Protective Relays

Types of Relays
The relay may be defined as an electrical device interposed between the main circuit and the circuit breaker in such a
manner that any abnormality in the circuit acts on the relay, which in turn if the fault is dangerous then it causes the
circuit breaker to isolate and so to remove the faulty element. The relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment
from any damage which might be otherwise caused by the fault.

All the relay has three essential elements. These elements are measured element, comparing element and
controlling element. Measured element measured the change in the actuating quantity, whereas comparing element
compare the actuating quantity on the relay with a preselected relay setting. The controlling element manages a
sudden change in the controlled quantity such as the closing of the current operative circuit.

Relays may be classified on the basis of the electrical quantity (actuated by the voltage, current, power, etc.); the
mechanical quantity (actuated by pressure, the velocity of outflow of a liquid gas or gas, etc.,) and thermal quantity
(actuated by heating effect) optical, acoustical, and other types of relays.

The electrical protective relay can be broad, classified into two categories

(i) Electromagnetic Relay and

(ii) Static Relay.

According to the principle of operation and construction, the relay may be classified such as the electromagnetic
attraction type, electromagnetic induction type, electrodynamic type, moving coil type, electro-thermal type, physics
electric type, and static relays.

Electromagnetic Relays

Electromagnetic attraction relays are of two types, namely attracted armature type and solenoid type. In an attracted
armature type relay operation depends on the movement of an armature under the influence of attractive force due
to magnetic field set up by the current flowing through the relay winding.

While in a solenoid type operation depends on the movement of an iron plunger, attracted armature hinged, and
balanced beam types of relays fall under this category. Such relays are actuated by DC or AC quantities.

Electromagnetic Induction Relays

Its operation depends on the movement of a metallic disc or cylinder free to rotate by the interaction of the induced
currents and the alternating magnetic fields producing them. Electromagnetic induction relays are most generally
used relays. It involves only AC quantities for the protective relaying purpose.

These relays operate on the simple principle of split-phase induction motors. Actuating force is developed on a
moving element, by the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with eddy currents that are induced in the rotor by
these fluxes.

Electrodynamic Type Relays

In an electrodynamic type relay moving member consists of a coil free to rotate in an electromagnetic field as in the
case of a moving coil instrument.

Moving Coil Type Relays

In a moving coil type relay moving member consists of a coil free to rotate in the air gap of a permanent magnet. In
this relay, the magnetic coil freely rotates in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. The torque is developed by
the interaction between the field of the permanent magnet and the coil field developed due to the flow of actuating
current into the coil.
The time-current characteristic of such relay is an inverse time characteristic. The operating torque is proportional to
the actuating current. Such a relay has uniform torque for different positions of the coil and therefore, can be
accurately set.

Electro-thermal Relays

In electro-thermal relay, the movement depends on the action of the heat produced by the current flowing through
the element of the relay. These relays operate on the principle of thermal effect of electric current. It is most widely
used for the protection of low-voltages squirrel cage induction motors or dc motors of lower output ratings.

Static Relays

A static relay refers to a relay in which there is no moving contacts and response is developed by thermionic valves,
transistor or amplifiers. It is combination of both static and electromagnetic units. In static relays, the sensing is taken
out by static circuits consisting of comparators, detectors, filters etc.

According to the connection of sensing elements, relays are classed as primary and secondary relays. Primary relays
are those whose sensing elements are directly connected in the circuit or element they protect, while the secondary
relays are those whose measuring elements are connected to the circuit, they protect through instrument
transformers.

Key Terminologies used in Protection Relay

 Relay– A component in the control circuit that operates as a switch or other device in response to changes in
input conditions.

 Protection– The process of identifying anomalous electrical system circumstances and determining the best
way to stop damage or risk.

 Trip- Disconnecting a circuit or device in reaction to an anomalous state or malfunction that has been
detected.

 Fault- Any problem in an electrical system that prevents it from functioning normally, such as overloads,
earth faults, or short circuits.

