for 3D incompressible fluid
For 2D incompressible fluid,
u v
  0
x y
2) For steady flow,

 0
t
Thus, (A1) becomes
  
   q  q    q  0
4−9
4.2 The General Energy Equation
4.2.1 The 1st law of thermodynamics
The 1st law of thermodynamics: combine continuity and conservation of energy → energy
equation
– property of a system: location, velocity, pressure, temperature, mass, volume
– state of a system: condition as identified through properties of the system
The difference between the heat added to a system of masses and the work done by the
system depends only on the initial and final states of the system (→ change in energy).
→ Conservation of energy
Q W
 Q   W  dE (4.14)
where  Q = heat added to the system from surroundings
 W = work done by the system on its surroundings

dE = increase in energy of the system
Consider time rate of change
Q W dE
  (4.15)
dt dt dt
(1) Work
Wpressure = work of normal stresses acting on the system boundary
Wshear = work of tangential stresses done at the system boundary
on adjacent external fluid in motion
4−10
Wshaft = shaft work done on a rotating element in the system
(2) Energy
Consider e = energy per unit mass = E

mass
eu = internal energy associated with fluid temperature = u
e p = potential energy per unit mass = gh
where h = local elevation of the fluid
q2
eq = kinetic energy per unit mass =
2
p
u   enthalpy

q2
e  eu  e p  eq  u  gh  (4.16)
2
• Internal energy
= activity of the molecules comprising the substance
= force existing between the molecules
~ depend on temperature and change in phase
4.2.2 General energy equation
Q W dE
  (4.15)
dt dt dt
4−11
Consider work done
W  W pressure  Wshaft  Wshear

  
dt dt dt dt (4.15a)
outward normal
vector

d A2

q2
 W pressure
= net rate at which work of pressure is done by the fluid on the surroundings
dt
= work fluxout – work fluxin
 
=  p  q  dA
CS
p = pressure acting on the surroundings = F A  F / L2
 Positive for outflow into CV

 
q  dA  

 Negative for inflow
 
q  dA  Q  L3 / t
4−12
  F L3
p  q  dA  2  FL / t  E / t
L t
Thus, (4.15a) becomes
W    Wshaft  Wshear
dt
  CS  dA  dt  dt
p  q
(4.15b)
Consider energy change
dE
= total rate change of stored energy
dt
= net rate of energy flux through C.V.
(energy @ t  t  t  energy @ t  t )
+ time rate of change inside C.V.
  
=  CS e   q  dA  
t CV
 e dV 
(4.15c)
 
e  E / mass;   q  dA  mass / time
 
e  q  dA  E / t
Substituting (4.15b) and (4.15c) into Eq. (4.15) yields
Q  Wshaft  Wshear   
dt

dt

dt
 
  CS
p  q  dA 
  
  CS e   q  dA  
t CV
 e dV 
Q  Wshaft  Wshear
 
dt dt dt
4−13
p    
 CS     dA  t CV  e dV 
 e   q (4.17)
Assume potential energy e p  gh (due to gravitational field of the earth)
q2
Then e  u  gh 
2
 
dt dt dt
p q2    
 CS  
   u  gh 
2
   q  dA  
t CV
e dV (4.17)
◈ Application: generalized apparatus
At boundaries normal to flow lines → no shear
→ Wshear  0
4−14
Q  Wshaft p q2    
dt

dt  CS    u  gh  2    q  dA  t CV e dV
  (4.19)
For steady motion,
Q  Wshaft p q2   
dt

dt  CS    u  gh  2    q  dA
  (4.20)
◈ Effect of friction
~ This effect is accounted for implicitly.
~ This results in a degradation of mechanical energy into heat which may be transferred away
( Q , heat transfer), or may cause a temperature change
→ modification of internal energy.
→ Thus, Eq. (4.20) can be applied to both viscous fluids and non-viscous fluids (ideal
frictionless processes).
4.2.3 1 D Steady flow equations
For flow through conduits, properties are uniform normal to the flow direction.
→ one - dimensional flow
1 2
V1 V2
Integrated form of Eq. (4.20) = ② - ①
Q  Wshaft  p V2  p V2

  u   gh   Q  u   gh    Q
dt dt   2  ②   2 ①
4−15
V2
where  average kinetic energy per unit mass
2
 
