Ground Fragmentation

(MINE 325)

Types and Properties of

Explosives

Solomon A. Tucker

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 Lecture Aim and Objective
Aim:
• To introduce the class to explosives as a key
element in rock fragmentation

Objective
• Introduce the student to the types and
properties of explosives, and the conventions in
characterizing explosives in industry

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 Definitions
Explosives:
= Chemical mixtures or compounds which, when
subjected to heat, impact, or shock, are capable
of undergoing a rapid decomposition that
releases heat and gases, which, in turn expand to
form high pressures.

= Energetic formulations containing an oxidizer

and a fuel*

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Timeline for the use of explosives

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 Categories/Types
Explosive – An energetic formulation containing an oxidizer and fuel
Dynamites – Straight Dynamite percentage indicated amount of nitroglycerin. Extra dynamite –
mostly ammonium and sodium nitrate
Gelatin Dynamite – nitrocotton plus nitroglycerin
Permissibles – Used in underground coal mines (temperature, duration)
Water Gels/Slurries – A thickened aqueous soln. of oxidizer and/or fuel salts in which is dispersed
additional solid oxidizers and/or fuels as well as sensitizers.
Emulsions– dispersions of water solutions of oxidizers in an oil medium or water-in-oil emulsions.
Molecular Explosives – a compound containing both fuel and oxidizer in the same molecule.
- Examples pentaerythritol tetranitrate C5H8O12N4; trinitrotoluene C7H5O6N3
- Nitroglycerine C3H5NO4; lead azide Pb(N3)2; fulminate of mercury C2N2O2Hg
Blasting Agents. They have only part of the components of an explosive: eg. Ammonium nitrate has
only an oxidizer, but becomes an explosive (ANFO) when mixed with fuel oil. ANFO is also called
“Blasting Prills”. Also, emulsions, etc.
Blends – mixture of water-in-oil emulsions and AnFO.
Ideal Explosives: Consistency of performance and characteristic (such as VOD, detonation pressure)
irrespective of change in conditions. Eg. cast primers, TNT, PETN, NG.

Non-Ideal Explosives: characteristics are dependent on diameter, temperature, confinement, etc. Eg.
ANFO, Heavy ANFO, emulsions, water gels, slurries
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Water Gel

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Emulsion

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 Properties of Explosives
Also considered Selection Parameters, these
properties govern the choice of explosives
for specific uses
1. Physical Properties
2. Detonation Performance Properties
3. Site-specific Selection parameters

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 Physical Characteristics of Explosives
1. Density,
a. The weight of explosive per unit of volume
b. Expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc)
c. Density of bulk ANFO is approximately 0.82 g/cc (or
0.85g/cc, depending on the manufacturer)
d. Densities less than 1.0 g/cc will float in water.
e. Higher density products are more easily dead-pressed
(low-order detonation caused by loss of sensitivity due to
high transient pressures) than lower density ones.
f. Density affects/influences other characteristics like
Sensitivity, detonation velocity, and critical diameter
g. Critical Density - Deadpressing
h. Loading Density (LD) is the weight of explosive per length
of explosive (or blasthole) column. Typical units: lb/ft, kg/m.
LD = 0.3405 x Explosive Density x (Charge Diameter)2
Charge Diameter is in units of inches

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 Physical Characteristics of Explosives (contd.)
2. Sensitivity
• This is the absolute or relative ease with which an explosive can be
induced to react. It is a measure of the ease of initiation of explosive
(denoted as the minimum booster size required)
• Explosives are usually described as cap-sensitive or not cap-sensitive,
based on the ability to initiate their detonation using a No. 8 blasting cap
(composed of 2 grams of mercury fulminate and potassium chloride, or 0.4
– 0.45 g of PETN + primer charges)
• Sensitivity varies according to explosive composition, diameter,
temperature, ambient pressure.
• High explosives are sensitive to a No. 8 strength blasting cap (which
contains ~0.5g of high explosive)
• Blasting agents are not sensitive to a No. 8 strength blasting cap, and thus
require boosters.
• Some blasting agents can become cord sensitive and prevent proper
downhole delay sequencing
• Common sensitizers are air, gas, chemical (SPC, AP), metal, micro balloons
(glass or plastic spheres)
Micro balloon strength recommendations: dry holes 250 psi, wet holes 500 psi, water-
filled holes 1,000 psi.