 Current Transformer (CT)- A device that converts high currents into proportionately lower currents
appropriate for relay operation, allowing for the measurement of electrical current.

 The voltage transformer (VT)- It is a device that measures the voltage levels in the system and corresponds
to a current transformer.

 Pickup Setting- The cutoff point at which a protective action, such tripping a circuit breaker, is triggered by a
protection relay.

 Time Delay- A protection relay that operates with a delay, enabling transient overloads or temporary
circumstances to pass without triggering a trip.

 Fault clearing time- The sum of the relay time and circuit breaker times is the fault clearing time. It typically
refers to the time duration taken a protective device in an electrical system in order to detect a fault and
correct or isolate the fault.

 Earth fault- The fault which involves the earthing are known as earth faults.

 Phase Faults- The fault which do not involves the earthing are known as phase faults.

 Unit Protection- The region or a zone which is defined by the C.T boundaries is known as unit protection.
These systems work for internal faults only.

 Reach- The minimum distance for which the protective system responds to a fault is known as reach of the
protective system.
Normally secondary relays are used in power system protection because of high values of line voltages and current.
According to applications the relay may be classified as

Overvoltage, Overcurrent, and Overpower Relay – The relay operates when the voltage, current or power arises
above a specified value.

Undervoltage, Undercurrent, and Underpower Relay – The relays operate when the voltage, current or power falls
below a specified value.

Directional or Reverse Current Relay – The relay operates when the applied current assumes a specified phase shift
on the supply voltage and the relay is compensated for the fall in voltage.

Directional or Reverse Power Relay – The relay operates when the applied voltage and current assumed specified
space displacement and no compensation is allowed for fall in voltage.

Differential Relay – The relays operate when some specified phase or magnitude difference between two or more
electrical quantities occurs.

Distance Relay – In this relay operation depends on the ratio of the voltage to the current.

According to timing characteristic, the relays can be divided into the following classes.

Instantaneous Relays – These relays employed after a small-time duration from the incidence of the current or other
quantity resulting in operation. The times require for the operation of such relays is less than 0.2 seconds.

Definite Time Lag Relays – In these relays, the time of operation is sensibly independent of the magnitude of the
current or other quantity causing operation.

Inverse Time Lag Relays – In this relay, the magnitude of the current or other quantity causing operation is inversely
equal to the time requires for the operation.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag Relays – In these relays the time of operation is approximately equal to the
lesser values of current or other quantity like voltage, frequency, etc., causing operation and tends to be a specific
minimum time as the value rises without limit.

PROTECTIVE RELAY
A protection relay is a crucial component of electrical systems that safeguard infrastructure, employees, and
equipment from electric problems and malfunctions. It functions as a watchdog by constantly surveying multiple
system components including voltage, current, frequency, and phase angle.

It recognizes discrepancies from the pre-defined thresholds and anomalous operating conditions like overflows,
earthquakes, or short circuits; then it differentiates the area of the problem from the rest of the system. These
actions may involve closing off circuit breakers, disabling machines, or broadcasting a notice to operators inviting
them to intervene manually.

Modern protection relays have additional features including the ability to record events, analyze the results after
they occur, and have the capacity to remotely observe/control via communication channels. They can be highly
personalized and programmed to adapt to different operational situations.

Protective relay work as a sensing device, it senses the fault, then known its position and finally, it gives the tripping
command to the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker after taking the command from the protective relay, disconnect
the faulted element.

By clearing the fault fast with the help of fast-acting protective relay and associated circuit breaker, the damage to
the apparatus is reduced, and the resultant hazards like fire, the risk of the life are reduced, by removing the
particularly faulted section.

But the continuity of supply is maintained, though remaining healthy section, by clearing the fault fast, fault arising
time is reduced, and therefore the system can be restored to the normal state sooner. Hence the transient state
stability limit of the system is greatly improved, permanent damage to the equipment is avoided, and the possibility
of developing most simple fault such as single phase-to-ground into most severe fault such as double phase-to-
ground fault is reduced.

