GSE 313: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

LECTURE 1
Introduction
A machine that computes. Specifically, a modern computer is a digital electronic system that
performs complex calculations or compiles, correlates, or otherwise processes data based on
instructions in the form of stored programs and input data. A device that can receive, store, retrieve,
process, and output data.

In today’s modern society, computers are used at all times. When you go on shopping, use a bank,
switch on your television, you are using a computer. It is used in industry, business, scientific and
technological investigations, terrestrial and satellite transmissions, in the home, and more
importantly, for development of education. You may be surprised to read that you use computer in
your everyday life, but the fact is computers are everywhere in a modern society. As you have read,
computers are used anytime, anywhere and by anyone.

The computer has been variously conceived and defined by different authors. However, an attempt
to answer the question as to what computer is will lead us to give some definitions of the computer.

Definitions:
 The computer is an electronic device (machine) that is capable of receiving instruction or
data (input), process the data, store the data and give a desired result (output).
 it can also be defined as any machine or device which, under the control of a stored program,
can accept data in a prescribed form, process the data and supply the results as information in a
specified form.
 The computer is an electronic device or machine that accepts data, processes it and gives
output in form of meaningful information meant for human consumption.
 It is also defined as any device capable of accepting data automatically; apply a sequence of
processes to the data and supply the results of these processes.
 Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to a set of instructions
or programs. Computers work through an interactions of hardware and software.
Generally, the definitions of computer above can be represented schematically below:
INPUT OUTPUT

DATA PROCESS INFORMATION

What Computers can do?

In the workplace, various categories of people use computers for diverse purposes from keeping of
records, analyzing data and researching, managing projects, etc.; and likewise at home, we can use
computers to find information, store pictures and music, track finances, play games, and
communicate with others. Here are some of the various functionality of what computers can do:

(i.) The Web: The World Wide Web (usually called the Web) is a gigantic storehouse of
information. The web is the most popular part of the Internet partly because it displays most
information in a visually appealing format. Headlines, text and pictures can be combined on a single
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webpage (much like a page in a magazine) along with sounds and animations. A website is a
collection of interconnected webpages. The web contains millions of websites and billions of
webpages.
(ii.) Email: This is the short form for Electronic Mail. It is a convenient way to communicate with
others. It is a medium when users send messages and it is delivered almost instantly in the recipient
e-mail inbox. Emails can be sent to many people simultaneously and it can be saved, print and
forwarded to others as well.
(iii.) Instant Messaging: Instant Messaging is like having a real-time conversation with another
person or a group of people. When a user type and send an instant message, the message is
immediately visible to all participants. Unlike e-mail, all participants have to be online (connected to
the internet) and active on their computers or devises at the same time. Communicating by means of
instant messaging is called chatting:
(iv.) Pictures, music and movies: Pictures and images can be transferred from different devises
such as from digital camera to our computer systems. These pictures can be printed, created as
slideshows, or share them with others via e-mail or through instant messages or posted on a website.
Music can also be listened to via computers either by importing (transferring to your computer),
music from audio CDs, or by purchasing songs from music vendors.
(v.) Gaming: Thousands of computer games in every conceivable categories are available to
entertain users. Many games are allow you to compete with other players or computers around the
world through the internet. Windows includes a variety of card games puzzle games and strategy
games.

Characteristics of a Computer
(i.) SPEED: Computers work at very high speed and are much faster than humans. A second is
veru large time period for computers. A computer can perform billions of calculations in a second.
The time used by a computer to perform an operation is called the processing speed. In general, no
human being can compete to solving the complex computation, faster than computer. Computer’s
speed is measured in Mega Hertz (MHz)
(ii.) ACCURACY: Accuracy means to provide results without any error. Computers can process
large amount of data and generate error-free results. A modern computer can perform millions of
operations in a second without any error. Since Computer is programmed, so whatever input we give
it gives result accurately.
(iii.) STORAGE: A computer can store large amount of data permanently. Users can use this data
at any time. We can store any type of data in computer ranges from text, graphics, pictures, audio and
video files, can be stored easily. Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate format.
The storage capacity of computer is increasing rapidly. We are operating in the Terabytes (TB)
capacity now going into Petabytes (PB)
(iv.) VERSATILITY: The general purpose computer is truly a versatile device in that a program can
rapidly create an information processing structure to solve virtually any problem. Also, new
program can be inserted in a very short time so that an entirely different process structure can be
established. No other device can be so easily adapted to sucgh wide range of tasks. We can use
computer to perform completely different type of work at the same time.
(v.) EASE OF COMMUNICATION: Most computer today have the capability of communicating
with other computers. We can connect two or more computers by a communication device such as
modem. These computers can share data, instructions and information. The connected computer are
called Network.