Section 1: 1   q  dA   Q  mass flow rate into CV
 
Section 2: 2   q  dA  Q  mass flow from CV
Divide by  Q (mass/time)
heat transfer Wshaft  p V2  p V2

  u   gh    u    gh  2 
mass mass   2 ②  ①
Divide by g
heat transfer Wshaft u p V2  u p V2 

    h    g    h  2g 
weight weight  g  2 g ②  ①
(4.21)
◈ Energy Equation for 1-D steady flow: Eq. (4.21)
~ use average values for p ,  , h , u and V at each flow section
~ use K e (energy correction coeff.) to account for non-uniform velocity distribution over
flow cross section
  1 mV 2
K e V Q   q dQ ---- kinetic energy/time 
2 2
2 2 2 t

 2 q dQ
2
Ke  1
 2
V Q
2
4−16
heat transfer Wshaft p V2  p V2  u  u1

    h  Ke     h  Ke   2
weight weight  2 g ②  2 g ① g
(4.23)
Ke = 2, for laminar flow (parabolic velocity distribution)
1.06, for turbulent flow (smooth pipe)
For a fluid of uniform density 
p1 V12 p2 V2 2 Wshaft heat transfer u  u1

 h1  K e1   h2  K e2    2
 2g  2g weight weight g
(4.24)
→ unit: m (energy per unit weight)
For viscous fluid;
heat transfer u  u1
  2  H L12
weight g
→ loss of mechanical energy
~ irreversible in liquid
p1 V12 p V2
 h1  K e1  2  h2  K e2 2  H M  H L12 (4.24a)
 2g  2g
where H M = shaft work transmitted from the system to the outside
H1  H 2  H M  H L12 (4.24b)
where H1 , H 2 = weight flow rate average values of total head
4−17
◈ Bernoulli Equation
Assume
① ideal fluid → friction losses are negligible
② no shaft work → H M  0
③ no heat transfer and internal energy is constant → H L12  0
p1 V12 p2 V2 2
 h1  K e1   h2  K e2 (4.25)
 2g  2g
H1  H 2
Potential head
Pressure head
If K e1  K e2  1 , then Eq. (4.25) reduces to Velocity head
p1 V12 p2 V2 2
H   h1    h2  (4.26)
 2g  2g
~ total head along a conduct is constant
◈ Grade lines
4−18
1) Energy (total head) line (E.L) ~ H above datum
2) Hydraulic (piezometric head) grade line (H.G.L.)
p 
~    h  above datum
 
For flow through a pipe with a constant diameter
V12 V2
V1  V2   2
2g 2g
1) If the fluid is real (viscous fluid) and if no energy is being added, then the energy line may
never be horizontal or slope upward in the direction of flow.
2) Vertical drop in energy line represents the head loss or energy dissipation.
4−19
4.3 Linear Momentum Equation for Finite Control Volumes
4.3.1 Momentum Principle
Newton's 2nd law of motion

  
  dq d  mq  dM
F  ma  m   (4.27)
dt dt dt
 
M  linear momentum vector = mq

F  external force

 boundary (surface) forces: normal to boundary - pressure, Fp

tangential to boundary - shear, Fs

body forces - force due to gravitational or magnetic fields, Fb
External forces cause momentum change

   dM
Fp  Fs  Fb  (4.28)
dt

Fb   fb   dv  , where fb = body force per unit mass
CV
4.3.2 The general linear momentum equation

dA1 
dA2 positive
negative
4−20
RHS of Eq. (4.28)
Consider change of momentum

dM momentum@t2-momentum@t1
= total rate of change of momentum
dt
= net momentum flux across the CV boundaries
+ time rate of increase of momentum within CV
    
  CS   q  dA  t CV q  dV
q (4.29)
 

where q  q  dA  = flux of momentum = velocity  mass per time

dA = vector unit area pointing outward over the control surface
Substitute (4.29) into (4.28)
       
Fp  Fs  Fb   CS q   q  dA   
t CV
q  dV (4.30)
For steady flow and negligible body forces

