Introduction to

Inferential Statistics

Geneveve M. Parreño-Lachica, DSc

(Statistics)
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
◼ Descriptive statistics is the method of collecting,
organizing, and utilizing numerical data derived from
the empirical world. It is the phase of statistics that
seeks to describe and analyze a given group without
drawing any conclusions or inferences about a larger
group. It is concerned with

 characterizing what is “typical” or common in a

group
 indicating how widely the individuals in the group
vary
 presenting other aspects of the distribution values
with respect to the variable(s) being considered.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics
◼ Inferential statistics comprises some methods
concerned with the analysis of a subset of data
leading to predictions or inferences about the entire
set of data. Among the common types of analysis
are:

 testing for the existence of an association between

variables
 identifying the form of an observed relationship
 refining observed associations into causal
relationships
 generalizing and predicting on the basis of
observed data.
Inferential Statistics
Larger Set Smaller Set
(N units/observations) (n units/observations)

Inferences and
Generalizations
Example of Inferential Statistics
A new exercise introduced to normalize the blood sugar level
of adults was tested on randomly selected adults.

Based on the results, it was concluded that the new

exercise is effective in normalizing the blood sugar level of
adults.
12
Hypothesis Testing
Nature of Hypothesis Testing

Consider the research problem below:

You would like to determine whether a certain

program is effective in improving the nutrition status
of students in a certain school. So, you started by
measuring the students BMI before the start of the
program and planned to re-measure their BMI’s after
the duration of the program.
Nature of Hypothesis Testing
Such problem requires to answer the question on
whether there is an improvement on the BMI of
students after the program or equivalently, if whether
there is a significant difference on the students’ BMI
before and after the program.

In answering such problem, one just cannot simply

estimate and conclude. Such inference lies on the
concept of whether the claim must be rejected or not
based on evidences obtained from the sample. To do
such, one needs to employ hypothesis testing – the
second area of statistical inference.
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a claim or statement about the
population parameter.

An assertion or conjecture concerning one or more

populations.

In this discussion, the population parameter we are

concerned about is the population mean and
population proportion.

Note: The parameter must be identified before analysis.

Example of Hypothesis
The mean body temperature for patients admitted
to elective surgery is not equal to 37.0oC.

Note:

Parameter of interest

the mean body

temperature for
patients admitted
to elective surgery.
Example of Hypothesis

The research problem is:

Is there a relationship between

achievement in mathematics and
interest in mathematics of students in
secondary school?
The hypothesis might be:
•There is no significant relationship between
achievement in mathematics and interest in
mathematics of students in secondary school.
(Null and non-directional / two-tailed test)
•There is a significant relationship between
achievement in mathematics and interest in
mathematics of students in secondary school.
(Alternative and non-directional / two-tailed)
•There is a positive relationship between achievement
in mathematics and interest in mathematics of
students in secondary school.
(Alternative and directional / one-tailed)
Examples of directional hypotheses:
1.Male students score higher in risk taking than
female students.
2.Single and young teachers tend to be more
innovative in teaching than married and old
teachers.
3.The science achievement of high-ability students
exceeds that of average ability students.
4.As a teacher’s salary increases, his perception
towards administrative personnel also improves.
Examples of non-directional hypotheses:

1.Faculty morale is related to the frequency of promotions.

2.There is no relationship between attitude towards science
and achievement in science.
3.The mathematics achievement of high-ability students is
equal to that of average-ability students.
4.There is no change in the pupils’ behavior before and
after attending the Summer Camp.
5.There is no difference between young and single
teachers and old and married teachers in their commitment
to professional growth.
Truthfulness and Falsity of Hypothesis

The truth or falsity of a statistical hypothesis is

never known with absolute certainty unless we
examine the entire population.

…we use the data contained in the sample to

provide evidence that either supports or does
not support the hypothesis.
Steps in hypothesis testing
1.State the null and alternative hypotheses (Ho and Ha)
2.Choose the level of significance (α)
3.Determine the appropriate statistical technique and
corresponding test statistic to use (would it be a test of
difference or a test of relationship?).
4.Make the decision rule: Reject Ho if  > p-value (sig)
and do not reject Ha .
5.Perform the computation. Compare the p-value with the
level of significance, .
6.Express the statistical decision in terms of the problem.
The Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis
• denoted by H0
• the statement being tested
• it represents what the experimenter doubts
to be true
• Usually the null hypothesis represents a
statement of “no effect”, “no difference”,
or “things haven’t changed.”
• must contain the condition of equality
The Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Alternative Hypothesis
• denoted by H1 or Ha
• is the statement that must be true if the null
hypothesis is false
• the operational statement of the theory that
the experimenter believes to be true and
wishes to prove
• is sometimes referred to as the research
hypothesis
• allows for the possibility of several values
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) Type of Statistical
Test