The fault can only be reduced if the protective relay is

reliable, maintainable and sensitive enough to distinguish between normal and abnormal condition. The relay must
come into action whenever there is a fault and must not operate if there is no fault. Some relays are used for the
protection of the power system. Some of them are primary relay meaning that they are the first line of defence.
Such relays sense the fault and send a signal to the proper circuit breaker to trip and clear the fault.

The fault may not be cleared if the circuit breaker fails to open or relay maloperates. The relay failure is because of
three reasons such as wrong setting, bad contacts and open circuit in the relay coil. In such cases, the second line of
defence is provided by the backup relays. The backup relay has longer operating time, even though they sense the
fault along with the primary relays.

Protection relays have a crucial role in maintaining the safety, reliability, and integrity of electric networks. They
recognize problems before they become serious. This decreases the frequency of operation in production, avoids
equipment damage, and guarantees a continuous power source. Precision and reliability are crucial to protect relay
systems that avoid equipment failure or malfunction during emergencies, this would lead to the destruction of the
equipment, power outages, as well as safety risks. As a result, protection relays are subject to testing that ensures
that their functionality meets the legal requirements of the industry.

Protection Relay
  The potential transformers (PTs) and current transformers (CTs) usually produce electrical signals which
monitor the state of current and voltage in a system. CTs and PTs reduce the high currents and voltages of a
power system to those levels which can be handled by a relay safely.

 Signal Processing Unit processes the signals it receives. Normally, this involves converting analogue signals to
digital ones so that they can be worked on more easily. There might also be filtering and conditioning circuits
for accuracy measurements.

 Modern relays use microprocessors that employ pre-programmed algorithms, which examine processed
signals in order to identify if unusual situations prevail like overcurrent, under voltage or over frequency.

 When needed, such a relay cuts off an affected section from others within a grid by sending trips orders to
circuit breakers or other protective devices thereby ensuring total isolation.

An essential part of electrical systems, a protection relay is responsible for spotting anomalies such as voltage
fluctuations, short circuits, and overcurrent. It keeps a watch on variables like voltage, current, and frequency
constantly. After identifying the kind and magnitude of a malfunction, it determines whether to trip a circuit breaker
to isolate the problematic area. For remote monitoring, fault data from modern relays is frequently sent to a central
control system. They are reliable since they are regularly tested and maintained. All things considered, protection
relays are essential for avoiding equipment damage, minimizing down on interruptions, and ensuring the reliability
and security of electrical systems.

Construction and Components of Protection Relay

Circuit Diagram of Protection Relay

 Sensing components identify irregular events, such as overvoltage and overcurrent. Sensing elements
includes Current Transformers (CT), Potential Transformers (PT), Voltage Transformers (VT) and other sensors
that detects the abnormalities in the main execution.

 Signals from sensing elements are analyzed by a signal processing unit. This unit compares the faults with the
predetermined threshold values and hence enables to perform the protective action.

 The logic of decision-making establishes the preventive measure (tripping circuit breakers). This unit analysis
the fault and determines the nature of protective measure.

 The logic unit’s choice causes the output connections to actuate. These contacts are used to trip the circuit
breakers, activates alarm, or isolates the action.
  Remote monitoring is made possible via an optional communication interface.

 These relays are packed into a robust enclosure to safeguard the environment.

 It needs a power source to function.

 It has features for reliability assurance testing and maintenance.

Working of Protection Relay

 These devices maintain an active monitor on electrical factors like phase angle, frequency, voltage, and
current. To precisely measure these factors, they make use of instrument transformers or sensors.

 Predefined thresholds or setpoints are compared with the measured electrical values. Usually, the rated
values of the equipment that has to be safeguarded and the system’s operational parameters are used to
determine these thresholds.