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 Physical Characteristics of Explosives (contd.)
3. Sensitiveness
• Propagating ability; it is the capability to propagate detonation once it has
been initiated, and is determined by the length of the air-gap over which a
“donor” cartridge will detonate a “receptor” cartridge under unconfined
conditions
• Sensitiveness is an important attribute in considering an explosive
because, if the sensitiveness is low, there can be interruptions or failures in
the detonation if the column of explosive is not continuous.
• If, on the other hand, the sensitiveness is too high, there is the likelihood of
“cross” or “sympathetic” propagation between adjacent holes spaced too
closely together, or where the formation is badly fractured and faulted.
• One major effect of sympathetic propagation is that, where millisecond
delays are used, their desired influence is eliminated, resulting in poor
fragmentation, excessive airblast, and ground vibration.

4. Critical Diameter
• Minimum charge diameter at which the detonation process, once initiated,
will support itself.
• Where the sensitiveness is low, the propagation through the column may
fail, even at critical diameter.
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 Physical Characteristics of Explosives (contd.)

5. Water Resistance
a. This is the ability of an explosive to withstand
exposure to water without losing sensitivity or
efficiency.
b. Explosives vary widely in water resistance. ANFO
has no water resistance; emulsions and water gels
have good water resistance.
c. Brown-orange nitrogen oxide fumes from a blast
indicate inefficient detonation which might have
been caused by wet explosives
d. Water resistance can be improved by using
borehole liners or water-resistant cartridges.

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 Physical Characteristics of Explosives (contd.)

6. Chemical Stability
a. This is the ability to remain chemically unchanged
and retain sensitivity when stored under specified
conditions
b. Less stable explosives have shorter shelf lives and
deteriorate quicker with time.
c. Factors that affect chemical instability include:
heat, cold, humidity, quality of raw materials,
contamination, packaging, and storage facilities
d. Signs of product deterioration are crystallization,
increase in viscosity, and increase in density.
e. Underground magazines can reduce the effects of
temperature cycling.

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 Physical Characteristics of Explosives (contd.)
7. Fume Characteristics
a. Explosive detonation can produce non-toxic (CO2, H2O) and toxic
fumes (CO, and NOX: NO, NO2)
b. Toxic fumes are of particular concern underground and in deep
open-cut operations with minimal air movement, or when
neighbours are close to the operation.
c. Permissibles (used in gassy coal mines)
d. Factors increasing toxic fume generation include improper
priming, lack of confinement, water, improper explosive
composition, improper timing, improper loading techniques, and
adverse reaction with rock.
e. Fume reduction checks:
Explosive formulation; Quality control; Delivery system; Sensitizing agent (if the explosive
is solid-sensitized, its density should not change during the storage and loading)
f. Reduction techniques
Replace gas sensitizer with microballoons, slow loading down, use larger primers, add
aluminum sensitizer, increase emulsion % in blends, use pre-oiled ANFO in blends, use
liners when using ANFO, add urea to emulsion and ANFO, replace fuel oils with mineral
oils, use higher quality emulsifier

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 Detonation Performance Properties
1. Velocity of Detonation (VOD, or Detonation Velocity)
a. VOD is the rate at which the detonation wave travels through the explosive, in
ft/sec, or m/s
b. Detonation occurs when the speed of chemical decomposition is greater
than the speed of sound in the medium; it starts at the point of initiation in the
explosive and travels at supersonic speeds, relative to the sonic velocity of
the explosive material itself
c. When the rate of chemical decomposition is less than the speed of sound in
the explosive, that decomposition is called deflagration
d. ANFO’s VOD can range from 8,000 to 15,500 fps, depending on hole diameter
e. Detonation velocity is the main component of shock energy, and is
responsible for rock breakage.
f. The VOD of the explosive should meet or exceed the sonic velocity of the
rockmass (impedance matching)
g. VOD can be measured to determine explosive efficiency.
h. Explosives with high VODs are more favorable in hard rock; and those with
lower VODs give better results in soft rock. Lower VOD explosives tend to
release gas pressure over a longer time, hence they have more heave (an
important property for material displacement).

