Chapter3(CSTDT)

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 2-Mar-24
3.1
Faraday’s Law and

Ampère’s Circuital Law
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

3.1-1
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form
Why differential form?
Because for integral forms to be useful, an a priori

knowledge of the behavior of the field to be
computed is necessary.
The problem is similar to the following:

1
If 0 y(x) dx = 2, what is y(x)?
There is no unique solution to this.

3.1-2
However, if, e.g., y(x) = Cx, then we can find y(x),

since then
1 x2  1
0 Cx dx = 2 or C  2  0 = 2 or C = 4
 
 y(x) = 4x.
On the other hand, suppose we have the following

problem:
dy
If = 2, what is y?
dx
Then y(x) = 2x + C.
Thus the solution is unique to within a constant.
3.1-3
FARADAY’S LAW
First consider the special case

E = Ex (z,t) a x and H = H y (z, t) a y
and apply the integral form to the rectangular path

shown, in the limit that the rectangle shrinks to a
point. y z
(x, z) z (x, z + z)
x S C
(x + x, z) (x + x, z + z)

x

3.1-4
d
C E •d l = − dt S B •dS
O
 Ex z + z
x −  Ex z x = −
d
dt

 By  x z
x, z 
E  x z + z 
−  Ex z x
 
Lim
x →0 x z d
 B  x z
z →0 y x, z
= −Lim dt
x →0 x z
z →0
Ex By
=−
z t

3.1-5
General Case
E = Ex (x, y, z,t)a x + Ey (x, y, z,t)a y + Ez (x, y, z, t)a z
H = H x (x, y, z,t)a x + H y (x, y, z,t)a y + Hz (x, y, z, t)a z
Ez Ey Bx
– =–
y z t
E x Ez By
– =–
z x t
E y E x Bz
– =–
x y t
Lateral space
derivatives of the Time derivatives of
components of E the components of B

3.1-6
Combining into a single differential equation,

ax ay az
   B
=–
x y z t
Ex Ey Ez
B Differential form
E=–
t of Faraday’s Law
  
  ax + ay + az
x y z
B
Del Cross E or Curl of E = –
t
3.1-7
AMPÈRE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

Consider the general case first. Then noting that
d
C E • dl = – dt S B • dS
  E = –  (B)
t
we obtain from analogy,
d D • dS
C H • dl = S J • dS +
dt S
  H = J +  (D)
t
3.1-8
Thus
D Differential form
H=J+ of Ampère’s
t circuital law
Special case:
E = Ex (z,t)a x , H = H y (z,t)a y
ax a y az
 D
0 0 =J+
z t
0 Hy 0
H y Dx
– = Jx +
z t
3.1-9
H y Dx
= – Jx –
z t
(
Ex. For E = E0 cos 6 ×108 t − kz a y )
in free space (  = 0 ,  = 0 , J = 0 ) ,
find the value(s) of k such that E satisfies both
of Maxwell’s curl equations.
Noting that E = Ey (z,t)a y , we have from
B
E=– ,
t
3.1-10
ax ay az
B 
= –  E = – 0 0
t z
0 Ey 0
 Bx  Ey
=
t z
 
=
z
E0 cos ( 6  108
t − kz ) 

= kE0 sin ( 6 108 t − kz )
Bx = −
kE0
6 108
cos ( 6  108
t − kz )
3.1-11
Thus,
B=−
kE0
6 108
cos ( 6  108
t − kz ) ax
B B
H= =
0 4 10−7
=−
kE0
240 2
cos ( 6  108
t − kz ) ax
Then, noting that H = H x (z,t)a xwe

, have from
D
H= ,
t

3.1-12
ax ay az
D 
= ×H = 0 0
t z
Hx 0 0
 Dy  H x
=
t z
k 2 E0
=−
240 2
sin ( 6  108
t − kz )

3.1-13
k 2 E0
Dy =
1440  10
3 8
cos ( 6  108
t − kz )
k 2 E0
D=
1440  10
3 8
cos ( 6  108
t − kz ) a y
D D
E= = −9
 0 10 36
k 2 E0
= cos ( 6  10 t − kz ) a y
8
4 2

3.1-14
Comparing with the original given E, we have
k 2 E0
E0 =
4 2
k =  2
E = E0 cos ( 6  108 t  2 z ) a y
Sinusoidal traveling waves in free space, propagating in the

z directions with velocity, 3  108 (= c) m s.