    
Fp  Fs   q   q  dA (4.30a)
CS
• Eq. (4.30)
1) It is applicable to both ideal fluid systems and viscous fluid systems involving friction and
energy dissipation.
2) It is applicable to both compressible fluid and incompressible fluid.
3) Combined effects of friction, energy loss, and heat transfer appear implicitly in the
magnitude of the external forces, with corresponding effects on the local flow velocities.
• Eq. (4.30a)
1) Knowledge of the internal conditions is not necessary.
2) We can consider only external conditions.
4−21
4.3.3 Inertial control volume for a generalized apparatus
• Three components of the forces
     
x  dir. : Fpx  Fsx  Fbx   CS u   q  dA  CV u  dV
t
     
 CS
y  dir. : Fp y  Fs y  Fby   v   q  dA  CV v  dV
t
     
 CS w  q  dA  t CV w dV
z  dir. : Fpz  Fsz  Fbz   (4.32)
• For flow through generalized apparatus
   
x  dir. : Fpx  Fsx  Fbx   u  dQ   u dQ  t CV
u  dV
2 1

t CV
For 1 - D steady flow, q dV  0
~ Velocity and density are constant normal to the flow direction.

  
x  dir.: Fpx  Fsx  Fbx   Fx  Vx  Q 2  Vx  Q 1
4−22
 Vx2  2 Q2  Vx1 1 Q1  Q  Vx2  Vx1   Q  Vxout  Vxin 
1 Q1   2 Q2  Q  (4.12)
y  dir.:  F  V  Q   V  Q 
y y 2 y 1
z  dir.:  F  V  Q   V  Q 
z z 2 z 1
(4.33)
where V = average velocity in flow direction
If velocity varies over the cross section, then introduce momentum flux coefficient

V 
q
   
 q   q  dA   K m  VA 
V
 
 q  dQ  K m Q
V

Km
 q dQ
 
V Q
where
V = magnitude of average velocity over cross section = Q A


V = average velocity vector
K m = momentum flux coefficient  1
= 1.33 for laminar flow (pipe flow)
1.03-1.04 for turbulent flow (smooth pipe)
4−23
[Cf] Energy correction coeff.

 2 q dQ
2
Ke 
 
VQ
2
F x   K mVx  Q 2   K mVx  Q 1
F y   K mVy  Q 2   K mVy  Q 1
F z   K mVz  Q 2   K mVz Q 1 (4.34)
[Example 4-4] Continuity, energy, and linear momentum with unsteady flow
A1  20 ft 2 , A2  0.1 ft 2 , h0  16
At time t  0 valve on the discharge nozzle is opened. Determine depth h , discharge rate
Q , and force F necessary to keep the tank stationary at t  50 sec.
4−24
i) Continuity equation, Eq. (4.4)

t CV
 dV    qn dA1    qn dA2
dV  A1dh ,  qn dA1  0 (because no inflow across the section (1))
 h
t 0
  A1 dh   V2 A2
dh
A1   V2 A2 (A)
dt
ii) Energy equation, Eq. (4.19)
~ no shaft work
~ heat transfer and temperature changes due to friction are negligible
 
dt dt dt
p q2    
 CS    u  gh  2    q  dA  t CV e dV

II
I q2
e = energy per unit mass = u  gh 
2
 q2   
 CS  u    gh  2    q  dA
p
I= 
 p q2   p q2 
  u   gh   V2 A2   u   gh   V1 A1
  2 2   2 1
 p q2 
  u   gh   V2 A2 V1  0 
  2 2
4−25
   q2 
t CV t CV 
II = e  dV   u  gh    dV
2 
A1 dh
∵ nearly constant in the

tank except near the nozzle
 h
 u  gh  dh
t 0
 A1 
 p q2   h
 0   u   gh   V A  A    u  gh  dh

2 2 1
 2 2 t 0
Assume   const. , p2  patm  0 , h2  0 (datum)
V22 dh dh
0  uV2 A2  V2 A2  uA1  A1 gh (B)
2 dt dt
Substitute (A) into (B)
V22
0  uV2 A2  V2 A2  u  V2 A2   gh  V2 A2 
2
V22
 V2 A2  ghV2 A2
2
V2  2 gh (C)
Substitute (C) into (A)
dh
A2 2 gh   A1
dt
dh A
  2 2 gdt
h A1
4−26
Integrate
dh A  h  12 1 h 
 
h t
h0
h
 0  A12 2 gdt  h
 0
h dh 
 2h 2  h0 

2
 12 A 2g 
h   h0  2 t
 A1 2 
2
 2  32.2  
h   16  0.1 t
 20 2 
  4  0.0201t 
2
h   4  0.0201 50   8.98 ft
2
At t  50sec ,
V2  2 gh  2  32.2  8.98   24.05 fps
Q2  VA 2  24.05  0.1  2.405 cfs
I II
iii) Momentum equation, Eq. (4.30)
       
Fp  Fs  Fb   CS q   q  dA  
t CV
q  dV
II = Time rate of change of momentum inside CV is negligible
if tank area  A1  is large compared to the nozzle area  A2  .