Non-Directional: Two- tailed test

 1  2 or   o

Directional: One-tailed test

 1 > 2 ,  1< 2 ,  > o , or
 < o
The Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis
Example of Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis of the belief that the normal

body temperature is 37°C is given by…

H0: μ = 37°C

We test the null hypothesis directly in the sense

that we assume it is true and reach a conclusion to
either reject H0 or fail to reject H0.
The Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

Example of Alternative Hypothesis
If the null hypothesis is
H0: μ = 37°C

Then, the corresponding alternative hypothesis could

either be one of the following:

H1: μ > 37°C

H1: μ ≠ 37°C
H1: μ < 37°C
Exercises
State the null and alternative hypotheses for each of the
following problem statements.
1. Is there significant effect in the experimental drug on reducing
blood pressure?

2. Is there significant difference in the purchase intent between

two different advertising campaigns?
Exercises

3. Is there a significant difference in test scores between

students who receive additional tutoring and those who do not?

4. Is there a significant difference in the mean time it takes to

produce a product using two different methods?
Exercises

5. Is there a significant relationship between job satisfaction

and the number of years an employee has been with the
company?
Level of Significance

In hypothesis testing, the

level of significance refers to
the degree of significance in
which we accept or reject the
null hypothesis which is
assumed as true.
Level of Significance

In hypothesis testing, 100%

accuracy is not possible for
accepting or rejecting a null
hypothesis. So, we therefore select
a level of significance that is usually
0.01, 0.05and 0.10.
Level of Significance

The probability of committing a Type

I error is called the level of
significance, denoted by the Greek
letter alpha (α).

The probability of committing a Type

II error, denoted by β, is difficult to
determine unless we have a specific
alternative hypothesis.
 DECISION ERRORS
Two types of decision errors:
Type I error = erroneous rejection of true H0
Type II error = erroneous retention of false H0

Truth
Decision H0 true H0 false
Retain H0 Correct retention Type II error
Reject H0 Type I error Correct rejection

α ≡ probability of a Type I error

β ≡ Probability of a Type II error
Level of Significance
Select Appropriate Test Statistics

A statistical test provides a mechanism for

making quantitative decisions about a
process or processes. It uses data obtained
from sample to make decision about
whether the null hypothesis should be
rejected. The numerical value obtained
from a statistical test is called the test
value.
 Parametric Test Non Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
Decision Rule

P-value Method
If p-value is less than or equal
to α, reject null hypothesis.
Otherwise, we failed to reject
it.
 P-value Method
P value Interpretation

Highly statistically significant

Less than 0.01
(Very strong evidence against the null
hypothesis)

Statistically significant
0.01 to 0.05
(Adequate evidence against the null
hypothesis)
Greater than Not Significant
(Insufficient evidence against the null
0.05
hypothesis)
Exercises:
State what inferential statistical tool is best suited
for the following problems.
1. A study aims to compare the achievement of
the students taught by problem solving method
and students taught by traditional method.

(t-test for Independent Samples /

Mann Whitney U test)
 Parametric Test Non Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
Exercises:
State what inferential statistical tool is best suited
for the following problems.
2. A researcher wonders if interest in sport
programs (measured as High, Moderate, or
Low) is significantly related to social class
classified as working class, middle class and
upper class.

(Chi-square, Gamma, Cramer’s V)

 Parametric Test Non Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
Exercises:
State what inferential statistical tool is best suited
for the following problems.

3. A study is conducted on the relationship of

number of absences and grades of students in
English.

(Pearson-r / Spearman Rho)

 Parametric Test Non Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
Exercises:
State what inferential statistical tool is best suited
for the following problems.

4. A study aims to determine if a certain

jogging program can improve the self –
esteem of a person in less than 3 weeks.

(Paired sample t-test/

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test)
 Parametric Test Non Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
Exercises:
State what inferential statistical tool is best suited
for the following problems.

5. A study aims to find out which of the three

treatments is the best in decreasing body
weight.

