Forensic Ballistics
HISTORY OF FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
Presented by: Ben G. Lomioan
RCRIM, MSCRIM
Instructor
In 1930, the science of Firearms Identification
was firmly established on a scientific basis.
ALEXANDRE LACASSAGNE (1844-1921) – He
was the first to recognize the significance of striations
found on a bullet extracted from a murdered victim
and its link to the gun from which it was fired, thus
beginning the science of ballistics.
EDMOND LOCARD (1877-1966) – He
established the first forensic laboratory in France in
1910. His exchage principles “objects or surface which
came into contact always exchange trace evidence”.
COL. CALVIN H. GODDARD – Pioneered the
introduction of the science of ballistics into the
different universities in the U.S. Subsequently, it was
universally practiced and accepted in the different
courts throughout the world.
1930 - The first Crime Laboratory in U.S. was
established by Los Angeles County Sheriff’s
Department.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
INTRODUCTION:
In most advanced countries today, FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION plays an important role in the
administration of justice. This science has advantage
over extracted confessions, direct witnesses, and other
circumstantial evidence. It is regarded as the highest
form of uncontestable and conclusive piece of
evidence with the utmost legal significance.
ORIGIN:
The term Ballistics was derived from the Greek
word “ballo” or “ballein” which means “to throw”. Its
roots was also said to have been derived from the
name of an early Roman war machine called the
“ballista” - a gigantic bow or catapult, which was then
used to hurl missiles or large objects such stones at a
particular distance to deter animals (games) or their
enemy forces.
Ballistics dates back on the days of the famous
French artist Leonardo da Vinci (1500 A.D.) as can be
gleaned in his sketch of a Steam-Powered cannon to
his primitive wheel-lock firearms.
BALLISTICS - In general or in its broadest sense, it is
defined as the science of motion of projectiles.
- Technically, it refers to the science of
firearms identification.
KINDS OF MOTION:
1. Direct – the action of the expansive force of gases
out of the burning powder.
2. Rotary – the action of the rifling found on the inner
surface of the barrel.
3. Translational – the projectile hits the target
and subsequently ricocheted.
IS FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION A SCIENCE?
Yes, in the sense that it is classified,
formulated and a verifiable knowledge is
gathered by observation, research and
experiment and is based on a scientific theory
and using scientific equipment. Thus, it is a
scientific knowledge. (Alwyne Cole, Treasury
Dept. USA 1946)
ITS LEGAL MEANING – It is the microscopic
examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets
together with the recording and presentation
by means of photography of what is revealed
by the microscope.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS:
1. Interior Ballistics
2. Exterior Ballistics
3. Terminal Ballistics
4. Forensic Ballistics - integral part of ballistics.
Integral means necessary to the
completeness of whole.
5. Shot Ballistics
6. Wound Ballistics
I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS – It is that branch of
science that has something to do with the
properties or motions of projectiles while still
inside the firearm. (From the time the Firer
squeezes the trigger). This extends from, the
breech to the muzzle of the gun. Interior
ballistics is so short. From the release of the
firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot
can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies
only about 0.01 sec. in a modern rifle. A blow
from the firing pin of a small-arms weapon on
the center of the primer cap compresses the
primer composition violently between the cap
and the anvil, thus, causing the composition to
explode, releasing the very hot gases and hot
particles. The holes or vents in the anvil allow
the flame to pass through the primer vent in
the cartridge case thereby igniting the
propellant. The powder begins to burn and the
pressure inside the cartridge rises rapidly
almost at once, the bullet is pushed from the
case mouth. At first, the bullet is forced
outward to make firm contact with the barrel so that
the gas would be confined within the chamber of the
firearm. As the bullet moves down the barrel, the
available combustion space is increased. The powder
burns progressively at first, increasing its burning rate
faster that the space increases. As long as this
condition continues, the pressure continues to rise.
The maximum pressure is soon reached, when the two
rates are momentarily equal. Thereafter, the pressure
drops till the bullet leaves the muzzle.
When the bullet charge is ignited, the pressure in
the chamber begins to rise rapidly and soon reaches a
value high enough to move the projectile. The
principal resistance to the motion of the projectile at
this stage is the force required to deform the rotating
band to fit the rifling of the barrel. As the projectile
moves, the propellant gas expands into the space
behind it, the rate of the pressure is reduced and the
temperature of the gas begins to decrease. With
increasing projectile velocity, the expansion becomes
rapid enough to cause the pressure to begin to drop.
When the burning of the charge is complete, and the
evolution of the gas ceases, which usually occurs when
the projectile is from one third (1/3) on the way out of
the barrel, the pressure drop becomes more rapid.
When the projectile leaves the bore with its full
velocity, a few hundredths of a second after ignition,
the remaining pressure directs the propellant gas to
the atmosphere.
Since the gun, as compared with a rocket, almost
burns its propellant in a very short time and large
surface area is therefore required, a gun charge
characteristically consists of a large number of
identical solid grains. Each of the grains is considered
as burning simultaneously with the others and in
accordance with the laws of burning described above.
REACTIONS/ATTRIBUTES THAT TAKES PLACE
WHILE THE BULLET IS STILL INSIDE THE GUN ARE
THE FOLLOWING:
1. Firing pin hitting the primer
2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Expansion of the heated gas
5. Pressure developed
6. Energy developed
7. Recoil of the gun
8. Velocity of bullet inside the barrel
9. Rotation of bullet inside the bore
10.Engravings of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – it refers to that motion
of projectiles from the time it leaves the muzzle of the
firearm to the time it reaches the target. The flight of
most bullets does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum
range, which for almost any firearm is obtained at an
elevation of about 33. This flight can be divided into
three (3) distinct parts. During the FIRST, which last
for only a few yards, the bullet is recovering from the
initial shock of firing, it is wobbly. The SECOND or
NORMAL period of flight extends for several hundred
yards. During this time, it travels as it should be, point
first, with its axis rotation nearly on the trajectory. The
FINAL period of flight after the bullet has started to
BGL FILE 2024
lose both velocity and spin. It again begins to
wobble and finally over or tumbles in an
unpredictable manner.
Rifle bullets require spin to make them stable in
flight. The proper amount of spin depends on
the size and weight of the bullet and its
velocity. The spin imparted by the rifling,
besides making the bullet fly points foremost, it
also ceases to “shift”, which in the case of a rifle
having a right-hand twist or spin makes the
bullet go slightly to the right of the line of sight.
The bullet’s center of gravity travels along the
parabola course of trajectory. But the point is
kept about on the line of sight by the
gyroscopic action of the spin. It is the resulting
couple, which moves the bullet to the right. At
extreme ranges, when the bullet is falling quite
rapidly the point is still being held up by this
gyro-stillness effect, so that the bullet is finally
traveling somewhat sideways through the air.
This is called YAW- the unstable rotating
motion of the projectile.
Most modern rifles have sights, which
can be adjusted to correct for “windage”, the
term used for the correction required for wind
effect. With fixed sights for shooter has to
estimate the displacement that will be caused
by the wind and aim that distance into the wind
from his target. This is often called “Kentucky
Windage” from the habit of frontiersmen using
Kentucky rifles” held-off in this manner for wind
correction.
INVOLVES THE FF:
1. MUZZLE BLAST - The noise created at the
muzzle point of the gun by the reason of the
sudden escape of the expanding gas when it
comes to instant contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point.
2. MUZZLE ENERGY - Energy generated at
muzzle point of the gun.
3. TRAJECTORY - The actual curve path of the
bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target.
Galileo had stated the flight to be a parabola;
this was true only in vacuum.
4. RANGE - the straight distance between the
muzzle and to the target.
A. Accurate (effective range) - the distance
within which the firer has control of his
shots.
B. Maximum Range - the farthest distance
that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
While the range at which the ordinary
pistol and revolver are suppose to be effective
only at 50 to 75 yards, all of them will send their
bullets much further than that and are capable
of inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one
mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder
content.
5. VELOCITY – Rate of speed of the bullet per
2
 unit of time.
The long barrel rifle makes accurate for ranges up
to 3000 yards and the weapon has a hinge muzzle
velocity of 1000 to 4000 ft/sec. and are intended for
shooting at close range and bullets are carried only at
a distance of 400-600 yards.
NOTE: Rifled weapons maybe either be long-barreled
rifles (2-3 ft.), or short barreled pistols
(1-12”).
CONDITIONS: refers to natural laws
1. Velocity - Speed of a bullet measured in ft/sec.
2. Energy – Fatal equivalent of a bullet.
3. Yaw – It refers to the unstable rotating motion
of the projectile
4. Gyroscopic Action – Refers to the stillness of the
bullet’s rotating motion and later on, attains its
highest momentum for stability in flight
penetrating power.
Bullets from rifled weapons would spin at 2000 to
3000 revolutions a second, but over the first few yards
of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their
flight is slightly unstable; the end of the projectile
wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This
phenomenon is known as “TAILWAG”, and is of
considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds.
A bullet with “tailwag” does not strike its target
cleanly.
6. AIR RESISTANCE - Resistance encountered by the
bullet while flight.
NEWTON - He was first to discover and state the
so-called “air resistance’ in 1710.
BENJAMIN ROBINS – An Englishman, who was one
of the first to state sound ballistics theories, in his
research paper entitled, “New Principles of Gunnery”
In 1142.
7. PULL OF GRAVITY - The downward reaction of
the bullet towards the earth center due to its weight.
8. PENETRATION - Depth of entry to which the
bullet has entered its target.
MOVEMENTS OF THE BULLET AFTER LEAVING THE
MUZZLE OF THE GUN:
01. FORWARD MOVEMENT – The pressure of
the expanded and heated gases inside the barrel
causes the bullet to have the forward movement. The
movement is in line with the barrel of the firearm.
Small firearms has an average muzzle velocity of 1,200
feet per second while high powered firearms have
2,500 feet per second or more.
02. SPINNING MOVEMENT – The bullet
leaves the muzzle of the gun with spinning motion on
account of the lands and grooves inside the barrel,
which are spirally arranged.
03. WABBLING MOVEMENT – Aside from the
spin of the bullet, these is a TAILWAG- the bullet
travels sideways and vertically. This movement maybe
present not in the whole course of the flight but only
for some distance.
04. TRANSLATIONAL – when the bullet hits
the target and subsequently ricocheted.
05. PULL OF GRAVITY – The pull of gravity
may cause arch like trajectory of the bullet, particularly
after the bullet has lost certain degree of momentum
in its flight.
BGL FILE 2024
TERMINAL BALLISTICS
This concerns with the effects of the
projectile on the target or until it rests.
MEDICAL BALLISTICS – A form of terminal
ballistics wherein the target is a person. It is
concerned with the penetration, severity
and appearance of the wound due to bullet
or missile.
IT INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING:
1. Terminal Accuracy – That size of the bullet
grouping on the target;
2. Terminal energy – That energy of the
projectile when it strikes the target; or striking
force or energy;
3. Terminal penetration – That depth bullet
penetration on the target or object hit; and
4. Terminal velocity – speed of the bullet
upon striking the target.
SHOT BALLISTICS
- Refers to the study of shots from
smooth bore firearms like shotgun and
muskets.
A shotgun is a shoulder-fired firearm
having a barrel that is smooth-bored and is
intended for the firing of a charged compound
of one or more round balls or pellets.
The muzzle velocity of shotgun is
about half that of a center fire rifle, and shot
loses speed more rapidly than a conical bullet,
shot with high velocity powder charge has a
muzzle velocity of around 1,300 feet per
second. With No.6 shot, this represents an
average velocity at 40 yards of only 975 per
second. Shot in flight has “string” or “pattern”.
The load strings out while moving through the
barrel, and at 40 yards, the average string is 12
feet at a 30 inch circle at 40 yards.
Unlike the rifle, the shotgun requires
that aim be ahead of the target. The target is
usually rising as well as moving away, so both
vertical and horizontal leads must be used. The