 The protective relay decides whether to trip the circuit breaker or take other corrective action if the
measured parameters beyond the preset thresholds, indicating a malfunction or abnormal state.

 The protection relay opens the circuit breaker connected to the malfunctioning component of the system by
producing a trip signal when it detects a failure. Usually, a control circuit sends this trip signal to the circuit
breaker.

 The circuit breaker isolates the malfunctioning component of the system from the rest of the network by
opening the circuit upon receiving the trip signal. By doing this, the chance of cascade failures is reduced,
and additional equipment damage is avoided.

 Annunciation features are frequently included in protection relays to help identify the kind and location of
faults. In order to deliver real-time information regarding the state of the system, they could also interact
with other monitoring tools or supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems.

 The protection relay may permit the circuit breaker to be automatically closed again to restore power once
the problem has been fixed and the system has been restored. After a fault condition has been set certain
relays additionally provide manual reset options that allows to get back to regular operation.

To attain the desired reliability, the power system network is divided into two different protection zones. The overall
system protection is divided into different protection zones. They are generator protection, transformer protection,
bus protection, transmission line protection and feeder protection.

Types of Protection Relays

Given below are the Types of Protection Relay

 Overcurrent Relay
 Differential Relay
 Distance Relay
 Overvoltage Relay
 Over frequency Relay
 Directional Relay
 Earth Fault Relay
 Transformer Differential Relay
 Generator Protection Relay
 Motor Protection Relay
The relay employed for protection of the apparatus and transmission lines are as follows

 Overcurrent Relays
 Under-frequency Relays
 Directional Relays
 Thermal Relays
  Phase Sequence Relays
 Negative phase sequence Relays
 Positive sequence Relays
 Distance or impedance Relays

 Phase Impedance Relay

 Angle Impedance Relay
 Ohm (or reactance ) Relay
 Angle Impedance Relay
 Mho’s Relay offset or Restricted Relay
 Pilot Relays

 Carrier channel pilot or Microwave pilot Relays

The protective relays do not eliminate the possibility of fault occurrence on the power system rather their circuit
actions start only after the fault has occurred on the system. The main features of a good protective relaying are its
reliability, sensitivity, simplicity, speed, and economy. For the sake of familiarity of protective relay, we have to
understand some important terms.

Energizing Quantity – It is an electrical quantity which is a merger of voltage or current or either voltage or current
alone, required for the operation of the relay.

Trip Circuit – It is the circuit that controls the circuit breaker for opening operation and comprises of trip coil, relay
contacts, auxiliary switch battery supply, etc.

Characteristic Quantity – It is designed for determining the response of the relay. Some relays have a graded
response to one or more quantity called characteristic quantity.

Operating Force or Torque – It is a force which tends to close the relay contacts.

Restraining Force or Torque – It is a force or torque, which opposes the torque and tends to interrupt the closure of
the relay contacts.

Setting – It is an actual value of the energizing quantity at which the relay is made to operate under given conditions.

Power Consumption of a Relay – It is the value of power consumed by the relay circuit at the rated current or voltage
and expressed in VA for AC and watts for DC.

Pick Up – A relay is said to pick up when it moves from the off position to the on position or the operation of the
relay is called the relay pick-up.

Operating or Pickup Relay – It is the value of the actuating quantity (current or voltage) which is on the threshold
above which the relay operates and closes its contacts. If the current in the relay is less than the pickup value, the
relay does not operate, and the breaker operates by it remain in the closed position.

Drop Out or Reset Level – This is the value of the current or voltage, etc. below which a relay opens its contacts and
comes back to its original position. The ratio of the drop-out voltage or reset value to the pick or operating value is
called the drop-out or reset ratio.

Quick Value – It is given by the time which elapses between the instant when the current or voltage exceeds the
pickup values at the time when the relay contacts are closed.

Reset time – It is given by the time which passes away between the instant when the current or voltage (actuating
quantity) becomes less than the reset value at the time when the relay contacts are closed.