(One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)/

Kruskal – Wallis test)
Thank
you!
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning Significant
Differences for
2 Categories

Geneveve M. Parreño-Lachica, DSc

(Statistics)
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses
(Ho and Ha)
2. Choose the level of significance (α).
3. Determine the appropriate statistical technique
and corresponding test statistic to use (would it
be a test of difference or a test of relationship?).
4. Make the decision rule: Reject Ho if  > p-value
(sig) and do not reject Ha .
5. Perform the computation. Compare the p-value
with the level of significance, .
6. Express the statistical decision in terms of the
problem.
 Parametric Test Non Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
Sample problems
 Problem 1
As an aid for improving hospital employees working
habits, eight employees were randomly selected to
attend a seminar-workshop on the importance of
work. The table shows the number of workload
done per week before and after the seminar-
workshop. At 0.05 alpha level, was there a
significant difference in the performance level of
employees before and after the seminar-
workshop?

Before 14 13 9 9 10 10 12 7

After 11 15 10 14 14 13 11 12
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 1. Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Ho: There is no significant difference in the

performance level of employees before and
after the seminar-workshop. (Ho: μ1= μ2)

Ha: There is a significant difference in the

performance level of employees before and
after the seminar-workshop. (Ha: μ1≠ μ2)
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance: α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Paired sample t – test

Step 4. Decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not

reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Since the p value of t (7) = -1.97 is 0.090
which is greater than the level of significance of
0.05, then the statistical decision is not to reject
the null hypothesis.

Therefore, there is no significant difference

in the performance level of employees before
and after the seminar-workshop.
 Problem 2

One hundred twenty-eight employees in

selected hospitals were randomly
selected and given a checklist
questionnaire to determine their
employee satisfaction.

Is there a significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are
classified according to sex?
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 1. Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Ho: There is no significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are
classified according to sex. (Ho: μM= μF)

Ha: There is a significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are
classified according to sex. (Ha: μM≠ μF)
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance is α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic:

Independent samples t-test

Step 4. Decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not

reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Step 5. Computation:
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Since the p-value of t (126) = 1.24 is 0.218,
which is greater than the level of significance of
0.05, the statistical decision is not to reject the
null hypothesis.

There is no significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are classified
according to sex.
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
Mann-Whitney U Test
◼ You may use the provided data to practice
what you have learned.

◼ Jamovi outputs were given for you to

compare your generated results.

◼ The interpretations of the results were also

provided and served as examples for the
lesson.
Thank
you!
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning Significant
Differences for
3 or more categories

Geneveve M. Parreño-Lachica, DSc

(Statistics)
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses
(Ho and Ha)
2. Choose the level of significance (α).
3. Determine the appropriate statistical technique
and corresponding test statistic to use (would it
be a test of difference or a test of relationship?).
4. Make the decision rule: Reject Ho if  > p-value
(sig) and do not reject Ha .
5. Perform the computation. Compare the p-value
with the level of significance, .
6. Express the statistical decision in terms of the
problem.
Statistical Tools
 Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30

Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)

• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product- Spearman’s Rank Order
moment correlation Correlation (Spearman Rho)
(Pearson-r)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning Significant
Differences for
3 or more Categories
One-way Anova, Kruskal-Wallis H-
Test, Repeated Measure One-way
ANOVA, Friedman Test

◼ These tests are statistics that checks if

three or more means are reliably different
from each other.
◼ These tests find out significantly
difference exists between three or more
groups of data.
Repeated Measure One-Way
ANOVA
◼ A parametric statistical procedure for comparing
three or more samples that are paired or related.
◼ Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean
(dependent variable) of the respondents (or subjects)
different points in time (independent variables)
◼ dependent variables should be numerical (interval or ratio
data)
◼ independent variable should consist of three or more
categorical, "related groups" or "matched pairs"
◼ The data follow the normal probability distribution.
Question
◼ Is there a significant difference in mean heart
rates of the respondents at different points in
time?
Question

◼
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance: α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Repeated Measure

One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Step 4. Decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not
reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
 Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Since the p-value (<.001) of F = 39.1 is less than

the level of significance of 0.05, the statistical decision is
to reject the null hypothesis.
Therefore, there is a significant difference in the
mean heart rates of the respondents at different points in
time.
Furthermore, the Tukey pairwise comparison test
shows a significant difference in mean heart rates
between Time 1 and Time 2, Time 1 and Time 3, Time 2
and 4, and Time 3 and 4. However, there is no significant
difference between Time 1 and Time 4, and Time 2 and
Time 3.
Friedman Test
◼ A nonparametric statistical procedure for comparing
more than two samples that are paired or related.
Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean
(dependent variable) of the respondents (or subjects)
different points in time (independent variables)
◼ dependent variables should be numerical (ordinal, interval or
ratio data)
◼ independent variable should consist of three or more
categorical, "related groups" or "matched pairs"
◼ The data are not normally distributed.
Question
◼ Is there a significant difference in mean heart
rates of the respondents at different points in
time?
Question