• 3.2
• Gauss’ Laws and

• the Continuity Equation

3.2-16
•GAUSS’ LAW FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD

S D • dS = V  dv
z
z
y
(x, y, z) y
x
x
 Dx x+x  y  z −  Dx x  y  z
+  Dy 
y+ y
 z  x −  Dy   z  x
y
+  Dz z + z  x  y −  Dz z  x  y
=  x  y z
3.2-17
 D x x +x 
−  Dx x y  z

+  Dy 
y +Δy 
−  Dy  Δ z Δ x
y
+  Dz z +z −  Dz z   x y
Lim
x →0  x y  z
y →0
z →0
  x y  z
= Lim
x →0  x y  z
y →0
z →0

3.2-18
Dx Dy Dz

+ + =
x y z
Longitudinal derivatives
of the components of D
•D= 
Divergence of D = 
Ex. Given that

0 for – a  x  a
=
0 otherwise
Find D everywhere.

3.2-19

0
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
x=–a x=0 x=a
Noting that  =  (x) and hence D = D(x), we set
 
→ 0 and → 0, so that
y z
Dx Dy Dz Dx
•D= + + =
x y z x
3.2-20
• Thus,  • D =  gives
Dx
=  (x)
• x
• which also means that D has only an x-
component. Proceeding further, we have
x
Dx =  ( x ) dx + C
–
• where C is the constant of integration.
Evaluating the integral graphically, we have the
following:

3.2-21

0
–a 0 a x
x
–   ( x ) dx
2 0 a
–a 0 a x
From symmetry considerations, the fields on

the two sides of the charge distribution must
be equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. Hence,
C = –  0a
3.2-22
Dx
0 a
–a a x
– 0a
– 0 a a x for x  –a

D = 0 x a x for – a  x  a
 a a for x  a
0 x

3.2-23
•GAUSS’ LAW FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELD

S D • dS = V  dv
• D = 
•From analogy
S B • dS = 0 = V 0 dv
•B=0
•B=0
•Solenoidal property of magnetic field lines. Provides test for
physical realizability of a given vector field as a magnetic
field.

3.2-24
• LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
d  dv = 0
S J • dS +
dt V
 • J +  ( ) = 0
t
 Continuity
• J + t = 0
 Equation

3.2-25
•SUMMARY
B
E=– (1)
t
D
H=J+ (2)
t
•D=  (3)
•B=0 (4)

•J+ =0 (5)
t
•(4) is, however, not independent of (1), and (3) can
be derived from (2) with the aid of (5).
Click to edit Master title style

3.3-27
Maxwell’s Equations in Differential Form

B
×E = −
t  D= 
D
×H = J +  B=
t
ax a y az
Curl ×Α =
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax A y Az
A A y A z
Divergence  A = x
+ +
x y z
3.3-28
Basic definition of curl
Lim  C A d l 
×A = an
S → 0  S 
  max
 × A is the maximum value of circulation of A per

unit area in the limit that the area shrinks to the point.
Direction of  × A is the direction of the normal

vector to the area in the limit that the area shrinks
to the point, and in the right-hand sense.
3.3-29
Curl Meter
is a device to probe the field for studying the curl of the
field. It responds to the circulation of the field.