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(vi.) AUTOMATION: The ability to specify a list of tasks (i.e. arithmetic, logical and other
operations) and have them computed and completed without jhuman intervention is the key to
automation of the wide variety of processes.
(vii.) PROCESSING: A computer can process the given instructions. It can perform different types
of processing like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division. It can also perform logical functions
like comparing two numbers to decide which one is the biggest.
(viii.) RELIABILITY: Computer is dependable. It will satisfactorily performs its intended function
under given circumstances, such as environmental conditions, limitations to operating time, and
frequency and thoroughness of maintenance for a specified period of time.
(ix.) DILGENCE: Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.
(x.) POWER OF REMEMBERING: It can remember data for us.
(xi.) NO IQ: Computer does not work without instruction.
(xii.) NO FEELING: Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTER

We see many Computers nearby, but they all are different from each other. In this section, we are
going to know about the basics and classification of computers which included all the different
types of computers.
There are different classes of computer technology available these days. The functionality and data
processing of each type of computer is different and output results as well.
However, the methods or techniques, Size, capacity, characteristics, and data handling of the data of
each computer may be different too. \

Classification of Computers System

We can classify the computers into the following 3 categories:
1. On the Basis of Size and Capacity, [
a) Supercomputer,
b) Mainframe,
c) Minicomputer, and
d) Micro Computer.
2. On the Basis of Purposes,
a) General Purpose and
b) Special Purpose.
3. On the Basis of Hardware Design and Type
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a) Analog Computer
b) Digital Computer, and
c) Hybrid Computer].

Classification of Computers according to Size, Type and Purpose

Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity

1. SuperComputer
A Supercomputer is the very fastest and powerful, and expensive type of computer for processing
data. Supercomputers’ size and storage capacity are also huge (can occupy huge premises) designed
to process vast amounts of data in a short time with high productivity.
These are specially made to perform multi-specific tasks. Therefore, many CPUs work in parallel
order on these supercomputers. This function of a Supercomputer is called Multiprocessing or
Parallel Processing.

Supercomputers

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A supercomputer’s design is complicated, like it can be heterogeneous, combining computers of
different architectures, is significantly surpassed most existing personal computers. This made this
machine an ultra-high-performance supercomputer.
Each part of a supercomputer is responsible for its own specific task, such as structuring and solving
the most complex problems requiring an incredible amount of calculations.
Applications: The uses of supercomputers are dedicated to –
 In research and study of energy and nuclear weapons and designing the aircraft, airplanes,
and flight simulators.
 Climate research and Weather Forecasting and Prediction of Natural Disasters.
 Spaceship and Satellite Launching.
 Used in scientific research laboratories.
 Used in Chemical and Biological research and for highly calculation complex tasks.
Examples: IBM Roadburner, IBM Blue Gene, Intel ASI Red. PARAM-1000, and CRAY-XMP-14. World’s
first supercomputer is the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600 invented by Seymour Cray.

2. Mainframe Computer
Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-performance computers, and multi-user,
which means they can handle the workload of more than 100 users at a time on the computer.
The storage capacity of the mainframe is enormous, with a high-speed data process as well. As well
as handling hundreds of input and output devices at a time.
The mainframe is a highly efficient computer capable of simultaneously solving complex
calculations and continuously for a long time. These computers have several microprocessors
that have the ability to function the data at too high performance and speed.
The mainframe is ahead of our conventional modern Personal computers in almost every metric. The
possibility of their “hot” replacement in the mainframe computer ensures continuity of operation.
And the standard amount of processor utilization effortlessly exceeds 85% of the total power.
Somehow mainframes can be more powerful than supercomputers because the mainframe supports
many processes simultaneously. On the other hand, supercomputers can run a single program but
faster than a mainframe. In the past, Mainframes requires entire rooms or even floors of whole
buildings for set up.
In today, IBM company is leading the production of mainframe computers. Mainframe reliability is
increased with development in the past 60 years. These computers can fix most of the hardware and
software bugs.

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 Mainframe Computer

Applications: Uses of Mainframe Computer –

Mainframe computers are mainly used by departmental and commercial organizations like Banks,
Companies, Scientific research centers, and governmental departments like railways. These
computers can work for 24 hours. Hundreds of users can work on these computations
simultaneously.
Using the mainframe completes the tasks, Such as keeping details of payments, research centres,
advertising, sending bills and notices, paying employees, ticket booking, maintaining details of
purchases by users, keeping detailed tax details, etc.
Examples: IBM Es000 series, ICL39 Series, and CDC 6600.