◼
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance: α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Friedman test

Step 4. Make the decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not

reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
◼
One-way Anova
◼ A parametric statistical procedure for comparing
three or more samples that are independent, or not
related.
◼ Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean
(dependent variable) when respondents (or subjects)
were grouped by (independent variable).
◼ dependent variable should be numerical (interval or ratio
data)
◼ independent variable should be categorical and has 3 or
more categories
◼ The data follow the normal probability distribution.
 Question

One hundred twenty-eight employees in

selected hospitals were randomly
selected and given a checklist
questionnaire to determine their
employee satisfaction.

Is there a significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are
classified according to skill?
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 1. Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Ho: There is no significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are
classified according to skill.
(Ho: μ1= μ2= μ3)

Ha: There is a significant difference in

employee satisfaction when they are
classified according to skill.
(Ha: μ1≠ μ2 ≠ μ3)
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance is α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: One-way ANOVA

Step 4. Make the decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not

reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Since the p value (0.027) of F (2,125) = 3.70 is

less than the level of significance of 0.05, then the
statistical decision is to reject the null hypothesis.
Therefore, there is a significant difference in
employee satisfaction according to skill level.
Furthermore, the Tukey post-hoc test for multiple
comparison analysis shows a significant difference in
employee satisfaction between intermediate and
beginner and between advanced and beginner. There is
no significant difference between intermediate and
advanced.
Kruskal Wallis H-Test
◼ A nonparametric statistical procedure for comparing
three or more samples that are independent, or not
related.
◼ Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean
(dependent variable) when respondents (or subjects)
were grouped by (independent variable).
◼ dependent variable should be numerical (interval or ratio
data)
◼ independent variable should be categorical and has 3 or
more categories
◼ The data are not normally distributed.
Kruskal Wallis H-Test
◼ Make use of the data provided to practice
what you have learned.

◼ Jamovi outputs were given for you to

compare your generated results.

◼ The interpretations of the results were also

provided and served as examples for the
lesson.
Thank
you!
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning Significant
Relationship/Association

Geneveve M. Parreño-Lachica, DSc

(Statistics)
 Steps in
Hypothesis Testing
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses
(Ho and Ha)
2. Choose the level of significance (α).
3. Determine the appropriate statistical technique
and corresponding test statistic to use (would it
be a test of difference or a test of relationship?).
4. Make the decision rule: Reject Ho if  > p-value
(sig) and do not reject Ha .
5. Perform the computation. Compare the p-value
with the level of significance, .
6. Express the statistical decision in terms of the
problem.
Decision Rule
If p-value (significant-value) is
less than or equal to α, reject
null hypothesis. Otherwise,
do not reject the null
hypothesis.
Statistical Tools
 Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30
Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product- Spearman’s Rank Order
moment correlation Correlation (Spearman Rho)
(Pearson-r)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning
Significant Relationship
Correlation
▪ A correlation exists between two
variables when the values of one variable
are somehow associated with the values
of the other variable.
▪ It is a statistical technique that is used to
measure and describe a relationship
between two variables (X and Y).
Correlation
◼ Correlation analysis attempts to measure the
strength of such relationships between two
variables by means of a single number called a
correlation coefficient.

◼ A linear correlation exists between two

variables when there is a correlation and the
plotted points of paired data result in a pattern
that can be approximated by a straight line.
Sample illustration of the degree of relationship between two variables
 Parametric Test Nonparametric-Test
Pearson product-moment Spearman’s Rank Order
correlation (Pearson-r) Correlation (Spearman Rho)

◼ These tests are statistics that determines if

there exists significant relationship
between two quantitative variables.
◼ These tests give the information about the
magnitude of the association, or
correlation, as well as the direction of the
relationship.
 Pearson product-moment
correlation (Pearson-r)
◼ A parametric test statistic that measures the statistical
relationship, or association, between two continuous
variables.

◼ Ho: There is no significant relationship in the variable

1 and variable 2.
◼ variables should be numerical (interval or ratio data)

◼ The data follow the normal probability distribution.