3.3-30

3.3-31
 2x a
 v0 a az for 0  x 
2
v=
 v0  2 −
2x  a
 az for  x  a
  a  2
ax ay az  2v0
   vz  − a a y
×v = =− ay =
x y z x  2v0 a y
0 0 vz  a
 a
 negative for 0  x 
   × v y = 2
 positive for a  x  a
 2
3.3-32
Basic definition of divergence
 g. A=
Lim g A gd S
v → 0 v
is the outward flux of A per unit volume in the limit that

the volume shrinks to the point.
Divergence meter
is a device to probe the field for studying the divergence
of the field. It responds to the closed surface integral of
the vector field.

3.3-33
In vector calculus, divergence is a vector operator that measures the

magnitude of a vector field's source or sink at a given point, in terms
of a signed scalar. More technically, the divergence represents the
volume density of the outward flux of a vector field from an
infinitesimal volume around a given point.
For example, consider air as it is heated or cooled. The relevant

vector field for this example is the velocity of the moving air at a
point. If air is heated in a region it will expand in all directions such
that the velocity field points outward from that region. Therefore the
divergence of the velocity field in that region would have a positive
value, as the region is a source. If the air cools and contracts, the
divergence is negative and the region is called a sink.

3.3-34 x
Example:
At the point (1, 1, 0) 1
( x − 1)
2
(a) ax y
z 1
Divergence zero x
( y − 1) a y
1
(b)
Divergence positive z 1
y
(c) x a 1
y
y
Divergence negative
y
z 1
3.3-35
Two Useful Theorems:
Stokes’ theorem
 A . d l =  ( × A) . dS
C S
Divergence theorem
 S
A . dS =  (  . A ) dv
V
A useful identity
.×A  
3.3-36
ax ay az
  
×Α =
x y z
Ax Ay Az
  
 . × A =   × A x +  × A y +  × A z
x y z
  
x y z
  
= =0
x y z
Ax Ay Az

3.4
Uniform Plane Waves in

Time Domain in Free Space

3.4-38
Infinite Plane Current Sheet Source:
J S = − J S ( t ) ax
for z = 0
Example: J S (t ) = - J S 0 cos t ax
3.4-39
B D
×E = − ×H = J +
t t
For a current distribution having only an x-component of

current density that varies only with z,
ax ay az ax ay az
 B  D
0 0 =− 0 0 =J+
z t z t
Ex Ey Ez Hx Hy Hz

3.4-40
EyBBxx H y DDxx
− =− − = JJxx +
z t z t
Ex BByy H x DDyy
=− =
z t z t
BBzz DDz z
0=− 0=
t t
The only relevant equations are:
Ex BByy H y DDxx

=− − = Jxx +
z t z t
Thus, E = Ex ( z, t ) ax H = H y ( z, t ) a y
3.4-41
In the free space on either side of the sheet, Jx = 0
BByy H _
Ex Hyy HHyy DDx x Ex
=− = − 0 = = 0
z t t z t t
2 Ex   HHyy 
Combining, we get = − 0  
z 2
z  t 
  HHyy 
= − 0  
t  z 
 Ex 
= − 0  − 0 
t  t 
2 Ex 2 Ex
= 0 0 2 Wave Equation
z 2
t
3.4-42
Solution to the Wave Equation:
( ) (
Ex ( z , t ) = Af t − z 0 0 + Bg t + z 0 0 )
Ex
= A ( −   ) f  (t − z   )
z
0 0 0 0
+ B   g  (t + z   )
0 0 0 0
2 Ex
=    Af  ( t − z   ) + g  ( t + z   ) 
z 2  0 0 0 0 0 0

2 Ex
= 0 0 2
t

3.4-43
 z   z 
Ex ( z, t ) = Af  t −  + Bg  t + 
 v   v 
 p   p 
1
Where vp = = 3  108 m/s = c, velocity of light
00
(
f t − z vp ) represents a traveling wave propagating in the
+z-direction.
(
g t + z vp ) represents a traveling wave propagating in the
–z-direction.