Seal-in-coil – This coil does not allow the relay contact to open when the current flow through them.

Overshoot Time – This is the time during which stored operating energy is dissipated after the characteristic quantity
has been suddenly restored from a specified value to the value which it had at the initial position of the relay.
Fault Clearing Time- It is the time between the existence of a fault and at the time of final arc quenching in a circuit
breaker is called the fault clearing time.

Breaker Time – It is the time between termination of fault and final arc quenching in a circuit breaker is called the
breaker time.

Relay Time – The interval between the existence of fault and closure of relay contacts is called the relay time.

Reach – It is defined as the limiting distance covered by the protection, the fault beyond which are not within reach
of the protection and should be covered by the other relay.

Operating Principle of Protective Relays

The working of the relay is either depends on the electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. The
electromagnetic attraction type relay has a solenoid which is attracted towards the poles of the electromagnet. This
relay works on both the AC and DC supply.

The electromagnetic induction type relay uses the induction motor inside which the torque is generated by the
process of electromagnetic induction. Such type of relays works only on ac quantities.

Overcurrent Relay

The overcurrent relay is responsible for protecting the system from heavy current flow. It facilitates the protection of
electrical equipment and systems from damage caused by overloading, short circuits, and other anomalous
conditions. If the current increases the threshold value for a particular duration of time, the relay will send a trip
single that will interrupt the circuit, this will isolate the circuit from the faulty area with defined boundaries. These
can recognize various types of malfunctions, including short periods of inactivity, overburden, and ground-based
malfunctions. They have a significant impact on maintaining the stability of the device and preventing it from
experiencing malfunctions.

Overcurrent Relay

Differential Relay

To identify problems, this device compares the current entering and leaving the protected area. According to this
principle, a defect causes a difference in current entering and leaving the area, activating the relay and isolating the
problematic section. In contrast to overcurrent relays, differential relays compare the current at two points. If the
currents (input and output currents) are not equal, the circuit is unbalanced and a fault may exist, thereby isolating
the faulty part from the main circuit. According to the principle of Kirchhoff’s current rule, which states that the sum
of the currents entering and leaving each node must be equal under normal circumstances. Differential relays are
highly sensitive and provide fast and selective protection, minimizing damage to equipment and reducing downtime.
Differential Relay

Distance Relay

The relay works by gauging impedance to define the exact distance to an issue. Commonly known as impedance
relays, these distance relays work effectively in sizing up and pinpointing the complications with impedance or
separation between a relay and problematic point within the power grid. They function by comparing an actual
impedance value of the safeguarded line against a predefined curve; should they find any discrepancies marking
recorded measurements outside this preset curve, it implies there is a complication at hand.

Distance Relay

Overvoltage Relay

Overvoltage relay are the guards in electrical systems needed to protect against the chances of having abnormal high
voltage levels. They are constantly monitoring the factors like voltage and relying on their well-established
mechanisms such as the tripping circuit breakers to prevent dangerous system failures. Relays can provide a means to
generate trip signal as a result of overvoltage incidents wherein the downstream protection trips are sent to isolate
the faulted section of the equipment. It prevents damage of electrical systems, thus guarantees the safety of the
system’s equipment, and its reliability in delivering uninterrupted power supply. Mostly, the type of equipment urged
by voltage surges from lightning, switching and transient interferences rely on overcurrent relays.
Overvoltage Relay

Over frequency Relay

The higher frequency relay in electrical power networks operates and react to at moment where there is abnormal
high frequency in the power circuit, by tripping circuit breakers or disconnecting the equipment for the purpose of
system stability is being triggered. The relay buffer safeguards the system in the case of a fault by means of insulation
from the deranged section of the system. As the system frequency exceeds this certain threshold value, the relay
signal is given, and the involved part is de-energized like that of other protection approaches. It prevents damage
from large and high frequency waves and also limits the probability of noise interference due to the high level of the
exposure that is usually imposed by the overvoltage conditions.