 Degree of Correlation (r)
◼ Perfect: If the coefficient value is ± 1, then it said to be a
perfect correlation: as one variable increases, the other
variable tends to also increase (if positive) or decrease
(if negative).
◼ High degree: If the coefficient value lies between ± 0.50
and ± 1, then it is said to be a strong correlation.
◼ Moderate degree: If the value lies between ± 0.30 and ±
0.49, then it is said to be a medium correlation.
◼ Low degree: When the value lies below ± .29, then it is
said to be a small correlation.
◼ No correlation: When the value is zero.
Question
◼ Are there significant relationships between the
extent of transformational leadership, organizational
climate, and employee satisfaction in selected
hospitals as assessed by the employees?

Step 1:
Ho: There are no significant relationships between the extent of
transformational leadership, organizational climate, and employee
satisfaction in selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.

Ha: There are significant relationships between the extent of

transformational leadership, organizational climate, and employee
satisfaction in selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance is α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Pearson-r Correlation

Step 4. Make the decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not
reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
 Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Since p = 0.189 > 0.05 between the extent of
transformational leadership and organizational climate (r =
0.117), and p = 0.221 > 0.05 between the extent of
transformational leadership and employee satisfaction (r =
0.109), then the statistical decision is not to reject the null
hypothesis. However, reject null hypothesis between
organizational climate and employee satisfaction (r =
0.281) since p = 0.001 < 0.05.
Continuation…

The result shows that no significant relationships

exist between the extent of transformational leadership
and organizational climate and between the extent of
transformational leadership and employee satisfaction
While, there is a low significant relationship between
organizational climate and employee satisfaction in
selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.
 Spearman Rank Order
Correlation (Spearman Rho)
◼ A nonparametric test statistic that measures the
statistical relationship, or association, between two
variables.

◼ Ho: There is no significant relationship in the variable

1 and variable 2.
◼ variables should be numerical (ordinal, interval or ratio data)

◼ The data are not normally distributed.

◼ The samples are not randomly taken.
 Degree of Correlation (ρ)
◼ 0: no association between the variables.
◼ 0 to -0.29 or 0 to +0.29: a negligible or very small
association.
◼ -0.30 to -0.49 or 0.30 to 0.49: a moderate association
between the variables.
◼ 0.50 to 0.69 or -0.50 to -0.69: a substantial association
between the variables.
◼ >0.70, or < -0.70: a very strong association.
◼ 1 or -1, there is a perfect association between the
events.
Question
◼ Are there significant relationships between the
extent of transformational leadership, organizational
climate, and employee satisfaction in selected
hospitals as assessed by the employees?

Step 1:
Ho: There are no significant relationships between the extent of
transformational leadership, organizational climate, and employee
satisfaction in selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.

Ha: There are significant relationships between the extent of

transformational leadership, organizational climate, and employee
satisfaction in selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance is α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Spearman Rho

Correlation

Step 4. Make the decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not
reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
 Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Since p = 0.146 > 0.05 between the extent of

transformational leadership and organizational climate
(rho=0.129), the statistical decision is not to reject the null
hypothesis. However, reject the null hypothesis between
the extent of transformational leadership and employee
satisfaction (rho = 0.187) since p = 0.034 < 0.05, and
between organizational climate and employee satisfaction
(r = 0.332) since p = 0.001 < 0.05.
Continuation…

The result shows that no significant relationship

exists between the extent of transformational leadership
and organizational climate. Meanwhile, there is a very
small significant relationship between the extent of
transformational leadership and employee satisfaction
and a moderately significant relationship between
organizational climate and employee satisfaction in
selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.
Chi-square, Gamma, or Cramers v
◼ A statistical procedure in determining
significant association between categorical
variables.

◼ Ho: There is no significant relationship

between variable 1 and variable 2
◼ Two variables should be categorical (nominal or
ordinal data)
◼ Two variables should consist of two or more
categorical, independent groups
◼ Chi-sqaure is a measure of association
for nominal and ordinal variables.

◼ Gamma is a measure of association for

ordinal variables.

◼ Cramer’s V is a measure of association

for nominal variables.
Question
◼ Is there a significant association between
length of service and educational
attainment?
Step 1:

Ho: There is no significant association

between length of service and educational
attainment.
Ha: There is a significant association
between length of service and educational
attainment.
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance is α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Gamma Correlation

Step 4. Make the decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not
reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
 Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and conclusion

Since Gamma = 0.198, p = 0.001 < 0.05, the

statistical decision is to reject the null hypothesis.

There is a low significant association between

length of service and educational attainment.
◼ Make use of the data provided to practice
what you have learned.

◼ Jamovi outputs were given for you to

compare your generated results.