3.4-44
Examples of Traveling Waves:
f ( t − z vp ) = ( t − z 5 )
2
1
t=0 t=
5
1
25
z
−1 0 1 2
1
vp = = 5 m/s
15
3.4-45
g ( t + z vp ) = e
− 2t + z −2 t + z 2
=e
g
1
1
t=
2
t=0
z
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2
1
vp = = 2 m/s
12
3.4-46
Ex H y
From = − ,
z 0 t
H y 1 Ex
=−
t 0 z
 1  z   z 
 Af   t −  − Bg   t +  
=
 0 vp vp   vp  
1   z   z 
H y ( z , t ) =  Af  t −   − Bg  t + 
0   vp   
 v p


where 0 = 0  0 = Intrinsic impedance
= 120  377 ohms
3.4-47
Thus, the general solution is
 z   z 
Ex ( z, t ) = Af  t −  + Bg  t + 
 vp   vp 
 
1   z   z 
H y ( z, t ) =  Af  t −   − Bg  t + 
0   vp    vp 
For the particular case of the infinite plane current sheet in the
z = 0 plane, there can only be a (+) wave for z > 0 and a (−)
wave for z < 0. Therefore,
 A
 Af ( t − z vp ) ax for z  0   f ( t − z vp ) a y for z  0

E ( z, t ) =  H ( z, t ) =  0
 Bg ( t + z vp ) ax for z  0 − B g ( t + z vp ) a y for z  0
 0

3.4-48
Applying Faraday’s law in integral form

to the rectangular closed path abcda is
the limit that the sides bc and da→,
Lim
 b E .d l + d E . d l = Lim d
 a c 
bc →0 bc →0 − B . dS
da →0  da →0 dt abcda
( ab )  Ex z =0+ − ( dc )  Ex z =0− =0
Af (t ) = Bg (t ) = say, F (t )
3.4-49
Therefore,  
z
E ( z, t ) = F  t  ax for z 0
 vp
 
 1 z 
H ( z, t ) =  F  t  a y for z 0
0  vp 
Now, applying Ampere’s circuital law in integral form to the
rectangular closed path efgha is the limit that the sides fg and
he→0,
Lim
 f H . d l + h H .d l
 e g
fg →0
he → 0 
Lim  d 
= fg →0
he → 0
 efghe J . d S + dt efghe D . d S 
3.4-50
(ef )H y  z =0+ − (hg )H y 
z =0−
= (ef ) J S (t )
1  1 
F (t ) − − F (t ) = J S (t )
0  0 
0
F (t ) = J S (t )
2
Thus, the solution is
 z  0
E ( z, t ) = JS  t  ax for z 0
2  vp 
1  z 
H ( z, t ) =  JS  t  a y for z 0
2  vp 
Uniform plane waves propagating away from the sheet to
either side with velocity vp = c.
3.4-51
x
y z
 0 z  0  z 
E ( z, t ) = J S  t +  ax E ( z, t ) = J S  t −  ax
2  vp  2  vp 
1  z  1  z 
H ( z, t ) = − J S  t +  a y H ( z, t ) = − J S  t −  a y
2  vp  2  vp 
JS ( t )
z=0
3.4-52
z<0 z>0 x
z
JS ( t ) y
→z
z = 0

3.4-53
(a ) Ex (t ) for z = 300 m
(b) H y (t ) for z = −450 m

3.4-54
(c) Ex ( z) for t = 1s
(d) H y ( z) for t = 2.5 s

3.5
Sinusoidally Time-Varying
Uniform Plane Waves in
Free Space

3.5-56
Sinusoidal Traveling Waves

f ( t − z vp )
= cos  ( t − z vp ) +  + 
= cos (t −  z +  + )
g ( t + z vp )
= cos  ( t + z vp ) +  − 
= cos (t +  z +  − )
where  =  vp =  0 0
3.5-57
f ( z, t ) = cos (t −  z )
 