first shotguns had cylinder bores, uniform in
diameter throughout their length. Bun makers
found out that a sight restriction or choked at
the muzzle improved the pattern. Commonly, a
short section of reduced diameter joins the
main part by the e shot in flight. They involve
little wire or mash baskets, and metallic
containers or paper tubes which separate in
flight. Modern manufacturers have done much
research to provide better patterns and
reduced shot string.
CLASSIFICATION OF A SHOTGUN:
A. As to the number of shots:
1. Birdshot – The shot are small ranging in sizes
from 0.05 inch to 0.15 diameters and loaded
from 200 to 400 shots in the shell. Birdshots
are small and are commonly used for hunting
fowls and other small animals.
2. Buckshot – The shot ranges from 0.24 to
0.33 inch in diameter and obviously fewer in
number in a shot. A standard 12-gauge
shotgun
3. Single Projectile (Rifled Slag) – There is only
a single shot or slug in a shell.
B. As to the systems employed in the
determination of the diameter of the barrel
of a shotgun:
3
 1. Gauge System — Determination of the
number of lead balls
2. Expression of the Bore Diameter in Inches –
The 0.410 bore shotgun is the only shotgun at
present to be so designated.
3. Metric system – The bore is expressed in
millimeters.
C. As to the length of the barrel:
There is no standard length of the barrel but
modern barrels measure 26, 28, and 30 inches in
length.
D. As to the Grade of Choke:
A shotgun is choked when the muzzle end of the
barrel is a diameter smaller than the rest of the barrel.
The main purpose of the constriction is to minimize
the dispersal of the pellet or buckshot after the shot. It
is based on the presence or absence of choke and the
degree of choking, that shotguns are classified as:
1. Unchoke – The diameter of the barrel from the rear
end up to the muzzle is the same.
2. Choke – The diameter of the barrel at the muzzle
end is smaller than the rest of the barrel.
The lethal range is normally in an area of 30
inches in diameter at 30 to 40 yards according to the
degree of choking.
E. As to the Number of Barrel
a. Single Barrel Shotgun:
There is only one barrel and basically the
original type.
b. Double Barrel Shotgun:
(1) Side-to-side barrel.
(2) Over-and-under barrel.
F. As to the Manner of Firing and Reloading
a. Bolt Action:
The action of the bolt ejects the fired shell
and loads the next one.
b. Lever Action:
When the lever is swing down it ejects the
fired shell and loads the next shot.
c. Pump Action:
There is a cylindrical magazine which can
accommodate up to six shells, end to end,
beneath the barrel.
d. Auto loading:
A pull of the trigger not only fires and ejects
the shell but also reloads the next shot and locks
it for firing.
Shotgun Cartridge:
A shotgun cartridge is usually 2-3/4 or 3 inches
long and the diameter depends on the gauge of the
firearm. The base and the lower portion of the
cylindrical portion are made of brass with the primer
cap at the center of the base. Attached to the free end
of its cylindrical portion is the cylindrical laminated
paper tube to complete the shell easing.
When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin activates
the primer, which in turn ignites the powder charge.
Explosion of the gunpowder will cause propulsion of
the wad and pellets (shot) in front.
The muzzle velocity of the pellet is relatively
smaller as compared from those discharged from
rifled firearms.
Except for the presence and nature of the slug, the
component of the shotgun blast is almost the same as
that of a rifled firearm. It also consists of gunpowder,
flame, smoke, pellets and wad.
WOUND BALLISTICS
BGL FILE 2024
- Refers to the study of the effects of
projectile on a target and the conditions that
affect them.
Factors Responsible for the Injurious Effect
of Missile:
1. Factors Inherent on the Missile:
a. Speed of the Bullet – The greater the
muzzle velocity, the greater is the
destruction inasmuch as more kinetic
energy can be liberated.
b. Size and Shape of the Bullet – The bigger
the diameter or the more deformed the
bullet is, the greater are the injuries in the
body tissues.
c. Character of the Missile’s Movement in
Flight – Spinning movement will increase
the wounding power; “Yawing” and
stumbling movement may cause sidewise
penetration and entry and cause more
destruction; and ricochet may alter tissue
involvement in its course.
2. Nature of the Target:
a. Density of Target – The greater the
density of the tissue struck, the greater
will be the damage. More energy will be
spent by the bullet in its course in
penetrating skin, bones and clothes.
Heavy thick clothes may prevent
penetration of missile; fragile bone may
fragment when hit and each fragment
may act as a secondary splinter to cause
further injuries.
b. Length of Tissue Involvement in its Course
– The longer the distance of travel of the
missile in the body, the more kinetic
energy it liberates, and the more
destruction it will produce.
c. Nature of the Media Traversed – Bullet
passing air spaces is less destructive
inasmuch as air is relatively compressible
however, bullet traveling in a liquid or
solid media may accelerate transmission
of force to the surrounding tissue thus,
causing more destruction.
d. Vitality of the Part Involved – There is
more likelihood for a fatal consequence
when vital organs are involved than
those in other parts of the body.
Distinction Between Gunshot Wound of
Entrance and Wound of Exit:
Entrance Wound
Exit Wound
1. Appears to be smaller than the
exit wound
. Always bigger than the entrance
exit wound
2. Edges are inverted.
Edges are everted.
3. Usually oval or round depending
definite shape of the bullet .
It does not manifest any definite
shape
upon the angle of approach
4.“Contusion collar” or “Contact ring
is present, due to invigilation of the
skin and spinning of the missile.
“Confusion collar is absent.
5..Tattooing or smudging may be present when
4
firing is near.
Tattooing or smudging Always absent.
6. Underlying tissues are not protruding from the
wound..
Underlying tissues may be seen protruding from the
wound.
7. Always present after fire.
Maybe absent, if missile is lodged in the body
8. Paraffin test may be positive.
Paraffin test always negative.
The “Odd and Even Rule” in Gunshot Wounds:
If the number of gunshot wounds of entrance and
exit found in the body of the victim is even, the
presumption is that no bullet is lodged in the body,
but if the number of the gunshot wounds of entrance
and exit is odd, the presumption is that one or more
bullets might have been lodged in the body.
The rule is merely presumptive and actual
inspection and autopsy will verify the truth of the
presumption. It may be possible that all of those
wounds or a majority of them are entrance wounds
with some bullets lodged, yet the number may still be
even.
Sometimes it is difficult to locate the lodged bullet
but with the help of a portable X-ray, its location and
extraction can be facilitated.
How to Determine the Number of Fires Made by
the Offender:
1. Determination of the Number of Spent Shells:
Search must be made at the scene of the crime
or at the place where the offender made the fire,
for spent shells, if the weapon used is an automatic
pistol or rifle. In case of revolver fire, the empty
shells may be found still inside the cylindrical
magazine. In machine gun fire, the spent shells may
still be attached to the cartridge belt.
2. Determination of Entrance Wounds in the Body of
the Victim:
Although most often erroneous, the investigator
may be given an idea as to the minimum number
of shots made. The number of wounds of entrance
may not show the exact number of fire because:
a. Not all the fire made may hit the body of the
victim.
b.The bullet may in the course of its flight hit a hard
object thereby splitting it and each fragment may
produce separate wounds of entrance.
c. The bullet may have perforated a part of the
body and then made another wound of entrance in
some other parts of the body; thus a single shot
may produce two wounds of entrance.
3. Number of Shots Heard by Witnesses:
The witnesses might be able to count the
number of shots heard especially if the shots were
made at sufficient intervals of succession. However
in cases of machine gun fire, there is difficulty in
ascertaining the number of shots heard and the
testimony of witness as to the number of shots
heard must be admitted with caution.
Instances, when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of
Entrance is Less than the Number of Gunshot Wounds
of Exit in the Body of the Victim:
1. A bullet might have entered the body but split
into several fragments, each of which made a
separate exit.
2. One of the bullets might have entered a natural
orifice of the body, e.g. mouth, nostrils thereby
making it not visible and then producing a wound of
BGL FILE 2024
exit.
3. There might be two or more bullets which
entered the body through a common entrance
and later making individual exit wounds.
4. In near shot with a shotgun, the pellets might
have entered in a common wound and later
dispersed while inside the body and making
separate wounds of exit.
Instances when the Number of Gunshot
Wounds of Entrance is More than the Number
of Gunshot Wounds of Exit hi the Body of the
Victim:
1.When one or more bullets are not through
and through and the bullet is lodged in the
body.
2. When all of the bullets produce through and
through wounds but one or more made an exit
in the natural orifices of the body, e.g. eyes,
mouth, nostrils.
3. When different shots produced different
wounds of entrance but two or more shots
produced a common exit wound.
Instances when there is No Gunshot Wound of
Exit but the Bullet is Not Found in the Body of
the Victim:
1. When the bullet is lodged in the gastro-
intestinal tract and expelled through the bowel;
or lodged in the pharynx and expelled through
the mouth by coughing.
2. Near fire with a blank cartridge produced a
wound of entrance but no slug may be
recovered.
3. The bullet may enter the wound of entrance
and upon hitting the bone the course is
deflected to have the wound of entrance as the
wound of exit (cited by Modi, A Textbook of
Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology, 10th ed).
Special Consideration on Bullets:
1. Souvenir Bullet:
Bullet has been lodged and has remained
in the body. Its long presence causes the
development of a dense fibrous tissue
capsule around the bullet causing no
untoward effect. It may be located just
underneath the skin to be easily palpated
and may cause inconvenience and irritation.
Deep seated location may not cause any
problem to warrant its immediate removal.
2. Bullet Migration:
Bullet that is not lodged in a place where
it was previously located. A bullet which
strikes the neck may enter the air passage,
and it may be coughed out or swallowed
and recovered in the stomach or intestine.
Bullets Embolism – a special form of
bullet migration when the bullet loses its
momentum while inside the chamber of the
heart or inside the big blood vessels and
carried by the circulating blood to some
parts of the body where it may be lodged. It
may cause sudden loss of function of the
area supplied or death if vital organs are
involved.
3. Tandem Bullet:
Two or more bullets leaving the barrel one
after another. In cases of misfire or a defect
in the cartridge, the bullet may be lodged in
the barrel and a succeeding shot may cause
the initial and the succeeding bullet to travel
in tandem. There is a strong possibility for
5
 them to enter the target in a common hole. This
might create doubt to the statement made by the
firer that he made only a single shot, but ballistic
examination can show as to whether the bullet
traveled in tandem.
BGL
FILE 2023
THREE (3) BASIC KINDS OF GUNSHOT WOUND
(GSW) DISTINGUISHED BY THE PROXIMITY OF THE
WEAPON CAUSING THEM:
1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or
within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close Discharge – 6” to 2ft,
3. Distance Discharge - over 2 or 3 ft.
Entry wound are generally clean, round holes
slightly smaller than the bullets which caused them; as
the bullet travels through the body it produces a
shock wave which damages the tissue around its path.
This is known as “TISSUE QUAKE.” The bullet will
slow down by the passage through the body and its
exit will leave an irregular hole. If the bullet exits
head-on, the wound will be smaller than the entry, but
if it leaves the body at an irregular angle, or takes
pieces of bone with it, the exit wound will be ragged.
Contact wounding with the muzzle pressed
against the skin will produce not a round entry but
star shaped hole with lacerated edges.
Sir Sydney Smith – founder of the Medico-Legal
Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis Professor of
Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the
leading exponents, studying entrance and exit
wounds, powder burns, and powder “tattooing” on
human skin and other medical phenomena associated
with gun fire.
FIREARMS
BRIEF HISTORY OF SMALL ARMS:
01. CANNON LOCK TYPE
– These weapons were loaded from the
muzzle end of the barrel with powder, wad, and ball.
A small hole which is located at the breech end of the
barrel was provided with a pan into which a priming
charge of powder was placed. In igniting this priming
charge, either a hot iron of lighted match is flashed
through the touch-hole and into the main powder
charge to discharge the weapon.
- Used in Germany in the year 1313.
02. MATCHLOCK
- The construction of the matchlock was
exactly the same as the hand cannon. Common in
them is that it was muzzle loaded and had a touch-
hole covered with a priming charge. The only
difference being that the match lock, a slow burning
piece of cord used the priming charge, was held in an
armed hook screwed to the side of the flame. To fire
the gun, the hook was pushed forward to drop the
burning end of the match into the priming charge. As
these weapons be were becoming sophisticated, the
curved hook was embellished and took the form of a