  
I=  q   q  dA   qn  qn dA2   qn  qn dA1  V2 V2 A2
CS
 Fpx  V2 V2 A2  V2  Q2
Fpx  1.94  24.05  2.405   112 lb
4−27
4.4 The Moment of Momentum Equation for Finite Control Volumes
4.4.1 The Moment of momentum principle for inertial reference systems
Apply Newton's 2nd law to rotating fluid masses


→ The vector sum  r  F  of all the external moments acting on a fluid mass equals the

time rate of change of the moment of momentum (angular momentum) vector  r  M  of
the fluid mass.
  d  
T  r  F  r M  (4.35)
dt

where r = position vector of a mass in an arbitrary curvilinear motion

M = linear momentum
[Re] Derivation of (4.35)


 dM
Eq. (4.27): F 
dt

Take the vector cross product of r
4−28

   dM
rF  r
dt
By the way,
  
d    dM
r M    M  r 
dr
dt dt dt
I
  
dr    dr  
I   M  q  mass  q  0   q
dt  dt 
   
 q  q  q q sin 0  0 

  dM  d  
  r    r M 
 dt  dt
  d  
 r  F  r M 
dt
 
where r  M = angular momentum (moment of momentum)
[Re] Torque
  
T  rF
translational motion → Force – linear acceleration
rotational motion → Torque – angular acceleration
[Re] Vector Product

  
V  ab
  
Magnitude = V  a  b sin  = area of parallelogram
 
direction = perpendicular to plane of a and b → right-handed triple
4−29
   
b  a   a  b 
 
 ka   b  k  a  b 
      
a  b  c    a  b    a  b 
• External moments arise from external forces
Forces Moment
   
Boundary (surface) force Fp , Fs Tp , Ts
 
Body force Fb Tb
   
 r  F    r  F    r  F   dtd  r  M 
p s b
  
Tp Ts Tb
   d  
Tp  Ts  Tb  r  M 
dt (4.36)
  
where Tp , Ts , Tb = external torque
4.4.2 The general moment of momentum equation

 Eq. (4.30)
    
 CS   q  dA  t CV q  dV
dM
 q
dt
d        
r  M    CS    
 dA    q   dV
t CV
 r  q  q  r
dt
         
T  T  T 
p s b  CS  r  q    q  dA  
t CV
 r  q   dV (4.37)
4−30
  
x  dir. :  r  q  yz  ryz q yz sin    yz    rq cos  
2 
angle between q yz and ryz
     
 Tpx  Tsx  Tbx   CS  rq cos  yz   q  dA 
t CV
 rq cos   yz  dV
(4.39a)
     
y  dir. : Tpy  Tsy  Tby    rq cos    q  dA 
CS zx
t CV
 rq cos   zx  dV
     
z  dir. : Tpz  Tsz  Tbz   CS  rq cos  xy   q  dA 
t CV
 rq cos   xy  dV
4.4.3 Steady-flow equations for Turbomachinery
■ Turbomachine
~ pumps, turbines, fans, blows, compressors
~ dynamic reaction occurs between a rotating vaned element (runner) and fluid passing
through the element
If rotating speed is constant → Fig. 4.14
Tr   r V cos  2  dQ 
A2 2 2  rV cos 1  dQ
A1 1 1
– Euler's Eq. (4.40)
Where r1 , r2 = radii of fluid elements at the entrance and exist of the runner
V1 , V2 = velocities relative to the fixed reference frame (absolute)
1 ,  2 = angles of absolute velocities with tangential direction
A1 , A2 = entrance and exit area of CV which encloses the runner
4−31
Tr = torque exerted on fluid by the runner
• Tr positive for pump, compressor
negative for turbine
If r2V2 cos  2 and rV