f t= t=
4 2
1
t =0


0 z
2

−1

3.5-58
g ( z, t ) = cos (t +  z )
  g
t= t=
2 4
1
t =0


−z 0
2

−1

3.5-59
For JS ( t ) = − J S 0 cos t ax for z = 0,
The solution for the electromagnetic field is
0 J S 0
E= cos w ( t z vp ) ax for z 0
2
0 J S 0
= cos (t  z ) ax for z 0
2
cos  ( t z vp ) a y for z
JS 0
H= 0
2
JS 0
= cos (t  z ) a y for z 0
2
where  = w vp = w 0 0
0 J S 0
E= cos  ( t z vp ) ax for z 0
2
3.5-60
Parameters and Properties
1. t  z +   = Phase, 

2.  = radian frequency =
t
= rate of change of phase with time
for a fixed value of z. (movie)

f = = frequency
2
= number of 2 radians of phase change
per sec.

3.5-61

3.  = phase constant =
z
= magnitude of rate of change of phase with
distance z for a fixed value of t. (still photograph)

4. vp = phase velocity =

= velocity with which a constant phase progresses
along the direction of propagation.
follows from d (t  z ) = 0 

3.5-62
2
5.  = wavelength =

= distance in which the phase changes by 2
for a fixed t.
6. Note that
 2 f
vp = = =f
 2 
  in m  f in MHz = 300
Ex+ Ex−
7. 0 = + = − −
Hy Hy
= Ratio of the amplitude of E to the amplitude
of H for either wave.
3.5-63
8. E × H (Poynting Vector, P)
ax × a y = az for (+) wave
→
ax × −a y = −az for (−) wave
is in the direction of propagation.
x x
E E
H
z P z
H P
y y

3.5-64
Example:
Consider E = 37.7 cos ( 6  108 t + 2 z ) a y V m.
Then

 = 6  10 , f =
8
= 3  108 Hz
2
2
 = 2 ,  = = 1m

6  108
vp = = 3  108 m s
2
Direction of propagation is –z.
H = 0.1 cos ( 6  108 t + 2 z ) ax A m

3.5-65
Array of Two Infinite Plane Current Sheets
JS1 JS 2
z=0 z= 4
J S1 = − J S 0 cos t ax for z = 0
J S 2 = − J S 0 sin t ax for z =  4
For J S 1 ,
0 J S 0
 2 cos (t −  z ) ax for z  0
E1 = 
0 J S 0 cos (t +  z ) a for z  0
 2 x

3.5-66
For J S 2 ,
0 J S 0     
 sin t −   z −   ax for z 
 2   4  4
E2 = 
0 J S 0 sin t +   z −    a for z  
 2    x
   4  4
0 J S 0   
 2 sin  t −  z + 2  ax for z  4
  
=
0 J S 0 sin  t +  z −   a for z  
 2   x
 2 4
0 J S 0 
 2 cos (t −  z ) ax for z  4
=
− 0 J S 0 cos (t +  z ) a for z  
 2
x
4

3.5-67
For both sheets,

E = E1 + E2
 E1  +  E2  for z   4
 z 0 z  4

=  E1 z 0 +  E2 z  4 for 0  z   4

 E1 z 0 +  E2 z  4 for z   4
0 J S 0 cos (t −  z ) ax for z   4

= 0 J S 0 sin t sin  z ax for 0  z   4
0 for z  0

No radiation to one side of the array.
“Endfire” radiation pattern.
3.6
Polarization of Sinusoidally
Time-Varying Fields

3.6-69
The electric field has only an x-component. We can visualize the sinusoidal
variation with time of this field at a particular point in the field region by a vector
changing in magnitude and direction. Since the tip of the vector moves back and
forth along a line, which in this case is parallel to the x-axis, the field is said to be
linearly polarized in the x-direction.
For fields having more than one component, the polarization can be linear,
circular, or elliptical

3.6-70
Polarization is the characteristic which describes

how the position of the tip of the vector varies
with time.
Linear Polarization:
Tip of the vector
describes a line.
Circular Polarization:
Tip of the vector
describes a circle.