snake and became known as the weapon “Serpentine”.
Eventually, the tail of the serpentine was
lightened and became the forerunner of the modern
TRIGGER. These weapons were used during the time
BGL FILE 2024
of Henry VIII who reigned from 1509 to 1547,
were many of his cavalry were armed with a
matchlock.
The major defect with this type of
firearm was that it required a slow burning
“match” for ignition. As a result, it was of little
use for surprise attack or in damp or rainy
conditions.
03. WHEEL-LOCK
– The lighted match used in the
matchlock was no longer necessary. When
fired from the shoulder, the wheel-lock was
often referred to as an “arquebus” from the
shape of the butt which was often curved to
fit to the shoulder. This weapon consisted
of a serrated steel wheel, mounted on the
side of the weapon on the rear of the barrel.
The wheel was spring-loaded via a chain
round in its axles with a spanner similar to a
watch drum. When the wheel was turned
with a spanner, the chain would turn the
axle and the spring was tensioned. A simple
bar inside the lock kept the wheel from
unwinding until released with the trigger.
Part of the wheel protruded into a small pan,
the flash pan or priming pan, which
contained the priming charge for the touch-
hole. The serpentine, instead of containing
slow burning match, had a piece of iron
pyrite fixed in its jaws. This was kept in
direct contact with the serrated wheel by
means of a strong spring. In pressing the
trigger, the bar was withdrawn from the
grooved wheel which then turned on its
axle. Sparks produced from the friction of
the pyrite on the serrated wheel ignited the
priming charge which in turn ignited the
main powder charge and fired the weapon.
It was invented by JOHANN BRIEF HISTORY
OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARM
The first propellant used in firearms of
all types was gunpowder. Despite the historical
and military significance of this substance, its
origin remain largely obscure, but it is known
that the Chinese were using it by AD 1000. The
first extant references to gunpowder in western
literature occurred in the 13th century. The
origins of small arms also wrapped in mystery.
It is clear that the Chinese and Arabs knew at
an early date how to make and use “roman
candles” (probably based on bamboo tubes)
loaded with layers of gunpowder and
incendiary material as a means of starting fires
at a distance for military purposes. But details
of this weapon are lacking, as too ant clear
indications of the first use of genuine firearms
for the propulsion of projectiles from the tube.
LEONARDO DA VINCE – (1500 AD) A French
artist, on his sketch of a steam-powered cannon
to his primitive wheel-lock firearms.
13th Century - development of firearms
6
followed the invention of gunpowder in Western
Europe.
BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ - A German monk, and
ROGER BACON. an English monk are both credited
with gunpowder invention.
Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English
monk and scientist, with the invention of gun powder
in 1248, and Berthold Schwartz, with the application
of gun powder to tie propelling of a missile in the air
1300’s. This powder is what we now call “black
powder”.
1118 - Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early
manuscripts tell or several Moorish campaign in
which, artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon and
Schwartz.
1245 - Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in
Liegnitz when he defeated the Poles, Hungarians and
Russians.
1247 - one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in
warfare was that of an attack on Seville, Spain.
1346 - Cannons used by King Edward III of England at
Crecy.
1353 – Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous
conquest of Constantinople.
First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and
were not capable of being carried by an individual
soldier, hence, the development of cannons preceded
that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.
Man never satisfied with himself, he is always
trying to improve himself and his surrounding. He
created some crude or primitive weapons, which were
subsequently developed into sophisticated firearms of
modern times. The following are the stages of
development of man’s weapon:
1. STONES
2. CLUBS
3. KNIVES
4. SPEARS AND DARTS SLINGSHOTS TO HURL
OBJECTS
5. BOWS AND ARROWS
6. CROSS-BOWS
7. GUNS
8. MISSILES
PERSONALITIES IN BALLISTICS
1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army –
Father of Modern Ballistics
2. Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith
& Wesson and pioneered the making of
breech-loading rifles.
3. Daniel B. Wesson - an associate or partner of
Smith in revolver making.
 Designed the Model 1895 Box Magazine,
lever action type of rifle for Winchester. He also
earned respect and recognition with pistols and
machine guns.
 Designed the first successful gas-operated
machine gun. His water-cooled Browning
caliber .30 and Browning Automatic Rifle were
extensively used in World War I.
4. John M. Browning - Wizard of modern
firearms and pioneered the breech loading single
shot rifle.
5. John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making
of Thompson Submachine gun.
6. David “Carbine” Williams – maker of the first
known carbine.
 Carbine, like most of the very old terms
BGL FILE 2024
used in the history of firearms, its actual
origin cannot be positively established. It is
believed that the term might have
originated from the following:
“carabine”- which means
Spanish Cavalry
“ carabs”- which means small
ships
“ karab” – an Arabic term which
means weapon
William Carbine – first known
maker of carbine firearm
7. Alexander John Forsyth – Father of
the percussion ignition.
8. Elisha King Root – Designed
machinery of making Colt firearms.
9. Eliphalet Remington – one of the first
rifle and ammunition makers.
10. John Mahlon Marlin - founder of
Marlin Firearms Company.
11. James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the
development of the Model 1855 rifled-
musket.
12. Samuel Colt (1814-1862) of Hartford,
Connecticut, produced the first practical
revolver bringing it to what most gunsmiths
would agree was its perfect form in the Colt
Army 1873 model, which became famous
for its .45 caliber. He also introduced the
system of mass production of such
weapons.
Other manufacturers followed Colt’s
lead: Remington and Smith & Wesson in
the U.S., Adams and Scott-Webley in
BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta
on the CONTINENT, until revolvers were
used in every part of the world.
13. Henry Derringer – he gave his name
to a whole class of firearms (rifles and
pistols)
14. John C. Garand – designed invented
and introduced the semi-automatic US
Rifle, Cal. .30 M1 which is gas operated
after Thompson did nod improve
satisfactorily because of oiling
requirements, jams, and feeding troubles.
He was hired by the U.S. Government and
given employment at Springfield Arsenal to
continue development of automatic
firearms.
15. Oliver F. Winchester – one of the
earliest rifles and pistol makers.
16. Hiram Maxim (1840-1916) – Born in
Maine, he settled in Britain, where he
invented his machine gun.
 He also developed a smokeless form of
gunpowder called “maximite.” He was
Knighted in Britain in the year 1901 for his
inventions.
17. Hugo Borchardt – Employed with
Winchester for a time. He developed one
of the earliest successful auto loading
pistol. When he couldn’t get American
makers into making it, he took his design to
Germany and was developed into the
world’s famous LUGER PISTOL.
18. James Gatling– Created the first
successful mechanical machine gun. Said
machine gun was used during the U.S. Civil
War (1861-1865). The gun had several
barrels, which revolved around a central
axis.
19. James Puckle – He attempted to
design a machine gun in the year 1717. In
trial, the gun fired up to nine shots every
7
 minute, but the British Army was not impressed
and it was soon forgotten.
20. Michael kalashnicov _ designed the AK 47
Assault rifle
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY
1313 – Gun powder as a propellant. The age of
gunpowder began with its first use as a propellant for
a projectile. Such use has been recorded as early as
1313.
1350 – small arms. Gunpowder was first used only in
cannons. It was in the middle of the 14 th century that
portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns
were ignited by a hand-held hot wire or lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to rifled barrels
appeared. Although some recognized its important as
an aid to accuracy, it was many years after before
rifling was generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining in both
powder and ball were developed. This greatly
speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying
loose powder.
1807 – Percussion system. The discovery of Forsyth in
1807 that certain compounds detonated by a blast
would be used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for
the basis for all later percussion and cartridge
development.
1835 – Samuel Colt patented the first practical
revolver in which the cylinder was rotated by cocking
the hammer.
1836 – Pinfire Cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux
in 1836 was probably the first self-exploding cartridge
to come into general use.
1845 – Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert,
developed a “bullet breech cap” which was in reality,
the first rimfire cartridge.
1858 – Centerfire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge of
1858 marked the beginning of the rapid development
of the centerfire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine gun. Hiram Maxim built
the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the
piece of load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder . In France, Vielle,
developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a
new propellant which not only lacked the smoke
characteristic of black powder, but also more
powerful.
DEFINITION OF FIREARM:
1. Technical Definition:
A firearm is an instrument used for the
propulsion of a projectile by the expansive force of
gases coming from the burning of gunpowder.
2. Legal Definition:
Section 877, Revised Administrative Code -
“Firearm” defined.
“Firearm” or ‘arm”, as herein used, includes
rifles, muskets, shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and all
other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball,
shot, shell, or other missile may be discharged by
means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term
also includes air rifles except such as being of small
caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of
any firearm shall be considered as a complete
firearm for all purposes thereof.
Penal Provisions of Laws Relative to Firearm.
Section 2692, Revised Administrative Code (RAC):
Unlawful manufacture dealing in acquisition,
disposition, or possession of firearms or ammunitions
thereto, or instrument used or intended to be used in
the manufacture of firearms or ammunition:
Any person who manufactures, deals in,
acquires, disposes or possesses any firearm, parts of
firearms, ammunition therefore, or instrument or
BGL FILE 2024
implement used or intended to be used in the
manufacture of ammunition in violation of any
provision of sections eight hundred seventy-
seven to nine hundred and six, inclusive, of the
code, as amended, shall upon conviction, be
punished by imprisonment for a period of not
less than one year and one day
nor more than five years, or both such
imprisonment and a fine of not less than one
thousand pesos nor more than five thousand
pesos, in the discretion of the court. If the
article illegally possessed is a rifle, carbine,
grease gun, bazooka, machine gun,
submachine, hand grenade, bomb, artillery of
any kind or ammunition exclusively intended
for such weapons, such period of imprisonment
shall be not less than five years nor more than
ten years. A conviction under this section shall
carry with it the forfeiture of the prohibited
article or articles by the Philippine Government.
Section 2690. Revised Administrative Code:
Selling of firearm to unlicensed purchaser:
It shall be unlawful for any dealer in
firearms or ammunition to sell or deliver any
firearms or ammunition or any part of a firearm
to a purchaser or other person until such
purchaser or other person shall have obtained
the necessary license therefore, Any person
violating the provisions of this section upon
conviction in a court of competent jurisdiction,
shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two
thousand pesos, or by imprisonment not
exceeding two years, or both.
Section 2691, Revised Administrative Code;
Failure of personal representative of deceased
licensee to surrender firearm:
When a holder of any firearm license
shall die or become subject to legal disability
and any of his relatives, or his legal
representative, or any other person shall
knowingly come into possession of any firearm
or ammunition covered by such license, such
person, upon failure to deliver the same to the
Chief of Constabulary in Manila or to the senior
officers of Constabulary in the province, shall be
punished by a fine not exceeding five hundred
pesos or by imprisonment not exceeding six
months, or both.
Art. 155, Revised Penal Code:
Alarms and Scandals:
The penalty of arresto menor or fine not
exceeding 200 pesos shall be imposed upon:
1. Any person who within any town or public
place, shall discharge any firearm, rocket,
firecracker, or other explosive calculated to
cause alarm or danger;
2 ...............
Art. 254, Revised Penal Code:
Discharge of firearms:
Any person who shall shoot at another with
any firearm shall suffer the penalty of prision
correccionaI in its minimum and medium
periods, unless the facts of the case are such
that the act can be held to constitute frustrated
or attempted parricide, murder, homicide or
any other crime for which a higher penalty in
prescribed by any of the articles of the code:
8