1 1 cos 1 are constant,  is constant
Tr   Q  r2V2 cos  2  rV
1 1 cos 1  (4.41)
If r2V2 cos  2 = rV
1 1 cos 1
 QrV cos   Qrv  const.
~ zero torque, constant angular momentum
If   0 → free vortex flow
4−32
Homework Assignment # 2
Due: 1 week from today
4-11. Derive the equation for the volume rate of flow per unit width for the sluice gate
shown in Fig. 4-20 in terms of the geometric variable b , y1 , and cc . Assume the pressure
in hydrostatic at y1 and ccb and the velocity is constant over the depth at each of these
sections.
4-12. Derive the expression for the total force per unit width exerted by the above sluice gate
on the fluid in terms of vertical distances shown in Fig. 4-20.
4-14. Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through the Venturi meter shown in Fig. 4-
22. Assuming uniform flow at sections (1) and (2) neglecting all losses, find the pressure
difference between these sections as a function of the flow rate Q , the diameters of the
sections, and the density of the fluid,  . Note that for a given configuration, Q is a
function of only the pressure drop and fluid density. The meter is named for Venturi, who
investigated its principle in about 1791. However, in 1886 Clemens Herschel first used the
meter to measure discharge, and he is usually credited with its invention.
4−33
4-15. Water flows into a tank from a supply line and out of the tank through a horizontal
pipe as shown in Fig. 4-23. The rates of inflow and outflow are the same, and the water
surface in the tank remains a distance h above the discharge pipe centerline. All velocities
in the tank are negligible compared to those in the pipe. The head loss between the tank and
the pipe exit is H L . (a) Find the discharge Q in terms of h , A , and H L . (b) What is the
horizontal force, Fx , required to keep the tank from moving? (c) If the supply line has an
area A' , what is the vertical force exerted on the water in the tank by the vertical jet?
4-28. Derive the one-dimensional continuity equation for the unsteady, nonuniform flow of
an incompressible liquid in a horizontal open channel as shown in Fig. 4-29. The channel
has a rectangular cross section of a constant width, b. Both the depth, y0 and the mean
4−34
velocity, V are functions of x and t.
4−35

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Ch 4.

Continuity, Energy, and Momentum Equation

Chapter 4 Continuity, Energy, and Momentum Equations

4.1 Conservation of Matter in Homogeneous Fluids

• Conservation of matter in homogeneous (single species) fluid → continuity equation

dA1 - perpendicular positive

4.1.1 Finite control volume method-arbitrary control volume

occupies the volume within the dashed line (regions B+C).

Since mass m is conserved:

where dV = volume element

•RHS of Eq. (4.2)

= net flux of matter through the control surface

= flux in – flux out

※ Flux (= mass/time) is due to velocity of the flow.

 positive for an outflow from cv,   90

If fluid continues to occupy the entire control volume at subsequent times

Eq. (4.4) becomes

→ General form of continuity equation - integral form

[Re] Differential form

Use Gauss divergence theorem

Transform surface integral of Eq. (4.6) into volume integral

Then, Eq. (4.6) becomes

◈ Simplified form of continuity equation

(1) For a steady flow of a compressible fluid

Therefore, Eq. (4.6) becomes

[Cf] Non-homogeneous fluid mixture

→ conservation of mass equations for the individual species

→ advection - diffusion equation

4.1.2 Stream - tube control volume analysis for steady flow

There is no flow across the longitudinal boundary

∴ Eq. (4.7) becomes

q1dA1  q2 dA2  dQ (4.10)

where dQ = volume rate of flow

(1) For flow in conduit with variable density

V   qdA → average velocity

(2) For a branching conduit

[Appendix 4.1] Equation of Continuity

→ Infinitesimal (differential) control volume method

At the centroid of the control volume:  , u, v, w

Rate of mass flux across the surface perpendicular to x is

   dxdydz     u  v    w 

By taking limit dV  dxdydz

→ general point (differential) form of Continuity Equation

Thus, (A1) becomes

Therefore Eq. (A2) becomes

→ Continuity Eq. for 3D incompressible fluid

For 2D incompressible fluid,

2) For steady flow,

4.2 The General Energy Equation

4.2.1 The 1st law of thermodynamics

– property of a system: location, velocity, pressure, temperature, mass, volume

– state of a system: condition as identified through properties of the system

where  Q = heat added to the system from surroundings

 W = work done by the system on its surroundings

Consider time rate of change

Wpressure = work of normal stresses acting on the system boundary

Wshear = work of tangential stresses done at the system boundary

on adjacent external fluid in motion

Wshaft = shaft work done on a rotating element in the system

Consider e = energy per unit mass = E

eu = internal energy associated with fluid temperature = u

e p = potential energy per unit mass = gh

where h = local elevation of the fluid

= activity of the molecules comprising the substance