Features of the Upper Course

o The upper course of a river is characterized by a V shaped valley, and small narrow
channel.
o This is due to the vertical erosion taking place, mainly in the form of hydraulic
action.
o Mainly large boulders are transported and deposited in the upper course.
o Smaller sediments and soluble material are also transported in the upper course as
suspension and solution but to a lesser extent.
o Main features forming are:
- Waterfalls
- Plunge pools
- Rapids
- Gorges
- Canyons
- Inter-locking spurs
- Potholes
 What is a waterfall and a plunge pool?
A waterfall is a sudden fall of river water, over an almost vertical drop.
Often, waterfalls form as river flow over layers of soft and hard rock down
a slope. The soft rock erodes, leaving a hard ledge over which the stream
falls.

A plunge pool is a pool of water formed at the base of the waterfall due to
erosive force of the water falling from a height.
 Formation of a waterfall and plunge pool

Plunge pool

River flowing over layer of hard
rock followed by layer of soft
rock
The soft rock erodes causing a
step in the river bed
The power of the water flowing
over the step erodes the rock
at the bottom of the slope
(hydraulic action) to form a
plunge pool
 Formation of a waterfall
Overhang
Larger overhang

Undercutting

Over time, the plunge pool The overhang gets larger as

gets larger and the water cuts
into the rocks at the back of the
pool, leaving the hard rock
hanging without support. This
forms an overhang.
more undercutting occurs due
to water splashing on the rocks
at the back of the pool
 Formation of a waterfall
Overhang
breaks off

Vertical
face

Without the support of the soft
rocks, the overhang eventually
gets too heavy and breaks off,
falling into the plunge pool
below. This creates a vertical
face over which the water falls.
The rocks in the plunge pool will swirl around in
the water, dragging against the bed and the rocks
at the back of the pool, causing further erosion by
abrasion. This causes more undercutting which
forms another overhang and the process repeats
again to form a steeper vertical face
 Formation of a waterfall

Falling water causes erosion

by hydraulic action
Steeper
vertical
drop

Wider, deeper plunge pool

Rocks causes erosion by
abrasion
Waterfall and Plunge Pool
 What are rapids?

Rapids are fast flowing, turbulent sections of the river. They are
formed by water flowing over alternating bands of hard and soft
rocks. As the water flows over the alternating bands, the hard
rocks remain, while the soft rocks are eroded. This creates a
drop between the hard and soft layers, causing the flow of the
water to increase and become more violent.
Formation of Rapids
Rapids
 What is a gorge?

A gorge is typically any narrow, deep valley with very

steep sides where a river passes through mountains or an
area of hard rock. It is created by the river eroding the
rocks/ earth over millions of years.
Gorge
Formation of a gorge
 Difference between a gorge and a canyon

In terms of the proportions of the two, a canyon is

considered larger than a gorge. They are both deep
valleys, but a canyon is often wider compared to a gorge.
Canyon
 What are interlocking spurs?
In geography, a spur is a piece of land(hard rock) jutting into a
river that the water flows around because it is too hard to erode.
Interlocking spurs form when many spurs jut out from either
side of a V-shaped valley in an alternating pattern.
Interlocking Spurs
 What are potholes?

A pothole is a circular or cylindrical hole in the riverbed which is

produced by force of water and abrasion. A pothole is formed
when a circular current of water carrying small pebbles and
sediment begins to wear away a rock surface. They are typically
deeper than wider.
Formation of potholes
Potholes