Over frequency Relay

Directional Relay

Directional relays determines differential angles between fault current coming from the problematic area and the
reference angle of the protected area behind the relay. The directional relay compares these two angles, and the
fault is isolated if the differential angle is greater than preset value. This helps to detect the fault by measuring the
upstream or downstream flow of current. There are different types of directional relays based on their method of
operation and application, including:
  Overcurrent directional relays: Useful when the current flow is the bottom-most direction.

 Distance directional relays: Unite directional power sensing and distance protection.

 Power directional relays: Use power flow monitoring to locate and fix faults or unbalance conditions.

Directional Relay

Earth Fault Relay

The earth fault relay is used in electrical systems for the purpose of protection against faults, which involve breakage
or connection that extends from the earth (ground) to an electric circuit. It deals with equipment damage, electrical
shocks, and fires since it cuts the circuit on locating a fault. Earth fault relays has a configuration with selective
settings. Also, a critical activity of this operation, is specially done so that the disruption is minimized to other
segments of the electric grid which are still in operation. These earth faults relays are multiple in their way of
operation, and therefore, the application. Some of the relays are based on the residual current which flows in the
system’s neutral conductor; the others are based on the detection of small fault current to the ground, and the other
last type are based on the large fault current which flows to the ground with low resistance.

Earth Fault Relay

Transformer Differential Relay

These relays deal with the faults in the system by comparing two current values. If any imbalance occurs in the
normal operation, these relays trips to ensure the safety and reliability of the system. It continuously monitors the
flow the flow of current through the transformer windings. It compares the currents using a current transformer (CT)
on each side of the transformer (primary and secondary) to measure the current imbalance. Transformer differential
relays are configured with appropriate settings to ensure that only the faulty zone or section is isolated from the
main system. This selective operation helps minimize downtime and reduces the distortions to the rest of the
electrical network.

Transformer Differential Relay

Generator Protection Relay

These relays are designed to safeguard the generator network and components and protects a reliable function of
the generator device. Temperature protection monitors the temperature of critical components such as stator
windings, rotor windings, and bearings to prevent overheating and thermal damage. To ensures specific working;
generator protection relays are frequently synchronized with other protective components in the power system.
Thus, it minimizes the disturbance to the rest of the network during a problem by ensuring that only the damaged
area of the system is isolated.

Generator Protection Relay

Motor Protection Relay

Motor protection relays protect electric motors from overload, phase imbalance, overcurrent, and short circuit by
monitoring electrical system characteristics and causing the motor to be shut off if abnormal conditions are detected.
External sensors or temperature sensors are built into the motor to measure the temperature of the motor windings,
which prevents the motor from thermal damage, and the motor trips whenever it senses overheating conditions due
to excessive current or other source. It is necessary to maintain a proper balance between the current and phase of
the motor. Any imbalances lead the motor to overheat and experience mechanical stress. In order to prevent motor
damage, the relay detects phase unbalance and starts protective measures.
Under Frequency | Negative Sequence Relay

The Under Frequency | Negative Sequence Relay is critical in modern power systems that ensure stability and
protection. As electricity demand fluctuates and unforeseen events occur, such as faults or disturbances, the
frequency and voltage levels in the grid can deviate from their normal values. This relay, also known as the UF/NS
relay, is designed to monitor and detect under-frequency and negative sequence conditions, which could lead to
potentially harmful consequences if not addressed promptly. In this context, the relay acts as a vigilant guardian,
swiftly triggering protective actions to prevent further damage and maintain the integrity of the power system.
Understanding the principles and functionalities of the Under Frequency | Negative Sequence Relay is essential for
power engineers and operators, as it forms a critical defence line against system instability and potential outages.

Under Frequency Relay

Frequency-based relays can either be under-frequency relays or over-frequency relays.