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 Detonation Performance Properties
1. VOD (contd.)
Factors that affect VOD include:
•The degree of confinement •Loading procedure
•formulation, •Impact of explosive during loading
•Density •Initiation sequence
•column head or pressure •Water entrapment
•Sensitizer (gas, chemical, microballoon) •Cord downlines
•Temperature •Shelf life
•Primer size •Temperature cycling
•Sleep time
•Critical diameter

VOD can help determine

• Consistency of in-hole detonation
• Minimum primer size
• Density/pressure relationship
• Evaluate field practices
• Evaluate blasthole conditions
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Typical Detonation Features

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 Detonation Performance Properties (contd.)
2. Detonation Pressure (P)
Detonation pressure is the pressure produced in the primary reaction
zone of the explosive, behind the detonation front.
Units of P are in Gpa, or in kilobars (kbar) or psi (1kbar = 14,504 psi)
In an ideal explosive:
P = 0.25 x density x VOD2 x 10-6
where P is detonation pressure (Gpa)
Density is in g/cc
VOD is detonation velocity (m/s)
Or
P = 2.325 x density x VOD2 x, 10-7
where P is in kbar
Density is in g/cc
VOD is in fps.

Borehole pressure is approximately 45% of detonation pressure

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 Detonation Performance Properties (contd.)
3. Borehole Pressure
a. This is the pressure on the walls of the blasthole from the
expansion of detonation gases
b. Normally around 45% of detonation pressure
c. The volume and rate of gas that is produced by the
explosive controls the heave or displacement of the
rockmass
d. When using charge diameters that are less than the
borehole diameter, the effect of decoupling should be
taken into account, as follows:
Dry Hole Pressure Reduction (%) =
1-(Explosive diameter/Blasthole diameter)^2.6

Wet Hole Pressure Reduction (%) =

1-(explosive diameter/Blasthole Diameter)^1.8
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Detonation Performance Properties (contd.)

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Detonation Performance Properties (contd.)

Absolute Weight Strength (AWS)

a. Also called “Energy by Weight”
b. It is the maximum theoretical explosive heat energy, based
on the ingredients in the explosive. Units: calories per gram,
cal/g.
c. AWS of ANFO = 890 cal/g (i.e. when the mixture composition
is 94% AN and 6% FO. (Note, in some situations AWS of
ANFO is given as 912 cal/g. Always note the reference AWS
value and the composition)
d. AWS for 100% emulsion is around 680 cal/g.
e. Actual explosive efficiencies range between 35 to 90%.

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Detonation Performance Properties (contd.)

Absolute Bulk Strength (ABS)

a. Also called “Energy by Volume”
b. It is the maximum theoretical explosive heat
energy per unit of volume, based on the
ingredients in the explosive. Units: calories
per cubic centimeter, cal/cc.
c. ABS = AWS x Density
• Eg: Bulk ANFO’s ABS = 890 x 0.82 = 730 cal/cc
• ABS for 100% bulk emulsion = 680 x 1.25 = 850cal/cc.

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Detonation Performance Properties (contd.)

Relative Bulk Strength (RBS)

a. This is the explosive’s bulk strength compared
to ANFO’s, and expressed as a percentage.
• Eg: Bulk ANFO’s ABS = 730 cal/cc
• ABS for 100% bulk emulsion = 850cal/cc.
• Hence, RBS(Emulsion) = 850/730 = 1.16, or 116%

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Typical explosive strengths

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 The Strength of Explosives
Cannot be described by a single parameter
1. Amount of gas liberated per unit weight
2. Energy produced by reaction (heat of
explosion)
3. Propagation rate (VOD)
4. Brisance – the destructive fragmentation effect

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 The Strength of Explosives
Cannot be described by a single parameter
1. Amount of gas liberated per unit weight
2. Energy produced by reaction (heat of
explosion)
3. Propagation rate (VOD)
4. Brisance – the destructive fragmentation effect

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Laboratory test to measure Brisance

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Lead Block or Trauzl Block

Volume of cavity
proportional to
strength

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Ballistic Pendulum

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Jumping Morter

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Crater Test

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Detonation Velocity

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VOD measurement techniques (contd.)

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VOD measurement techniques (contd.)

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Pond Test (Strength and Gas Volume)

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Pond Test (Strength and Gas Volume) (contd.)

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Pond Test (Strength and Gas Volume) (contd.)

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Energy Partition

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