First Sentence: (Shoulder Arms)
RIFLE – long rifle firearm designed to hit targets at a
greater or longer distance, with spiral grooves to fire
only a single shot.
MUSKET – long smooth bored firearm that is designed
to prepare a single shot.
SHOTGUN – long smooth bored firearms having a
barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to shot birds
in flight.
CARBINE – a short barrel rifle having a barrel not
longer than 22 inches. Designed to fire a single shot
through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full
automatic, for every press of the trigger.
HAND/SHORT ARMS
Portable handguns appeared only in the early
years of 16th century.
Classification of Small Firearms:
Small firearms are those, which propel projectile of
less than one inch in diameter.
1. As to Wounding Power:
a. Low Velocity Firearm – These are firearms with
muzzle velocity of not more than 1,400 feet
per second.
Example: Revolver.
b. High Power Firearm – These are firearms with
muzzle velocity of more than 1,400 feet per
second. The usual muzzle velocity is 2,200 to
2,500 feet per second or more.
Example: Military rifle.
2. As to the Nature of the Bore:
a. Smooth Bore Weapon – This firearm has the
inside portion of the barrel that is perfectly
smooth from the firing chamber to the
muzzle.
Example: Shotgun
b. Rifled Bore Firearm – This is a firearm with the
bore of the barrel with a number of spiral
lands and grooves which run, parallel with one
another, but twisted spirally from breech to
muzzle.
Example: Military Rifle
3. As to the Manner of Firing:
a. Pistol - Firearm, which may be fired only by a
single hand.
Example: Revolver.
b.Rifle – Firearm which may be fired from the
shoulder.
Example: Shotgun
4. As to the Nature of the Magazine:
a. Cylindrical Revolving Magazine Firearm – The
cartridge is located in a cylindrical magazine,
which rotates at the rear portion of the barrel.
Example: Revolver.
b. Vertical or Horizontal Magazine – The
cartridge is held one after another vertically or
horizontally and also held in place by a spring
side to side or end to end.
Example: Automatic Pistol.
Types of Small Firearms which are of Medico-legal
Interest:
1. Revolver – A revolver is a firearm which has a
cylindrical magazine situated at the rear of the
barrel, capable or revolving motion and which can
accommodate five or six cartridges; each of which
is housed in a separate chamber. After a shot, the
BGL FILE 2024
circular magazine rotates by the cocking of
the hammer in a way that the next cartridge
is brought in the proper position for firing,
The usual muzzle velocity of a revolver is
600 feet per second.
Kinds of Revolver as to Construction or
Mechanism:
a. Revolver with the barrel firmly fixed to
the frame and the revolving cylinder
may swing out to the side for the
purpose of loading or extraction of the
spent shell.
b. Revolver with the barrel hinged to the
frame and the revolver cylinder may be
broken to load by releasing the barrel
latch.
c. Revolver with barrel firmly fixed to the
frame and the revolving cylinder may
be removed by taking out the cylinder
pin on which it rotates.
2. Automatic Pistol – This is a firing weapon
in which the empty shell is ejected when the
cartridge is fired and a new cartridge is
slipped into the breech automatically as a
result of the recoil. The cartridge is
contained in a vertical magazine which holds
six to seven cartridges. It is not automatic in
action in the sense that a continuous
pressure on the trigger will not make the
firearm fire continuously. It is more correct
to call it a “self-loading firearm.” It has a
usual muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet or more
per second.
3. Shotgun – A shotgun is a firearm whose
projectile is a collection of lead pellets which
varies in sizes with the type of the cartridge
applied.
A Weapon, In Order to Cause Injury must
have Two Principal Component Parts,
Namely:
I. The Cartridge or Ammunition – a complete
unfired unit consisting of bullet, primer,
cartridge case and powder charge.
2. The Firearm – the instrument for the
propulsion of a projectile by the expansive
force of gases from burning gunpowder.
PISTOLS – a handgun that is magazine feed.
They have said to have been invented
in the Italian town PISTOIA – hence, the name
“PISTOL” – and arrived in Britain about 1515 as
German import.
In the early 20th century, the so-called
automatic pistol begun to appear.
REVOLVER – a handgun with a corresponding
cylinder that revolves before the barrel, which
consist of different chambers.
MECHANISMS OF REVOLVER AND PISTOL
Revolvers carries 5, 6 or up to 8 shots in
a cylinder which presents each cartridge to the
hammer in turn, the automatic, properly called
‘self-loading’ handgun, acts in somewhat similar
fashion to a rifle. The magazine, containing up
to 14 rounds of ammunition, is slotted into the
hollow handle of the weapon.
A slide on top of the barrel carries the
firing pin hits the primer of the cartridge and
fires the bullet, at the same time releasing a
power force of expanding gas in the breech of
the gun-up to 4 to 5 tons per square inch –
which blows back the side. The slide action, like
that of the rifle bolt, ejects the spent cartridge,
9
extracts a new one from the magazine and slots it into stabilize its movement and to impart a
firing position once more. rotational movement on the bullet.
Incidentally, the rifling reflected on the
For purposes of Medico-legal Investigation, the bullet becomes an important factor in
following Parts of a Firearm are important: the identification of firearms.
1. The trigger with the firing pin. Our manufacturers vary the
2. The barrel way the riflings are imprinted in the
Other Parts of a Firearm: inner surface of the barrel on the
1. Handle or Butt – The portion of the firearm used for
handling it. It may house the magazine.
2. Firing Chamber – The place where the cartridge is following aspects:
held in position before the fire mechanism starts. (1) Number – The number of lands
3. Breechblock – The steel block which closes the rear and grooves varies from 3 to 9
of the bore against the force of the charge. The face of Most high velocity
this block, which comes in contact with the base of the firearms have 4 to 6 grooves.
cartridge, is known as the breech-face. (2) Twist or Rate – This is the
4. Trigger Guard expression for one complete
5. Fronts and Rear Sight. turn of the rifling on a certain
6. Safety Device like safety lock. length of the barrel. We say the
7. Sling. twist rate is 1:12 when there is
In a Self-loading Firearm, the following are the one complete spiral groove in
Additional Parts: 12 inch of the barrel. Spiral
1. Extractor – The mechanism by which the spent shell groove twist or rate may be:
or ammunition is withdrawn from the firing (a) Post Twist – When the
chamber. number of inches of the
2. Ejector – The mechanism by which the empty shell barrel required for a
or ammunition is thrown from the firearm. complete turn is small, like
3. Trigger - This is a part of the firearm, which causes 1:8.
firing mechanism. Except in a single action firearm, (b) Slow Twist – When a greater
pressure on the trigger is the commencement of number of inches in the
the whole firearm mechanism. To avoid accidental barrel are necessary to
firing, a trigger guard surrounds the trigger. have one complete turn,
like 1:14.
Classification of Firearm Based on Trigger (3) Direction – The direction of
Mechanism: rifling may either be right
a. Relation of Cocking and Trigger Pressure: (clockwise) or left
(1) Single Action firearm – The firearm is first (counterclockwise).
manually cocked then followed by (4) Width of the Groove and Land
pressure on the trigger to release the – The width of the groove
hammer. varies with the manufacturer
Example: Home-made “Paltik”. and caliber. Some have the
(2) Double Action Firearm – A pressure width of the groove different
applied on the trigger will both cock and with that of the land while
fire the firearm by release of the hammer. others are the same or
Example: Standard Revolver. equidistant.
b. Number of shots on Pressure on the trigger: Example:
(1) Single Shot Firearm – A pull pressure on Colt 0.32 has 6 lands
the trigger will cause only one shot. and grooves, twist to the left,
(2) Automatic Firearm – A continuous pressure the width of the land and
on the trigger will cause a series of shots until groove are 0.048 and 0.108
the trigger pressure is released. respectively.
Example: Machine gun. Smith and Wesson
Trigger pressure is the amount of force 0.32 has 5 lands and grooves,
(pressure) on the trifler necessary to fire a gun. Its twist to the right and are
determination is necessary in the assessment of equidistant at 0.095 inch.
whether the firing can possibly be accidental. Aside from those marks previously
“Hair trigger” is a vague term used when the mentioned, the bullet or the shell shows
firearm trigger pressure is 1.0 lb. (pound) or less. It is individual or accidental characteristics which are
intrinsically unsafe and should only be used under determinable only after the manufacture. They
rigorously controlled situations because of the have characteristics whose existence is beyond
possibility of unintended or accidental fire. the control of men and which have a random
2. Barrel: distribution. Their existence in a firearms are
a. Riflings: brought about through the failure or a tool in
The inner surface of a shotgun and its normal operation through wear, abuse
that of a home-made gun is smooth while mutilation, corrosion, erosion, or other
single shot standard firearms are with riflings. fortuitous causes. Those marks may be
The inner surface of the barrel has a imprinted in the bullet or shell and may be used
series of parallel spiral grooves on the whole for identification purpose,
length called riflings. The space between the When the bullet or the shell or both has
two grooves is the land. The riflings are made been recovered and a suspected firearm has
to have a strong barrel grip on the bullet, to been found in the possession of a person, the