The frequency relays are normally used in generator protection and for load-frequency control.
The frequency of induced e.m.f. of synchronous generator is maintained constant by constant speed. Over-speeding
of the generator occurs due to loss of load, and under-speeding occurs due to an increase in load. In both cases, the
frequency varies from the normal value. Frequency relays are used to avoid damage to the generator under the
above two conditions. Under frequency relay trips, the feeder on the load at a set frequency value relieves the
generator, thereby saving the unit. Under frequency relay thus aids load shedding program to protect the grid.

Protective relay

The frequency relay is connected to the secondary of the V.T. The relay monitors the frequency continuously. It has
two pairs of coils and is connected in parallel to the supply voltage through the impedance Z. The impedance will
vary with frequency. Under normal conditions, a torque is applied on the cup of the rotor due to a change in
impedance either in the clockwise direction or in the anti-clockwise order, depending on whether the frequency is
higher or lower than the desired frequency (rated frequency). The sliding resistor varies the frequency setting, and
the restraining spring can remove the pickup.

Directional Over Current Relay

The Directional Over Current Relay, commonly known as the DOCR, is a fundamental protective device in electrical
power systems to detect and respond to faults and abnormal conditions. Unlike conventional overcurrent relays
based solely on the magnitude, the DOCR is equipped with directional elements, allowing it to selectively operate in
specific directions along the power network. This directional feature enables the relay to discriminate between faults
occurring in its protected zone and those originating from external sources, preventing unnecessary tripping and
isolating only the affected part of the system. By swiftly detecting defects and coordinating with other protective
devices, the Directional Over Current Relay plays a pivotal role in safeguarding the integrity and stability of the power
grid, minimizing outage durations, and enhancing the overall reliability of electrical networks. Power system
engineers heavily rely on the DOCR’s accurate and fast response to maintain the safety and efficiency of electricity
transmission and distribution, making it an indispensable component in modern electrical infrastructure.

Negative Sequence Relay

Negative sequence relays protect electrical machines against overheating due to unbalance currents in the stator.
These unbalance winds cause heating of the rotor and damage it. Unbalance three-phase currents have negative
sequence components. These components rotate at synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the rotor’s rotation
direction, including double frequency currents in the rotor.
The arrangement of the negative sequence relay connection is shown in the figure. The relay is connected in parallel
across the current transformer secondaries. Under normal conditions, their algebraic sum is zero as equal current
flows in all three phases. Hence no current flows through the relay. But, if unbalancing occurs, the secondary currents
will be different, and the resultant current flows through the relay, and the relay operation trips the circuit
breaker to disconnect the generator from the system.

Negative phase sequence networks are used for unbalanced conditions or unsymmetrical faults, as shown in the
figure below.

Types of Electromagnetic Relays

Electromagnetic relays, widely used in various applications for their simplicity and reliability, come in different types
to suit specific requirements. The most common types of electromagnetic relays include the following:

Attracted Armature Relay

This classic type features a pivoted armature attracted to an electromagnet when a current passes through the coil,
causing the contacts to switch positions. Drew armature relays are used in low-power applications and control
circuits.

Induction Disc Relay

Operating on the principle of electromagnetic induction, this relay employs a rotating disc driven by the interaction
of magnetic fields. The disc’s movement actuates the contacts, making it suitable for high-current applications and
offering inherent time delay features.

Polarized Relay

Using a permanent magnet in addition to an electromagnet, polarized relays provide greater sensitivity and improved
directional characteristics for specific applications like protective relaying.

Differential Relay

This type operates based on the difference between two or more electrical quantities, making it ideal for protection
against internal faults in transformers, motors, and other devices.

Latching Relay

Also known as impulse or bistable relays, they have two stable states and maintain their position even after removing
the input signal, offering energy efficiency and suitability for memory circuits.

Solid-State Relay (SSR)

Unlike traditional electromagnetic relays, SSRs use semiconductor devices like thyristors for switching operations,
providing silent operation, faster switching times, and longevity due to the absence of mechanical components.

