Ground Fragmentation

(MINE 325)

Lecture 1
Introduction

Solomon A. Tucker, Ph.D.

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 Course Aims and Objectives
Aims
• To present the principles underlying efficient rock breakage involving the
use of explosives
• Equip students with the knowledge and technical capability necessary to
ensure they function effectively in a technical blasting function wherever
they may find themselves

Objectives
• Present rock fragmentation as an essential part of the mining process;
• Demonstrate that Blasting is a systems function, needing a comprehensive
approach involving a broad range of stakeholders
• Introduce principles that underlie and influence blasting performance
• Provide the technical tools for the design, analysis, implementation, and
evaluation of blasting outcomes
• Provide students with the tools to operate competently within the
environmental constraints of blasting
• Provide a platform for students to confidently present technical matter on
blasting to peers and managers, and to provide sound analysis of
fragmentation issues

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 The Goal of Blasting
The overall goal of blasting in an operation
(mining/quarry/construction, etc) is usually
to ensure the fragmentation and
displacement of the rockmass required to
maximize the profitability of the entire
mining, quarrying, or construction
operation.

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The Goal of Blasting: What is it?

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Blast outcomes must meet a desired end!

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 Optimum Blasting
Mackenzie (1966/67); J. Floyd (2008); J.K. Tech 2012

Source: J. Floyd (Blast Dynamics):

Efficient Blasting Techniques

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Major Factors Influencing Blast Efficiency
A. Geological Factors
B. Design Factors (Three Design Keys)
C. Quality Control
D. Communication

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 A. Geological Factors
1. Physical Rock Properties
2. Rock Structure (in situ characteristics)
3. Other Conditions

Blasting results are influenced more by

rock properties and structure than by
explosives properties.
• Of the two, rock structure is the more influential
factor

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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
1. Physical Rock Properties
i. Compressive strength: the strength of the rock under compression
ii. Tensile strength: the strength of rock under tension; typically, it is one-tenth
the compressive strength;
iii. Shear Strength: The lateral strength of the rock;
iv. Poisson’s ratio: The relationship of lateral deformation to longitudinal
deformation under load. The lower the ratio, the more amenable the rock is to
pre-splitting techniques;
v. Young’s modulus: The modulus of elasticity. It is measure of the rock’s
ability to withstand or resist deformation. The higher the value, the harder the
rock is to break.
vi. Density
vii. Longitudinal wave velocity: The velocity at which the rock transmits
compressional (p) waves. In massive rock, the detonation velocity of
the explosive should exceed the longitudinal wave velocity to achieve
good fragmentation.

These parameters are easily measured in a laboratory, but attempts to

correlate them with observed fragmentation have generally not been
successful.
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Rock Stress Considerations

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Typical Rock Properties

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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
2. Rock Structure (In situ characteristics)
• Rock fragmentation is primarily controlled by
rock structure.
Rock Structure entails (a) bedding (b) jointing and
faulting (c) floaters (d) rock hardness (e) cavities

Massive rock is rock with little or no bedding or

jointing.

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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
2. Rock Structure (In situ characteristics)(contd.)
a. Bedding
Bedded rock layering characteristics of the rock mass
are described in terms of thickness, gap or tightness,
cement/fill and orientation to bench face
(horizontal, vertical, high angle, or parallel)

Bedding thickness can dictate blast fragmentation

distribution.
Soft or weak bedding planes can reduce energy
confinement and often require the use of decking to
achieve optimum blast performance;
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 Geological Factors (Rock Structure) (contd.)

Adverse bedding planes

Massive rock

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 Deck Loading in weak seams

Dipping bedding planes with

weak mud seam

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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
2. Rock Structure (In situ characteristics) (contd.)
b. Jointing: This refers to existing macro and micro fractures
within the rock mass.
Also described in terms of block size, spacing, persistence, gap,
cement/fill, and orientation to the bench face (horizontal, vertical,
high-angle, or parallel.
Highly jointed or fractured rock requires less explosive energy to
obtain good fragmentation;
Explosives with high gas production characteristics, such as ANFO, are
appropriate for highly jointed or fractured rock;
Smaller drill patterns minimize the adverse effects of thickly bedded
or blocky rock masses
The spacing of the joints in the rock mass can indicate the post-blast
fragment size
The orientation of the free face to the bedding planes and joints sets is
a key factor that controls overbreak and bench stability
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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
2. Rock Structure (In situ characteristics) (contd.)
c. Floaters
• Floaters are boulders of hard rock surrounded by soft rock.
• Floaters require reduced patterns and deck loading to insure
energy distribution within the rock

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A. Geological Factors (contd.)
Rock Structure (Floaters – contd.)