BGL FILE 2024 10

procedure is to fire the suspected firearm at a (I) Powder grains (unburned, burning).
recovery box and compare the shell and bullet in the (2) Soot.
comparison microscope with the one in question. c. Primer:
(1) Lead, barium, antimony, etc..
How to Determine the Caliber of Firearm: d. Barrel:
The caliber is the diameter of the barrel between (1) Lubricant.
two lands. (2) Rust, dust, etc..
Table showing the relation between American, (3) Scraping from bullet by previous fire.
English and Continental Caliber: Second Sentence:
American Caliber English Caliber .22 – minimum caliber
Continental Caliber .19
.22 Inch .220 Inch 18
5.6 17
.25 “ .250 “ Third Sentence – barrel of complete firearm
6.5 (6.35) A revolver without a barrel
.28 “ .280 “ A pistol without a barrel
7.0 Possession of any part of a firearm is
.30 “ “ (.303) considered a violation of illegal possession of
7.65 firearm in accordance with SCRA Dec. 11, 1992.
.32 “ .320 “
8.0 TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM
.35 “ .350 “ ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL
9.0 CONSTRUCTION
.38 “ .360 “ 01. Smooth-bore Firearms – Firearms
9.3 that have no rifling (land and
.38 ‘ .370 “ grooves) inside their gun barrel.
9.5 Ex. Shotguns and muskets
.38-.40-.41 Inch .410 “ 02. Rifled-bore Firearms – firearms that
10.0 have rifling inside the gun barrel.
.404 Inch Ex. Pistols, revolvers, rifles
10.5
.44 “ .440 “ MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to
11.0 Caliber of Projectiles Propelled)
.45 .450 “ (.455) 01. Artillery – those types of firearms
11.25 that propel projectiles more than
one inch in diameter.
MECHANISM OF FIREARM ACTION: Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas
Generally, the principles involved in all firearm 02. Small Arms – propel projectiles less
actions are the same. When the firearm cocked and than one inch in diameter. Can be
ready to fire, a pull on the trigger will cause the fixing operated by one man.
pin of the hammer to hit the percussion cap of the Ex. Machine guns, shoulder arms
cartridge in the firing chamber which is aligned with and hand arms
rear portion of the barrel. The hit by the firing pin on
TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to
the percussion cap will cause generation of a sufficient
mechanical construction)
heat capable of igniting the primer. The primer will in 01. Single Shot Firearm – type of
turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant which will firearm designed to fire only
cause evolution of gases under pressure and one shot for every loading.
temperature. The marked expansion of the gases will Ex. Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun –
force the projectile forward with certain velocity. single shots, P, R, S (pistols,
Owing to the presence of the rifling at the inner wall rifles, shotguns)
of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of 02. Repeating Arms – fire several
resistance to the projectile. Inasmuch as the rifling shots in one loading
marks are arranged in a spiral manner, the projectile Ex. 1. automatic pistols
will produce a spinning movement as it comes out of 3. Rifles
the muzzle. 2. Revolvers
Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel 4. shotguns
are the high-pressured heated gases, unburned 03. Bolt Action Type – reloading is
powder grains with flame and smoke. done by manipulation of the
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the bolt.
firearm which in an automatic firearm causes the Ex. 1. rifles
cocking and the empty shell thrown out by the ejector. 3. Machine guns
2. shotguns
The backward movement is called recoil of the firearm.
04. Automatic Loading Type – after
the first shot is fired, automatic
Things Coming Out of the Gun Muzzle After the loading or feeding of the
Fire: chamber takes place.
1. Bullet. Ex. 1. Rifles
2. Flame. 2. Shotguns
3. Heated, compressed and expanded gas 05.Slide Action Type (thrombone) –
4. Residues coming from: loading takes place by back
a. Bullet: and forth manipulation of the
(1) Fragment (jacket, lead). under forearm of the gun
(2) Lubricant. Ex. 1. rifles
b. Powder particles: 2. shotguns
BGL FILE 2024 11
 06. Lever Type (Break-type) – loading 6. There is no gas leakage in its operation.
takes place by lever action on the
firearm. DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC
Ex. 1. rifles 2. PISTOL:
shotguns 1. Ammunition must be perfect. Old and
deteriorated ammunition will cause a
TYPES OF FIREARMS (according to use) jam.
01. Military Firearms 2. A misfire stops the functioning of the
Pistols gun.
Revolvers 3. When the gun is kept loaded for a long
Rifles period of time, the magazine spring is
Machine guns under tension and may deteriorate and
02. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms cause trouble.
Pistols 4. The automatic pistol cannot use blank
Revolvers or reduced loads.
Rifles 5. It has poorer trigger pull than the
Shotguns revolver.
03.Target and Outdoor Men’s Firearms 6. The magazine requires a jacketed bullet
Pistols which is not as good for practical use
Revolvers as that of lead bullet.
Rifles 7. The automatic pistol is more dangerous
UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE – those to handle and fire especially for
types of firearms that are unique in inexperienced people due to the fact
mechanism and construction that after one shit it is always cocked
Paltik pistols and loaded.
Paltik revolvers 8. It is not adopted to reloading. It
Paltik rifles throws away empty shell at each shot.
Paltik shotguns 9. Its mechanical action ejects empty shell
The automatic Pistol, Caliber .45 besides towards the face of the shooter,
having the main parts and detailed parts it has also causing flinching
the so called auxiliary parts accessories) which must all 10. It throws out empty shells on the
be removed first before disassembly of the weapon ground to remain as evidence.
can be accomplished. 11. It cannot be fired from the pocket
1. Recoil plug 4. Recoil without jamming.
spring
2. Barrel bushing 5. Recoil EVERY POLICE OFFICER SHOULD
spring guide FREQUENTLY CHECK HIS REVOLVER FOR:
3. Slide stop pin 1. Obstruction in the barrel
ADVANTAGES OF REVOLVER: 2. Bulging or swollen barrel
1. It is old standard weapon, everyone is used to 3. Firing pin protrusion through recoil
it and almost everyone knows something plate when trigger is in rearward
about how to handle it. position.
2. The revolver is safer for inexperienced people 4. An older revolvers, the imprint of the
to handle and carry than an automatic pistol. primer on the recoil plate in relation to
3. The mechanism of a revolver allows the the firing pin hole (to insure blow in
trigger pull to be better than that of the center of primer).
average automatic weapon. 5. Evidence of “splitting lead” around
4. A misfire dies not put a revolver out of action. breech of barrel or for complaints of
5. It will handle satisfactory old or new or partly fellow shooters in the firing line.
deteriorated ammunition, which gives 6. Tightness of all side plate screw
reduced velocity that would jam an average 7. Tightness of ejector rod head if the
automatic pistol. weapon is a Smith & Wesson revolver
DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER: 8. Cleanliness and protective film of oil to
1. It is more bulky to carry than that of an prevent rust
automatic pistol.
2. Its grip or handle is generally not as good as NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCTIONS:
that of pistol. BARREL – initiates the path of the bullet
3. It is hard to clean after firing. FRAME – houses the internal parts
4. It is slower to load. CYLINDER – serves as a chamber and magazine
5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken YOKE – connecting pivot between the frame
parts, it is a factory job. and cylinder
6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject EXTRACTOR – pulls the empty shells from the
to variable accuracy due to improper lining up cylinder simultaneously
of cylinder. EXTRACTOR ROD – activates the extractor and
is a locking device
ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL: CENTER PIN – serves as a locking device for the
1. It has a better grip, fits the hand and points cylinder
naturally. CENTER PIN SPRING – holds the center pin in a
2. It is more compact for the same fire power. locked position
3. It is easier to load than a revolver. SIDE PLATE – provide access to the internal
4. In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one parts
can be put in a little expense without sending SIDE PLATE SCREWS – hold the side plate and
the gun to the factory yoke in place
5. It gives greater fire power and greater ease of HAMMER BLOCK – safety device that prevents
firing hammer blow to primer

BGL FILE 2024 12

DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – built to allow double action
fire
HAMMER – strikes the blow that initiates or ignites the
primer
BOLT – disengages pin and allow opening of cylinder
and blocks hammer
THUMBLATCH – actuates bolts to release the cylinder
HAND (Pawl) – rotates the cylinder when the hammer
is cocked
CYLINDER STOP – stops and holds the cylinder when
the hammer is cocked
TRIGGER – actuates the parts necessary to fire the
weapon
TRIGGER GUARD – guards the trigger from
unnecessary action to avoid accidental firing
REBOUND SLIDE – returns trigger, actuates hammer
block and locks hammer
TRIGGER SPRING – provides energy for return
movement of rebound slide
TRIGGER LEVEL – contacts rebound slide to return
trigger forward
MAIN SPRING – provides energy to the hammer to
activate firing mechanism
TRIGGER STOP – prevents excessive rearward
movement after hammer release
RATCHET – helps in the withdrawal of the cartridge or
shells from the chambers of the cylinder
CYLINDER NOTCH – it helps hold cylinder in place and
aligned ready for firing.
AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES
INTRODUCTION:
It is important for students of firearms
investigation and identification to be well versed with
ammunitions. This chapter limits itself only to metallic
and modern shotgun shells since these are the types
greatly encountered by investigators in most cases.
Originally, the word “ammunition” means any
unfired assembly of cartridge case, powder, primer,
and projectile which maybe used in a firearm. But
today, the word is generally used when referring to a
“supply of assembled cartridges” in bulk as in boxes or
lots. It is also often used to refer to the supply a
person maybe carrying with him. The term “round”
refers to a single cartridge.
Legal Definition:
Shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets.
carbines, shotguns revolvers, and pistols form which a
ball, bullet, shot, shell, or other missiles may be fired
by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
Technical Definition:
A complete unfired unit consisting of bullet,
cartridge case, propellant powder, primer.
ORIGIN:
16TH CENTURY - cartridge was discovered.
The earliest small arms cartridge consisted of a
pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in paper.
The term cartridge derived from the Latin word
“charta” means paper and from the French word
“cartouche” meaning a roll of paper.
Introduction of “magnum” cartridges in the fifties
(50’s) – first manufactured by Remington and used to
load such weapons as the Luger Blackhawk and the
Smith & Wesson .44 magnum – has meant that
handguns are harder hitting, but their mechanism is
largely unchanged and their victims suffer in much the
same ways as the older weapon.
NOMENCLATURE/PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE:
I. Bullet – Refers to the projectile propelled form a
firearm by means of the explosive force of gases
coming from burning gunpowder.
2. Cartridge Case – Refers to the tubular metallic
BGL FILE 2024
container for the gunpowder. Sometimes
called shell.
3. Gunpowder – Refers to the propellant
which when ignited by the primer flash is
converted to gas under high pressure and
propels the bullet or shot charge through the
barrel and on to the target.
4. Primer – Refers to the metal cap containing
the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound which when struck by firing pin
would ignite. Such action is called “ Percussion”.
Generally, cartridges or ammunitions may be
classified as follows:
a.) METALLIC CARTRIDGE – Used
largely on rifles, pistols, and revolvers were the
case is made of brass or copper. Also called as “
rifle ammunition”.
b.) NON-METALLIC CARTRIDGE -
Ammunitions partly made of paper (cardboard)
or plastic and the projectiles are of lead balls or
a number of lead pellets which are called
“shots”. . Also known as “shotgun shell”.
Accordingly, cartridges maybe further
classified as follows:
I. ACCORDING TO THE RELATIONSHIP OF
THE DIAMETER OF THE BASE WITH THAT OF
THE CYLINDRICAL PORTION OF THE
CARTRIDGE
a. Cartridge With a Rim - The base of
the cartridge has a diameter more than
the cylindrical portion.
The rim is used to prevent the
cartridge from going through the
barrel. This is common among
revolvers.
b. Rimless Cartridge – The base or head
of the cartridge has the same diameter
as that of the cylindrical body. There is
a groove cut between the base and the
cylindrical body for the extractor to
hook into. This is usually found in self-
loading firearms.
c. Semi-rimless Cartridge – This looks
like a rimless at first glance but actually
the rim does project very slightly above
the line of the cylindrical part.
d. Belted Cartridge – The cartridges are
attached in a series in a canvass belt for
successive fires.
II. ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS
WHEREIN IT WAS USED
Revolvers cartridges - used in revolvers
Pistol cartridges – used in automatic pistols
Rifle cartridges - used in rifles
Shotgun – used in shotguns
III. ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF
PRIMERS
a. Cartridge with Center Fire (Center-fire)
- The percussion cap is located at the
center of the base of the cartridge. This is the
most common.
- Most economical because it could
easily be refilled.
- In this type of ammunition, head
stamps are frequently used and these consist
of the designs or letters imprinted on the
shell head, which is the area around the
primer. The designs or letters are used to
identify the manufacturer or maker of the
13
 ammunition. Sometimes, as in caliber .45
ammunition, the last two digits of the year of
manufacture are indicated. Most of these head
stamps found in the shell head of the base of the
ammunitions are valuable to field investigators as
well as to firearms examiners in the laboratory,
Simply because these head stamps assist them in
narrowing down their search for a particular gun
used in the commission of the crime.
e.g. cal. .45 ; shotgun shell
TYPES OF CENTER FIRE CARTRIDGES:
Rimmed type - used in Revolvers Cal .38 & .357
Semi-rimmed - used in super .38
Rimless - used .45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun,
submachine gun
b. Cartridge with Rim Fire (Rim-Fire Cartridge)
- The simplest form of modern cartridges.
- The primer is placed inside the rim of the
shell. This is common in 0.22 caliber- firearms.
c. Firearm with Pin (Pin-Fire Cartridge)
- The first cartridge of a self-loading type,
which was commonly attributed to Monsieur Le
Facheux of Paris, at around 1836.
- The firing pin strikes a needle, which is placed
at the rim of the shell. The needle will then
press on the Percussion cap which is inside the
cartridge. This type is obsolete and now rarely
found.
KINDS OF SHOTS
I. BUCK SHOT – 9 to 12 pellets
2. SINGLE SHOT – only one ball
3. BIRD SHOT – small pellets
The shot leaves the gun as a solid mass at a
velocity of about 1100 ft/sec. Up to about 3 ft the
effect is of single shot but beyond that the lead pellets
spread out and the effect is multiple shots. The shell
wad leaves the gun with the lead pellets and is
projected for several feet before falling to the ground.
The end of the barrel is often restricted or “CHOCKED”
in order to hold the shot together over longer
distances.
The entire charge (pellets/shots) when moving
through the air, can be properly referred to as the
“pattern”, although strictly speaking, the pattern is
registered relative “distribution” of the entire load
upon the target.
CARTRIDGE LIFE:
The life of well-made metallic small arms
ammunitions could perhaps last for 10 years as its
average age but some ammo may also loose some of
its strength in 5 or 6 years time.
Some may last 25 years or more depending on the
conditions of storage. Damp warm climates are worst.
In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture,
it is a common practice to varnish the mouth of the
case before the insertion of the bullet and to put a
ring of waterproofing around the joint between the
primer and the primer pocket
CHAPTER V
BULLETS / SLUGS
INTRODUCTION:
A bullet, slug, missile, or projectile, is the
metallic object attached to the free end of the
cylindrical tip of the cartridge case, propelled by the
expansive force of the propellant, and responsible in
to production of damages in the target. In some
instances bullets — not metallic but made of rubber,
plastic, or even paraffin, but their uses are primarily
confined to target practice.
BGL FILE 2024
Definition: It is a metallic or non-metallic,
cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm
by means of expensive force of gases coming
from burning gunpowder.
Projectiles propelled from shotguns are termed
SHOTS or PELLETS.
Layman’s Term of bullet is SLUG.
ORIGIN:
The term bullet originated from the
French word “BOULETTE” meaning a small ball.
In government parlance, a cartridge containing
a bullet is still called “BALL CARTRIDGE”; from
the original terminology of the days when all
bullets were balls.
Bullets in modern concept are
projectiles propelled from rifled firearm, which
is cylindrical in shape.
The core of the slug is an alloy of lead,
antimony and sometimes tin.
Armor-piercing bullets for small arms
of similar material to the standard bullet, but in
addition to lead and antimony filler, a core of
tungsten chrome steel which continues to
penetrate armor after the jacket and filler have
been stripped away by contact with a resistant
surface.
CLASSIFICATION:
A. Basically, there are two (2) kinds of bullets,
and they can be classified under the following:
i. According to Mechanical Construction
01. LEAD BULLETS – Are those bullets , which
are made of lead or alloys of this metal (lead,
tin and antimony) which is slightly harder than
pure lead.
Lead bullet must be lubricated to
prevent the lead adhering into the bore that
will interfere seriously with the accuracy. This
action is called “LEADING”
Lead Bullets generally used in revolvers.
They are used in target shooting when they are
used in self-loading rifles they will melt.
02. JACKETED BULLETS – Are those bullets
with a core of lead covered by a jacket of
harder material such as gilding metal, a copper-
alloy of approximately 90%. Some Europeans
use steel as jacket material.
The primary function of the “jacket” in a
bullet to prevent adherence of metal (lead) to
the inside of the gun barrel.
A jacketed bullet may be:
i . Full Jacketed Bullet – the whole bullet up to
the base is enveloped with a metallic jacket.
ii. Semi-Jacketed Bullet – The nose or tree end
is partly or fully exposed while there is relatively
thin but tough coating of the base and the
cylindrical portion. This is made to permit
expansion of the bullet when it hits hard
objects. Semi-jacketed bullets may be hollow –
point.
The general rule is that soft metal, round
nose bullets are fired from a revolver; full-
jacketed bullets are fired from a rifle and self-
loading firearm; semi-jacketed bullets are fired
from an automatic (self loading) firearm or rifle.
Ben G. Lomioan file 2023
--- Copper plated steel maybe used instead of
gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45
14
bullets. Jacket of metal patch made of cupric nickel or
gilding metal.
--- If jacketed bullets are used in revolvers, the gun
barrel will be loosened or destroyed.
--- Keyhole shot – the tumbling of the bullet in
its flight and hitting the target sideways as a
result of not spinning on its axis.
A
F. Metal-Cased Hollow Point