◼ The interpretations of the results were also

provided and served as examples for the
lesson.
Thank
you!
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning Significant
Predictor

Geneveve M. Parreño-Lachica, DSc

(Statistics)
1. State the null and alternative hypotheses
(Ho and Ha)
2. Choose the level of significance (α).
3. Determine the appropriate statistical technique
and corresponding test statistic to use (would it
be a test of difference or a test of relationship?).
4. Make the decision rule: Reject Ho if  > p-value
(sig) and do not reject Ha .
5. Perform the computation. Compare the p-value
with the level of significance, .
6. Express the statistical decision in terms of the
problem.
Statistical Tools
 Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test
Assumptions

•Data normally distributed free distribution

•Sample size n n  30 n  30

Significant Difference between 2 groups (interval, categorical)

• Dependent variable Paired sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test
(e.g. pre-post)
• Independent variable t-test for Independent Mann Whitney U test
(e.g. Male, Female) Samples
Significant Difference between 3 or more groups (interval, categorical)
• Dependent variable Repeated Measure One- Friedman Test
(e.g. Time1, Time2, Time 3) way ANOVA

• Independent variable One-way Analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test

(e.g. Catholic, Protestant, Muslim) Variance (One-way
ANOVA)
Significant Relationship (Correlation/Association) (interval, interval)
(e.g. height, weight) Pearson product- Spearman’s Rank Order
moment correlation Correlation (Spearman Rho)
(Pearson-r)
Significant difference/association Chi-square, Gamma,
(Nominal, Ordinal / frequency data) Cramer’s V,
Significant Predictor Multiple Regression
(Factors)
 Hypothesis Testing
concerning Significant
Predictor
Linear Regression

◼ Regression analysis is a powerful

statistical method used to examine the
relationship between a dependent variable
and one or more independent variables.
Types of Linear Regression
◼ Simple Linear Regression: Involves two
variables (one independent and one
dependent variable) and aims to find a
linear relationship between them.

◼ MultipleLinear Regression: Uses more

than one independent variable to predict
the dependent variable.
Key Concepts in Regression Analysis
◼ Coefficients: These are the values that multiply
the predictor values. In linear regression,
coefficients represent the mean change in the
dependent variable for one unit of change in the
predictor variable while holding other predictors
in the model constant.
◼ R-squared (R²): This is a statistical measure that
represents the proportion of the variance for a
dependent variable that's explained by an
independent variable or variables in a regression
model.
Key Concepts in Regression Analysis
◼ Adjusted R-squared: Modified version of R² that
has been adjusted for the number of predictors
in the model. It is always lower than the R².
◼ P-value: In regression, the p-value tests the null
hypothesis that the coefficient is zero (no effect).
A low p-value (< 0.05) indicates that you can
reject the null hypothesis.
◼ F-statistic: It tests whether at least one predictor
variable has a non-zero coefficient.
Steps in Conducting Regression Analysis
◼ Model Selection: Decide which type of regression model
fits the data best.
◼ Assumption Checking: Verify assumptions like normality,
linearity, homoscedasticity (constant variance of errors),
and independence of errors.
◼ Fit the Model: Use statistical software to estimate the
coefficients.
◼ Model Evaluation: Check the goodness of fit (e.g., R²,
adjusted R²), p-values, and other statistical tests.
◼ Model Diagnostics: Assess potential issues with the data
or the model through diagnostic plots and tests.
◼ Interpretation and Decision Making: Use the model
outputs to make decisions or to predict future outcomes.
Question
◼ Are there significant predictors/factors that
contribute to employee satisfaction in selected
hospitals as assessed by the employees?

Step 1:
Ho: There are no significant predictors/factors contributing
to employee satisfaction in selected hospitals as assessed
by the employees.

Ha: There are significant predictors/factors contributing to

employee satisfaction in selected hospitals as assessed
by the employees.
Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 2. The level of significance is α = 0.05

Step 3. Test statistic: Multiple Linear

Regression Analysis

Step 4. Make the decision rule:

Reject Ho if α > p-value (sig) and do not
reject Ha
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
Hypothesis Testing Procedure
 Hypothesis Testing Procedure

Step 6. Decision and Conclusion

Length of service (p=0.043), skills (p=0.018), and

organizational climate (p=0.006) are the significant
predictors/factors contributing to employee satisfaction in
selected hospitals as assessed by the employees.
◼ Make use of the data provided to practice
what you have learned.

◼ Jamovi outputs were given for you to

compare your generated results.

◼ The interpretations of the results were also

provided and served as examples for the
lesson.
Thank
you!