Mercury Wetted Relay

This type uses mercury as a contact medium, which offers precise and reliable switching, particularly in high-speed
applications and environments where other relays might suffer from contact wear.

Each type of electromagnetic relay has distinct advantages and is chosen based on factors like application
requirements, voltage and current ratings, response time, and environmental conditions to ensure optimal
performance and protection in various electrical systems.

The values of c and r give a phase shift of 60o. It can be seen from the vector diagrams that for the positive
sequence currents, the output voltage Va + Vb applied to the relay is zero shown in fig-a below, whereas, for the
negative sequence currents, the output voltage Va + Vb is of considerable magnitude to operate the relay shown in
fig-b.

The negative sequence relay has the inverse square law characteristic. i.e., I22t = K, a constant. I2 is the negative
sequence component of the current.

t = K / I22 i.e., t α 1/I22.

The relay will trip the generator’s main breaker.

Characteristic of Protection Relay

 Relays have to be sensitive enough to identify even the smallest departures from normal operating
circumstances in order to shield people or property from damage.

 Protection relays must be flexible enough to adjust to different operating environments and system
configurations.

 Relays must react quickly to unusual circumstances in order to reduce damage and preserve system stability.

 Extreme temperatures, vibrations, and electrical disruptions are only a few of the circumstances under which
relays must function dependably.

 Only the impacted area of the system should be isolated or tripped by relays, which should be able to
distinguish between various fault kinds and levels.

 Numerous relays have the ability to be remotely set up or controlled, making it simpler to monitor and
maintain the security system.

Applications of Protection Relay

 Overcurrent Protection detects excessive current flow in electrical circuits, reducing fire risks.

 Differential Protection detects internal problems in transformers, generators, or motors by comparing

currents entering and exiting protected zones.

 It prevents overload, short circuit, insulation failures, and ensures constant supply reliability.

 Protection relays protect generators from malfunctions like loss of excitation, overvoltage, and reverse
power.

 Protection relays aid in preserving the integrity of generators, guard against harm, and ensure continuous
power production.

Advantages of Protection Relays

 Protection relays safeguard against equipment damage by promptly identifying problems in electrical
systems, such as overcurrent, overvoltage, or underfrequency.

 Relays isolate malfunctioning system components, reducing the effect of a malfunction and preserving
functionality in unaffected areas.

 By isolating the malfunctioning equipment from the power source, they improve safety by lowering the
possibility of electrical risks.

 By preventing cascade failures that could trigger extensive interruptions, protection relays contribute to the
preservation of system stability.

 Relays minimize downtime and repair costs by quickly isolating problems and shielding expensive equipment
from harm.

Disadvantages of Protection Relays

 Protection relay setup and configuration might be difficult and require specific expertise.

 Purchasing and installing high-quality protective relays can be costly, particularly for large-scale systems. In
order to guarantee correct operation, relays need to undergo routine maintenance and testing, which raises
operational expenses.

 Incorrect configurations or other influences may cause protective relays to trip prematurely, resulting in
disruption and inconvenience.
  Relays are susceptible to malfunction or failure, just like any other electrical component, which could expose
the system to errors.

 Compatibility issues may arise when integrating protection relays with current systems or updating them to
newer versions of technology.

Conclusion

Protection relays play a vital role in safeguarding electrical systems, workers, and machinery. As the first line of
defense, they monitor for issues like short circuits, over currents, overvoltage, and under voltage. They track
variables such as power factor, voltage, current, and frequency, taking action when deviations exceed set limits. This
reduces downtime, protects equipment, and lessens safety hazards.

Protection relays also reinforce system stability and dependability by coordinating selectively with other protective
devices and control schemes. They allow for remote investigation, control, and monitoring of faults. Today’s
protective relays feature self-testing procedures, adaptive algorithms, and event recording capabilities, making
proactive maintenance and troubleshooting simpler. These improvements further enhance diagnostic abilities,
adaptability, and reliability.