G. Metal Point

BGL FILE 2024 15

RIFLED BULLETS:
There are many types of targets that can be destroyed by small missiles or projectiles. To secure a maximum
effect against each other, there are many types of bullets or shells. There are five (5) principal types, two or more of
which are combined into one bullet.

1. Ball bullets – have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.
2. Armor Piercing bullets – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles and other armored targets in
general.
3. Phosphorous Flare or Tracer bullets - Contains a compound at the base usually barium
nitrates ,which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of smoke from this burning projectile permits the
flight of the bullet to be seen.
- This consists of an aluminum tip and is packed with incendiary (phosphorus) which
burns during flight. It is used to determine the direction of the fire. The speed of sound in air is 1,087 feet per second
or 331.3 meters per second.
4. Incendiary bullets – contain a mixture such as phosphorous or other material that can be set on fire by impact.
They are used against targets that will rapidly burn such as aircrafts or gasoline depot.
5. Explosive (Fragmentary) bullets – contain a high charge explosive. Because of their small size, it is difficult to
make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions.

For this reason the use of high explosive bullets are usually limited to 20 mm. and above.

OTHER TYPES:
01. Plastic Bullet - used for target practice.
02. Bullet with Plastic Sabot – The bullet together with the sabot travel up to the bore. The bullet never comes in
contact with the barrel and therefore there will be no rifling marks imparted in the bullet but on the sabot. The front
half of the sabot has six slits. As the sabot leaves the barrel it offers resistance and the slit part of the sabot will fold
backward, causing resistance and falls away.
At three feet, the sabot and bullet are still in line.
At 6 to 7 feet, they strike the target separately.
The sabot itself travels approximately 50 feet.
03. Bullet with Secondary Explosion – The bullet may leave the barrel and upon reaching a certain distance it
produces secondary explosion and shrapnel splinters.
04. Pointed Bullet – is more effective ballistically than the round ball of the same weight because there is less surface
presented to the air and thus the speed of the bullet is less retarded so quickly.
05. Dumdum Bullet– is an out-moded bullet and generally misused.
06. Soft Point or “mushroom” Bullet – will expand on striking an object and therefore produce much more serious
shock and have correspondingly greater stopping power.
Soft Point Bullets when fired from a high velocity rifle will expand upon striking a flesh until it looks like a
mushroom; hence, they are often called mushroom bullets. Such bullets are of little effect than a full jacketed bullet in
revolvers or automatic pistols, because the velocity is too low to cause the bullet to expand.
07. Hollow Point Bullet – a bullet with a cavity in the nose designed to increase the expansion when it hits the target
(sometimes called ‘Express Bullet’).
08. Metal Cased Bullet– colloquially used to indicate either a metal patched or full-patched bullet.
09. Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet.
10. Steel Jacketed Bullet – Bullet having soft steal jacket, often clad or plated with gilding metal to prevent rusting
and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
CARTRIDGE CASES / SHELL
Definition:
Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer.
The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm
during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is fire arm evidence that can help trace a particular
firearm from which it was fired.

FUNCTIONS:
1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced against the walls
of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the ‘gas seal’ at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS:
1. RIM – serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of cartridge into their chambers and this also limit the
clearance, if any, between the heads and the supporting surface of the bolt or breechblock.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs triple functions:
a. holding primer securely in central position
b. providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge; and
c. providing a solid support of primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. VENTS OF FLASH HOLES – is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer
“flash” imparts ignition to the powder charge.
4. The HEAD and BODY – constitute the ‘cork’ that plugs the breach of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet.
6. CANNELLURES – are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the neck and bodies of the cases
at the location of the bullet bases to prevent the bullets from being pushed back or loosened.
- It is a groove indentation of a cartridge case that holds the end of the bullet.

7. Crimp – is that part on the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet.
Two-Fold Function:
1. It aids in holding the bullet in place.
2. It offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of the
gunpowder.
8. BASE – the bottom portion of the case which contains:
a. The primer, which contains the priming mixture.
b. The shell head which contains the priming mixture.
c. The shell head which contains the headstamps, caliber and the year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER – that portion which support the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for automatic withdrawal
of the case after each firing
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE
A.) Rimmed – These are all straight-shaped cartridges. It is generally designed for revolvers and carbines. The
diameter of the base of the cartridge is bigger than the body of the cartridge. These are found in calibers .30
(carbine), .32, .38, .357.
- It has a flanged at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. This
flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon in which it was used.
Revolvers and shotguns normally have rimmed cartridges which stops them from sliding through the
chambers or breech, while self-loading pistol cartridge is generally rimless or semi-rimmed, bearing instead a groove
to provide grip for the extractor.
B.) Semi-rimmed – designed to be used in the automatic weapons like pistols and submachine guns such as
Super .38, UZI 9 mm. These are the cartridge cases normally found at the crime scene because they are automatically
ejected for every firing of the firearm. And these cases found at the crime scene are of essential in tracing the very
firearm or weapon that fired them.
- It has a flanged which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge case and a groove around the
case body just in front of the flange.

C.) Rimless – cases wherein the diameter of the body of the cartridge is the same as the diameter of the cartridge
case.
- Used in automatic pistols, cal .45 Thompson Submachine guns, Cal .45 Grease gun.
- Automatically ejected from the firearms after every shot, like that of the semi-rimmed type.
The cartridge cases or shells remain at the scene of the crime. The cases found thereat helps in tracing the
particular guns from which they were fired.

D.) Rebated – It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case.

E.) Belted Case – These have pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge.

PRIMERS
Definition:
Refers to the portion of the cartridge which consists of a brass or gilding metal-cup containing a highly
sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is
called “PERCUSSION”.
Used for igniting the gunpowder. A blow from the firing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming
mixtures and this causes the composition to detonate or explode. This detonation or explosion produces ‘flame’
which passes through the ‘vent’ of ‘flash-hole’ in the cartridge case and this ignites the gunpowder.
ORIGIN:
1807 – Alexander John Forsyth – Father of percussion ignition system. First one to conceive the idea of using
detonating compounds for igniting powder charges in small arms by percussion.
--- A Scotch Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.
--- A well-known authority on firearms.
--- First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder forum.
PARTS OF PRIMER
In a typical center-fire cartridge have four parts:
1. Primer cup – container of the priming mixture. Made up of brass, gilding metal or copper.
2. Priming Mixture – highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
3. Anvil – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing pin. Must
be hard, rigid and firmly supported in order to provide the resistance necessary to firing the priming mixture.
TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL
A. BOXER PRIMER ( one flash hole ) – It was developed in 1866 by Colonel. Edward M. Boxer at the
Laboratory of Royal Woolwich Arsenal in England. In this type of primer, the anvil is a small bent disc of steel which
fits into the cup, making the primer completely self-contained. The flash hole in the cartridge case is centrally located
at and is of relatively large in diameter (approximately 1.5 mm in pistol ammunition). It is thus easy to push out the
fired cup with a thin rod for reloading purposes. Boxer-primed ammunition is almost exclusively used in commercial
ammunition and used mainly in North America.
BGL FILE 2024 17
 B. BERDAN PRIMER (two flash hole) – It was designed in 1867 by Colonel Hiram Berdan of the U.S. Army
Ordnance Department. In this system, the anvil is actually a part of the cartridge case in the form of a small peg in
the primer pocket. Around the anvil are a number of small flash holes to permit the passage of the ignition flame
from the primer to the propellant. Mostly used in military ammunition.
4. Disc – piece of small paper or disc of tin which is pressed over the priming mixture.
5. Vent or flash hole
Two-Fold Purposes of a disc:
1. To help hold the priming mixture in place.
2. To prevent moisture

Ben G. Lomioan file 2023

GUNPOWDER
DEFINITION: Refers to the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure
and this propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to the target.
Gunpowder, propellant, powder charge –refers to the same thing.