After J. Floyd (Blast

Dynamics): Efficient
Blasting Techniques
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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
2. Rock Structure (contd.)
d. Rock hardness
• Rock hardness is determined in the field while drilling, or
estimated (through correlations or experience) from previous
bench and field tests.
• Defines the relative strength parameters of the rock by
striking the rock with the blunt end of a rock hammer: the
strength of the rock is determined by the damage produced.
• Harder, higher density rocks usually require higher energy
factors for optimum fragmentation, unless they are highly
bedded and jointed;
• Mud seams can prematurely vent explosive energy;
• The drillers should provide the blaster with the information
needed to load the hole correctly (rel. hardness, depth, etc);
• Blastholes should be loaded according to zones of hardness
(hard seams, cap rock, etc)
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Rock Hardness Considerations

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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
2. Rock Structure (contd.)
e. Cavities
• Cavities are voids or empty spaces within the rock mass,
and arise from both natural and man-made causes;
• They cause overloading of the rock mass, resulting in
venting and fly rock;
• Can prematurely vent explosive pressure (as in the case
of underground workings below the open pit)
• Large cavities can be extremely dangerous to personnel
and equipment;
• Specific procedures should be developed to identify
and reduce the adverse effects of cavities;
• In some cases, plastic pipe can be used to load the rock
mass below the cavity

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 Cavity loading techniques

Cavity

Both illustrations after J. Floyd (Blast Dynamics):

Efficient Blasting Techniques

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 A. Geological Factors (contd.)
3. Other Conditions
a. Reactive Ground
• Nitrate-based explosives react with sulphides in rockmass to
generate heat (often in excess of 1200oF);
• A common reactive ground type is black pyritic shale;
• The primary toxic gas produces is Sulphur dioxide, but carbon
monoxide and hydrogen sulphide gases are also generated;
• The safe SO2 limit is 2ppm, working in reactive zones may thus
require full face respirators;
• Excessive heat levels cause premature detonations or failure of
initiation systems;
• Thus, the blaster must determine what type of rock has reactive
potential, and define the zones in the pit that may react;
• Establish, document, and follow reactive ground loading
procedures.

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Hot hole in reactive ground

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3. Other conditions
b. Water
• The presence of water has a major influence on the type of
explosive used and the overall fragmentation costs;
• Static water levels remain the same year round. Hence,
blastholes can be dewatered and the water will not rush back
in, implying water is not moving in the rock mass;
• Dynamic water levels vary with the seasons, and dewatered
blastholes can refill with water quickly. Water moving in rock
can cut through bulk explosives with high water resistance, or
totally compromise bulk explosives with low water resistance.
Packaged explosives may be required.
• Multiple priming is advised in wet blastholes;
• Mine site dewatering is expensive, but can be justified by
overall savings in mine equipment and explosives used.

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 Extreme Water Conditions
Extreme water conditions image

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 B. Design Factors (contd.)
Three design keys are vital to Optimum
Explosive (Blasting) Performance:
1. Energy Level
2. Energy Distribution
3. Energy Confinement

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B. Design Factors (contd.)

Optimum
Explosive
Performance

Explosive Energy Level

After J. Floyd (Blast Dynamics): Efficient Blasting Techniques

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 B. Design Factors
1. Explosive Energy Level
i. The energy level must be sufficient to overcome
the structural strength and mass of the rock, while
providing controlled displacement
ii. The blast designer must determine required
energy level based on the degree of
fragmentation and displacement required;
iii. Account for site sensitivity (environmental, social,
reactive conditions, etc)
iv. Evaluate high-energy explosives for special site
conditions (i.e. large toes, poor floor)
v. Maintain explosive quality control with routine
testing

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 B. Design Factors (contd.)
2. Explosive Energy Distribution
Explosive energy distribution in the rock mass:
i. Must be evenly distributed to achieve uniform
fragmentation;
ii. Proper hole diameter to bench height relationship
must be ensured;
iii. Appropriate burden-spacing relationship must be
ensured;
iv. The design must be implemented carefully;
v. Angle drill, if required, to improve distribution.

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 B. Design Factors (contd.)
3. Explosive Energy Confinement
i. Explosive energy must be confined long enough
after detonation to establish fractures and to
displace material;
ii. The explosive’s path of least resistance must be
controlled;
iii. Blast holes must be loaded according to geology;
iv. Use the proper stemming length and stem
material type;
v. Match the timing configuration to the existing
field conditions.
vi. Use accurate delays.
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 C. Quality Control
The Blasting Cycle

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 C. Quality Control (contd.)
With ref. to the Blasting Cycle
1. Efficient blasting is a process of continuous
improvement
2. Each operation controls the performance of the next
3. Procedures for the design and implementation of blast
design should be defined, documented, followed,
and audited
4. Pay attention to Details
This is key to achieving safe, consistent, and efficient
blasting
5. Quality control for efficient blasting requires Group
Effort
6. Complete each step as consistently as possible
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 C. Quality Control (contd.)
1. Site Evaluation and Establishment of Specific Goal
Perform a detailed site evaluation to determine the primary goal
of the blast and the site conditions that may dictate the blast
design

2. Typical blast goals

Control of ore loss/dilution
Ore fragmentation
Waste fragmentation
Muckpile displacement
Control of slope damage
Blast vibration control

3. Blast design:
The blast design should be based on the goal of the blast and on
the site-specific conditions

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 C. Quality Control (contd.)
3. Accurate design implementation
Bench preparation
Pattern layout
Blasthole drilling
Explosives quality control
Blasthole loading
Timing configuraton
Recordkeeping
Blast guarding
Post-blast clearing

4. Performance evaluation
Fragmentation
Displacement
Flyrock
Fumes
Vibration and Noise levels
Drill and blast cost

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 D. Communication
Safe, optimized blasting requires good
communication between members of each
group, and interaction between groups.

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