3.6-71
Elliptical Polarization:
Tip of the vector
describes an ellipse.
(i) Linear Polarization
F1 = F1 cos (t +  ) a x
Magnitude varies Direction remains
sinusoidally with time along the x axis
 Linearly polarized in the x direction.

3.6-72
F2 = F2 cos (t +  ) a y
Direction remains
Magnitude varies along the y axis
sinusoidally with time
 Linearly polarized in the y direction.
If two (or more) component linearly polarized vectors

are in phase, (or in phase opposition), then their sum
vector is also linearly polarized.
Ex: F = F1 cos (t +  ) a x + F2 cos (t +  ) a y

3.6-73
y F2 cos (t +  )
F2 F  = tan –1
F1 cos (t +  )

x
–1 F2
F1 = tan
F1
= constant
(ii) Circular Polarization

If two component linearly polarized vectors are
(a) equal to amplitude
(b) differ in direction by 90˚
(c) differ in phase by 90˚,
then their sum vector is circularly polarized.
3.6-74
Example:
F = F1 cos t ax + F1 sin t a y
F = ( F1 cos t ) + ( F1 sin t )
2 2
= F1 , constant
F1 sin t
 = tan −1 y
F1 cos t
( tan t ) = t
−1 F2
= tan F

F1 x

3.6-75
Representation of a right circularly polarized wave. The electric field vector

(in white) will rotate toward the y axis as the entire wave moves through the
xy plane in the direction of z

3.6-76
(iii) Elliptical Polarization

In the general case in which either of (i) or (ii) is not
satisfied, then the sum of the two component
linearly polarized vectors is an elliptically polarized
vector.
Ex: F = F1 cos t a x + F2 sin t a y
F2
F
F1 x

3.6-77
Example: F = F0 cos t a x + F0 cos (t +  4)a y
y
F0
F2 F
/4
–F0 F1 F0 x
–F0

3.6-78
D3.17
F1 = F0 cos ( 2 108t − 2 z ) ax
F2 = F0 cos ( 2 108t − 3 z ) a y
F1 and F2 are equal in amplitude (= F0) and differ in
direction by 90˚. The phase difference (say ) depends
on z in the manner –2z – (–3z) = z.
(a) At (3, 4, 0),  = (0) = 0.

( F1 + F2 ) is linearly polarized.
(b) At (3, –2, 0.5),  = (0.5) = 0.5 .
( F1 + F2 ) is circularly polarized.
3.6-79
(c) At (–2, 1, 1),  = (1) = .
( F1 + F2 ) is linearly polarized.
(d) At (–1, –3, 0.2) =  = (0.2) = 0.2.
( F1 + F2 ) is elliptically polarized.

3.7
Power Flow and Energy

Storage

3.7-81
In Sec. 3.4, we obtained the solution for the EM

field due to an infinite plane current sheet situated
in the plane, for arbitrary time variation, and then
in Sec. 3.5 we considered the solution for the
sinusoidal case. For a surface current flowing in
the negative x-direction, we found the electric
field on the sheet to be directed in the positive x-
direction. Since the current is flowing against the
force due to the electric field, a certain amount of
work must be done by the source of the current to
maintain the current flow on the sheet.

3.7-82
(*)

3.7-83
Evaluating the surface integral of over the surface of the rectangular

box, we obtain the E x H power flow out of the box as (same as (*))

3.7-84
the quantity E x H as the power flow density vector associated with

the electromagnetic field. It is known as the Poynting vector
Time-average Poynting vector

3.7-85
Poynting’s theorem:
- The first term: rate of decrease in energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields.
- The second term is the power dissipated because the medium is conducting (≠ 0)
Electric stored energy density and the magnetic stored energy density

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