EXPLOSIVES IN AMMUNITION
TWO (2) TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
01. LOW EXPLOSIVES – Have gradual pushing action. They do not destroy by their own explosion. Low explosives
propel or push shells from guns, or drive rockets through the air. They help control the speed of the explosion. A
low explosive going off resembles rapid burning. Each grain of the explosive burns from the outside, like a log in a
fireplace. The speed of the burning depends on the size and shape of the grains. Used in gun ammunition called,
propellant. Its explosion lasts long enough to propel the shell out of the gun and send it to the target. Low
explosives include the Black and Smokeless powder.
02. HIGH EXPLOSIVES – They are used to destroy, and do not propel or push. They go off suddenly and shatter the
shell, bomb, or torpedo. The speed of such explosion and detonation cannot be controlled. Well known high
explosives include dynamite or trinitroluene (TNT).
CLASS AND COMPOSITION
I. Black Powder – Although it features less importantly, it still being manufactured by the
Europeans. In recent times, said powder was completely superseded by smokeless powder ingredients. The standard
ingredients of “black powder” are the following
Potassium nitrate - 75%
Sulfur - 10%
Charcoal - 15%
CHARACTERISTICS
- Oldest propellant powder
- Consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface.
- Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel.
- Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited.
BLACK POWDER relies for its explosive properties on “3 qualities” which are typical of all explosives.
First, when ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air.
Second, in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
Third, a considerable amount of heat is evolved.
Most dangerous explosives to handle and store, because it can easily ignited by heat, friction, flame or spark.

II. Smokeless Powder – The term smokeless powder is a monomer for they are neither
powder nor are they smokeless, the latter term being applied to them only because they do not give off huge
cloud of white smoke like the black powder.
--- most powerful propellants being used.
4 MAIN CLASSES OF SMOKELESS POWDER
1. SINGLE-BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE – contains only pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with
nitrocellulose.

2. DOUBLE-BASE PROPELLANT – composed of 1) nitrocellulose and 2) nitroglycerin as their major ingredients

accompanied by one or more minor ingredients such as:
a. Centralite
a. Vaseline phthalate esters
b. Inorganic salts
Purpose of Minor Ingredients
1. insure stability
2. reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)
3. improve ignitability
3. TRIPLE BASE PROPELLANT – A type pf propellant powder which uses three principal ingredients.
a. Nitrocellulose
b. Nitroglycerin
c. Nitro-guanidine
It was devised in an attempt to comprise between the low power single based powders and high power
but excessive heat of double base powders. The percentage of nitroglycerin is small, but sufficient to give
added power. The nitro-guanidine lowers the flame temperature while still adding active explosive
constituent. One of the virtues of triple based powders is that it is entirely flashless thought it does not
generate rather more smoke than the other types.

4. HIGH IGNITION TEMPERATURE PROPELLANT – a type of propellant in which the main constituent is from
RDX group of High Explosives. It was moderated to the process of gelatinization and was then developed by
BGL FILE 2024 18
 Dynamit Noble of Germany in conjunction with Heckler and Koch for the latter’s G11K2 rifle. This is a case less
cartridge.

MAKING GUN BARREL

A barrel is made from solid composition steel. The first step in to drill a hole from cane end through one end.
The next step is to ream this hole very carefully to the exact bore diameter. This reaming process leaves very circular
marks round the barrel, caused in part by irregularities of the cutting edge of the reamer and partly by little chips of
steel that get caught by the reamer and drag around it. A finished reamed bore before rifling looks smooth and
glassy to the naked eye but when examined by a high powered microscope these mark will show up in very
pronounces fashion. The reaming, process removes of the scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. After the
reaming has been finished the next step is to put in the rifling. There is a rod that fits the inside of the bore and this
rod has in the point of its circumference a small blade that scrapes away a part of the metal broaching. After the
rifling operation is completed, the barrel is lapped. Lapping is the smoothening of the inner surface of the gun barrel.
Polishing the inside of the barrel is like a mirror with a polishing compound.

Some rifling methods used to make the rifling inside a gun barrel are:
1. BROACH-SINGLE SYSTEM
- A non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all the grooves simultaneously, and is in a series of increasing
dimensions until the desired groove depth is achieved.
2. BUTTON SYSTEM
- A hardened metal plug, called a “button”, with a rifled cross section configuration. It is pushed or pulled
through a drilled and reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves to the desired depth and twist. When the
carbide button was first introduced, it was described as a SWAGING PROCESS or SWAGED RIFLING.
3. HOOK-CUTTER SYSTEM
- A cutting tool which has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a time.
5. SCRAPE SYSTEM
- A cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a time.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
Generally, the marks found on the fired bullets are:
1. Land marks – caused by the lands
2. Groove marks – caused by the grooves
3. Skid marks – due to worn out barrel
4. Stripping marks – due to bullet “jumping” the rifling
Land and groove marks together are called rifling marks. Found on the cylindrical or peripheral surface of
the fired bullets and these are caused but the riflings inside the gun barrel.
Skid marks – when the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet can begin to turn, it
moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the groove in the bullet wider than the rear part. The
skidding is more pronounce in the revolver.
Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullets due to worn out barrel which cause the bullet to jump.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS

1. Firing Pin Marks – are generally found on the primer cup which is the central area of the base of the
cartridge. True in center fire cartridges.
2. Breech Face Marks – are found generally on the base of the cartridge case.
3. Extractor Marks – are mostly found on shells fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
4. Ejector Marks – found on fired cartridges of automatic weapons and are located near the rim.
5. Shearing Marks – called secondary firing pin mark, found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
6. Chamber Marks – mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case and they are caused by the
irregularities in the inside walls of the chamber.
7. Pivotal Marks – marks found on shell caused by turning of the cartridge.
8. Magazine Lip Markings – markings found at the two points of the rim of the base of the shell and these are
caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridges into the magazine for firing.

These marks serve as a good guide for the firearm examiner in determining more or less the relative position
of the cartridge in actual explosion in the chamber of the suspected firearm submitted for examination.

TWO GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING BALLISTICS EXAMINATION

I. Class Characteristics – those that are determinable even before the manufacture of the firearm.
CATEGORIES:
1. Caliber or gauge
2. Number of lands
3. Number of grooves
4. Twist of the rifling – LHT or RHT – all colt firearms except M16 firearm have left twist of the rifling which
according to the above brand that said twist has a good flight vehicle in motion and achieve a good
penetrating effect.
5. Pitch or riffling – width in inches to travel a complete turn.
6. Width of land
7. Width of groove
8. Depth of groove

II. Individual Characteristics – those that are determinable only after the manufacture of a firearm.
These are the irregularities found in the inner surface of the barrel and on the breech face of the breechblock
of the firearm as a result of the failure of the tool beyond the control of man to make them smooth as a mirror.
When seen on the bullet or shell they run in the form of a parallel scratches, striae or striations.
CATEGORIES:

BGL FILE 2024 19

 Caliber or gauge
Land to land caliber
Groove diameter measured from two opposite grooves.

SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

The wear and tear of the tools/instruments used in the manufacture of firearms.
The action of oxidation.
The care of the firearm by the holder.
The use of the firearm by the holder.
In the manufacture of the firearm, the barrel under go process of BROACHING and LAPPING which ultimately
leave irregularities on the inner surface of the barrel due to the failure of the gadgets and instruments to make it
smooth as a mirror which is BEYOND THE CONTROL OF MAN.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF PISTOLS AND REVOLVERS ACCORDING TO RIFLINGS

1. STYRE TYPE – 4 grooves, 4 lands, right hand twist, with grooves and lands as equal width. Used in early
models but only encountered in the Philippines during the early days of the Americans.
2. SMITH AND WESSON – 5 GL – RHT, groove and lands are of equal width. Use in all smith and Wesson
firearms like S and W revolvers cal .32, .38, .357 magnum, except in S and W revolvers, cal .45 MODEL 1917, S
and W automatic pistol cal .32, .35, 9 MM in which they belong to the browning type.
3. BROWNING TYPE – 6 GL RHT. Width of grooves is broader than lands like browning automatic pistol
cal .25, .32, 9 mm Star auto pistol, cal .32, .390.
4. COLT TYPE – 6 GL LHT, with broad grooves and narrow lands. Used in colt automatic pistol, revolvers, also in
Spanish pistol, cal .45, also Bayard revolvers and pistols.
5. WEBLEY TYPE – 7 GL RHT, with broad grooves and narrow lands. Used in Webley type revolvers like Enfield
revolvers cal .38, “Albion” revolvers cal .38.

SPECIAL STUDY OF MARKS APPEARING ON CALIBER .45 SHELLS

1. COLT AUTOMATIC PISTOLS, CAL .45 – shells fired from these pistols have vertical marks on the primer and
shell heads with extractor and ejector marks relatively located between 3:00 to 7:00 to 8:00 o’clock
respectively.
2. THOMPSON SUBMACHINE GUN, CAL .45 – shells fired from these weapons has circular marks on the primer
and heads with extractor and ejector marks are relatively located between 3:00 to 9:00 o’clock respectively.
3. GREASE GUN, CAL .45 – shells fired from these firearms have circular marks on the primer and shell head with
extractor and ejector marks located between 3:00 to 6:00 respectively.

Cartridge cases fired in revolvers – there are two marks-the extractors and the firing pin.
What kind of firearm used? – Individual characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RIFLES, SUBMACHINE GUNS, ETC.

a. Grease gun cal .45 4 LG RHT
b. Thompson SMG CAL .45 6 LG RHT
c. Browning auto rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
d. Carbine cal .30 4 LG RHT
e. Garand rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
f. Enfield rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
g. Springfield rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
h. Winchester rifle, cal .22 4 LG RHT
i. Squibman rifle, cal .22 4 LG RHT
j. Martin rifle, cal .22 6 LG RHT
k. Remington rifle, cal .22 6 LG RHT
l. Japanese rifle, cal .25 4 LG RHT
m. Savage rifle, cal .25 4 LG RHT
n. Remington rifle, cal .30 2 LG RHT
o. Winchester rifle, cal .30 4 LG RHT
p. Noseberg rifle, cal .22 4 LG RHT
q. Browning machinegun, cal .30 4 LG RHT
r. Browning machine gun, cal .30 8 LG RHT
s. Armalite rifle, cal .22 6 LG RHT

RIFLING – are helical lines cut in the interior or the bore of gun barrel
Rifled weapons are distinguished by a spiral grooving or rifling on the side of the barrel. This spins the bullet,
marking it more stable in flight and giving greater accuracy.

PURPOSE OF RIFLING
Is to impart a steady rotating motion of the bullet in its travel straight forwards nose – on towards the target.
To impart rotation/stability in the flight and greater penetration.

Composition of the Riflings:

1. number of lands
2. number of grooves
3. width of lands and grooves
4. depth of grooves

BGL FILE 2024 20

 Pitch of rifling – the number of inches traveled by the bullet to make one complete turn.
Caliber – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land.
Twist of rifling – the direction of twist whether right or to the left.

HOW DO WE DETERMINE THE CALIBER OF A GUN?

It is determined by measuring the diameter of the bore of the gun barrel from land to
land.
BORE – is the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the bullet travels.
GROOVES – are the channels cut in the interior of a rifles gun barrel.
LANDS – are the raised portion of the bore of the gun barrel.
--- the elevated portions between the grooves inside a rifled gun barrel.
3 DIAMETERS OF A BORE OF A FIREARM
1. groove diameter
2. bore diameter – land to land
3. imaginary diameter – outside to end
COMMON CALIBERS
English (inches) .22 cal, .25, .30, .32, .38, .44, .45
Metric (millimeters) 5.5mm, 6.35, 7.65, 8, 9, 11.3, 11.4
Other types of calibers - .357, .380, .50

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENTS GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope
A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms identification experts is the
comparison microscope with camera attachment. This instrument is specially designed to permit
the firearms examiner to differentiate between two fired bullets or two fired shells, by
simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field. It is actually two
microscopes coupled together by a single of monocular eyepiece, so that when one looks
through this comparison eyepiece, he is seeing one half of what is under one microscope, and
one half of what is under the other – in other words, half of the evidence bullet and half of the
test bullet.
Today, with this instrument, the firearms examiner can make a complete and thorough
examination and comparison of the so-called class characteristics and individual characteristics
between two fired bullets and two fired shells. With this microscope, the examiner can take
photomicrographs of his observation and findings under the eyepiece of the bullet comparison
microscope. These photomicrographs are needed for court presentations to substantiate the
examiner’s findings as seen under the bullet comparison microscope.
The most significant contribution to firearms identification is the introduction of this
bullet comparison microscope in April 1925. DR. CALVIN H. GODDARD was the first one to own
and use the “first” bullet comparison microscope. Dr. Goddard was a Doctor of Medicine in the
Medical Corps, U.S. Army, in the First World War, who later transferred to the Ordnance Service of
the U.S. Army. He is known as the “Father of Modern Ballistics”. He not only had a brilliant
scientific mind, but also a thorough knowledge of firearms or ordnance that has known few
equals. He once headed the AFWESPAC Crime Laboratory in Tokyo, Japan, under the late Gen.
Douglas MacArthur in 1947 and was in Manila in early 1949 and took active participation in the
examination of the fired shells in the famous GEN. CASTANEDA- COL. SALGADO Ambuscade Case
in Kamias Road, Quezon City.

2. Stereoscopic Microscope – No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for

court representation.
- Close-up examination tampered serial numbers.
- For so-called orientation purposes.

3. Shadowqraph - A series of microscopic lenses of different magnifications use to determine

class characteristics of fired bullets and shells.
Also for orientation purposes. It can take photomicrograph of the observations and
comparisons made in the circular ground glass.
4. CP-6 Comparison Projector - Very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope.
No eye strain because the magnified image appears on the large screen. What can be
seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of camera.

5. Bullet Recovery Box – Long box (12” x 12” x 96”) tilled with ordinary cotton and separated into
sections by cardboard partitions.

6. Helixometer - Used in measuring “pitch of riffling” — distance traveled by the bullet in one
complete rotation.

Charles E. Waite - after 5 years solid toil, had a formidable bank of information at his disposal.
He also realized that because of the wearing down of the machine tools, their marks on the inside
of the barrel, made during, the cutting of the rifling, out to be individual if a way could be found
in examining them. He explained the problem to a Physicist named JOHN H. FISCHER, who
made worked on the development of the CYSTOSCOPE, a medical instruments used to insert line
tubes carrying tiny lamps into the bladder and kidneys in order to facilitate their inspection
without resorting to an operation. A similar instrument, decided Fischer, would be ideal or Waite’s
purpose. After period of experiment Fischer came up with HELIXOMETER, a long hollow probe
fitted with, a lamp and magnifying apparatus at its tail end. With a few modifications the
Heliometers is still a fixture of every firearms laboratory.

ROBERT CHURCHILL – the first modern British Firearm Examiner of real expertise. A sporting
gunmaker.
7. Micrometer – similar in use as calipers
8. Caliper – used for making measurements such as bullet diameters, bore diameter, barrel length,
etc.
9. Analytical or Torsion Balance – Used to determine weights of bullets and pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber and make of firearms from which it was fired.
10. Onoscope – small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun
barrel – in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the
terminal portion and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinations.
11. Taper Gauge – Use primarily for determining bore diameter.
12. Electrical Gun Marker – used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells and
firearms submitted for examination.
13. Gunsmith Tools – Generally used in the repair of firearms and also for marking physical
evidence like firearms, fired bullets, and fired shells.

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
Physical: Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearms once submitted by the
requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the
investigators for identification purposes.
Test Firing: The firearm is test fired from a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test
bullets and test cartridge cases. But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the
case on the nose portion of the bullet with letter T (test) followed by the last two digits of the
serial number of the firearm (e.g. T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of firing to distinguish the
number 1 test from 2 and 3.
Microscopic Examination After the recovery of the test bullets and test cartridge cases,
they will be compared with the evidenced bullet and evidence cartridge cases under the bullet
comparison microscope to determine whether or not they have the congruency of striations or
the same individual characteristics.
Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells are
examined in JUXTAPOSITION – that is, the two objects – evidence and the test bullet are
examined and compared:

FOR CONCLUSIVENESS OF FINDINGS, there shall be at least 3 TEST BULLETS that should be
compared.
First, 1 for comparison / preliminary
Second, 1 for confirmation
Third, 1 for conclusions
PERIPHERY - these are the sides of the bullet that are in contact with the inner surface of the
barrel.
STRIATIONS - are individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base portion and of the
side or the bullet that come in contact with the inner surface of the barrel.
The rifled gun barrel leave distinctive marks upon the bullet called STRIATIONS from the
Latin “STRIA” originally meant the fluting on an architectural column, and bullet striations
resemble these to a remarkable degree; even air weapons leave rifling striations on their pellets.
The only firearm that do not are smoothbore guns such as shotguns and antique weapons of the
flintlock type plus such home made weapons as ‘replica’ guns which had their barrels bored
through.
TEST BULLETS – are those recovered from bullet recovery box for comparison with the evidenced
bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.
Test firing of a weapon must be done in such a way that the bullet can be recovered
undamaged. For all jacketed bullets and most types of lead bullets, a cotton wad box or water
trap is used to stop the bullet. With a cotton wad box, as a consequence of its rotation, the bullet
twists itself up in the waste, which finally forms a ball around the bullet, and the velocity
progressively decreases until the bullet is finally held in the cotton waste.

FIRED OR EVIDENCED BULLETS OR CARTRIDGE CASES

- are those recovered from the crime scene.
*** 8 or more striations - accepted by the court

GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS

When the primer is detonated, microscopic particles of gunshot residue (GSR) are
deposited on the hands of the shooter. These particles adhere to the hands in the pockets and
even handcuffing behind the back. Studies have shown that the GSR material will remain on the
shooter’s hand for up to about 6 hours. The particles are in the highest concentration immediately
after shooting and all are eventually lost over time, depending on what actions the shooter takes.
Because of time factor it is particularly important that GSR evidence be collected quickly as
possible.
Today there are 3 methods used for testing GSR evidence, Neutron Activation Analysis
(NAA); Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA0; and Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy
Dispersive X-ray Analysis SEM/EDX).
GSR evidence collected in one of two ways: by means of cotton-tipped applicators or
other substrates and dilute nitric acid solution for collecting the residue in, the case of NAA and
AA, and by Aluminum stubs with double-sided cellophane tape attached to the surface for SEM.
The so-called “dermal nitrate” or “paraffin test” is no longer used and is generally considered
unreliable in GSR testing because of its nonspecificity. The main problem, it was recently realized,
lay in the fact that nitrates are increasingly used in substances such as fertilizers, cosmetics and
other everyday preparations as well as being present in cigarettes and cigars, so that the value of
a swab as a positive indication of recent gun handling is lost.
CHAPTER XI
PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
The man who expect to appear in court as an expert on firearms should know as much as possible
about them and their ammunition, and about everything connected with their use and effects, for
he must realize that very likely an attempt will be made to discredit the extent of his knowledge
and if he is not the possessor of a lot of collateral information regarding matters of this kind, he
may himself the victim of his own lack of broader knowledge of his subject.

Two things mark by one and the same tool will bear the same markings; likewise two or more
things mark by different tools will have different markings.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (FIRED BULLET)

1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their bore all possess individual
characteristics and marking of their own.
2. When a bullet is tired from a rifled barrel it becomes engraved by the riffling and this engraving
will vary its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the
bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that of the bullet fired from another barrel. And
conversely, the engraving on, the bullets fired from the same barrel will be the same.
3. Every barrel leave its thumb mark on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every breech
face leave its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridge case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (FIRED SHELL)

1. The breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individuals of their
own.
2. The firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumb marks on every cartridge cases which it fires.
3. The whole principle of identification base on the fact that since the breech face of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases, which it fired, are imprinted with, this
individuality. The imprinted on all cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are always the
same, those on cartridge cases fired from different weapons must always be different.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS:
1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber type and make of the firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a fired cartridge cases, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from which
it was fired.
3. Given a bullet and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from the
suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired cartridge case and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired
cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired cartridge cases, to determine whether or not they were fired from the
same firearms.
6. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from the same firearms.
7. Given a firearm, to determine whether the firearm is serviceable or not.

NOTE: Bullets and even fragments of bullets may be used to determine the type of the weapon
used, both from the sized and weight of the projectile and an examination of the striations on the
outside surface. Thus, for example, the number, direction of twist, and measurements of lands and
groove markings can be useful in determining the type, make, model and caliber of firearm.

TECHNICAL EXAMINATIONS OF BALLISTIC EXHIBITS

This is the job performed by the Firearms Examiner within the Police Crime Laboratory
involving marking of evidence fired bullets, cartridge cases or firearms in order to obtain test
bullets and test shells for comparative purposes. Photomicrograph under the bullet comparison
microscope and the preparation of laboratory reports regarding the findings, conclusion on the
examination.
LEGAL PROCEDURES – Court Trials – Wherein the Ballistics report of the Firearm Examiner the
ballistic exhibits fired bullets, firearms and allied exhibits are presented during the trial of the case
in a Court or Justice. It also includes the presentation of the Ballistics Expert, to give testimony
regarding his findings/conclusion.

LIMITATIONS:
Shooting incidents resulted to murders, homicide, physical Injuries, bank robberies and
indiscriminate firing of guns continue to exist. The suspects remain unidentified and the only
traces that could possibly identity them are the bullets extracted from their victims, shell and
bullets recovered from the crime scene.
The only means the police investigators could rely is the scene of firearms identification
or Forensic Ballistics at the Police Crime lab. However, the examination of the submitted ballistics
specimens, no matter how complicated could only be examined with in the province of the so-
called 7 problems in forensic Ballistics or firearms Identification.
 One must realize, however that Forensic Ballistics or the science of Firearms Identification
remained essentially unchanged since 192O, using the Traditional Bullet Comparison Microscope.
The process is so slow and painstaking and because the evidence is often
deformed/mutilated and difficult to view on the microscope, examiners fatigue cuts down on tie
number of specimens that can be processed or examined.
It takes Firearms Examiners nearly 30 minutes to one hour to several days before making
a conclusion. The most difficult task for an examiner to accomplish is to identify bullet or shell was
fired. Cases where there is no firearm submitted.

Locard’s exchange principles state that, every contact will

always exchange trace of evidence