3. Mini Computer
Minicomputer is a digital and multi-user computer system with the connection of more than one
CPU. Thus, many people can work on these computers simultaneously instead of a single person.
Also, it can process with other accessories like a printer, plotter, etc.
Minicomputers are the medium type of computers that have more functionality power and are
expensive than microcomputers. On the other hand, the size, storage, and speed of minicomputers
are large but less than the mainframe and supercomputers.
Minicomputers are made for performing multiple computing tasks at a single point of time, instead
of assigning many microcomputers for a single task, which will be time-consuming and expensive.
In general, a minicomputer is a multi-threaded system (several processes at a time) capable of
supporting from one to up to 200 users simultaneously: these computers are currently used to store
large databases, multi-user applications, and the automation industry.

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 Minicomputers

Applications: The uses of Minicomputers –

The minicomputers are used as real-time applications in Industries, bookings, and Research Centres.
Banks also use minicomputers for preparing payroll for employees’ salaries, records, tracking of
financial accounts, etc. As well as in the field of Higher Education and Engineering.
Examples: PDP 11 and IBM (8000 Series). PDP-1 was the world’s first minicomputer, small and
interactive, introduced in 1960 by the Digital Equipment Corporation.

4. Micro Computer
Today we are using many computers at home is also the most common microcomputer. With this
invention of the microprocessors in the year 1970, it became possible to use computers for people
personally at a low cost and reasonable price known as Digital Personal Computer.
The design of microcomputers is minimal in size and storage capacity. These computers consist of
many parts like Input and Output devices, Software, operating systems, networks, and Servers all these
need to connect to form a complete Personal Digital Computer.
There is not only a PC or laptop are examples of microcomputers. Other examples of the
microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, PDA, server, palmtop, and workstation.
This can be installed in any work area or even at home for personal use.
The primary purpose of microcomputers is to keep and process the everyday tasks and needs of the
people. Only one person can work on a single PC at a time, but its operating system is multitasking.
The PC can be connected to the Internet to take benefits and enhance the user experience.
The development of multimedia, small equipment, optimized energy consumption, and
the LAN made the microcomputers increase in demand for every field.
The increase in the demand and need for microcomputers between the people leads to
the tremendous development of each part related to the microcomputers.

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 MicroComputer

Applications: The uses of MicroComputer –

PC is being widely used in many fields like home, office, data collection, business, education,
entertainment, publishing, etc.
It keeps the details and prepares letters for correspondence in small businesses, creating bills,
accounting, word processing, and operation of the filing systems in a large company.
Some of the major PC manufacturers are IBM, Lenovo, Apple, HCL, HP, etc.
Examples: Desktops, tablets, smartphones, and Laptops.
The fast development of microcomputers with technology. As a result, today, microcomputers
coming in the form of a book, a phone, and even a clock in the name of a digital clock.

Computers on the Basis Purpose

1. General Purpose
General computers can do various everyday tasks such as writing a word processing letter,
Document preparation, recording, financial analysis, Printing documents, creating databases, and
calculations with accuracy and consistency.
The size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers are mainly less. The ability of these computers
is limited in performing specialized tasks. Still, it has versatility and useful for serving people’s basic
needs at home or in the workplace in the environment.
Examples:
Desktops, laptops, smartphones, and tablets are used on daily basis for general purposes.

2. Special Purpose
These computers are designed to perform a particular or specialized task. The size, storage capacity,
and cost of such computers mainly depend on the nature and size of the work. The function of these
computers is consistent with any particular task.
The special computer needs specific and input and devices as well as a compatible motherboard
with the processor to conduct work efficiently.
These computers are used for special purposes in weather forecasting, space research, agriculture,
engineering, meteorology, satellite operation, traffic control, and research in chemical sciences.
Examples:

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 Automatic teller machines (ATM),
 Washing machines,
 Surveillance equipment,
 Weather-forecasting simulators,
 Traffic-control computers,
 Defense-oriented applications,
 Oil-exploration systems,
 Military planes controlling computers.

Computers on the Basis of Hardware Design and Data Handling.

1. Analog Computer
An analog computer performs tasks using continuous data (the physical amount that changes
continuously). Analog computers are used primarily to measure physical units like the voltage,
pressure, electric current, temperature, and convert them into digits.
It is also used to measure and perform arithmetic calculations of numbers, the length of an object, or
the amount of voltage that passes through a point in an electrical circuit. Analog computers obtain
all their data from some measurement way.
Analog computers are mainly used in the fields of science and engineering. Analog computers are
slow and equipped to measure things rather than countable or check.
The efficiency of this computer increases when we get the result of the data in graphs, etc. Analog
Computers cannot store statistics.

Analog computers

They are used in the fields of technology, science, research, engineering, etc. Because quantities
like voltage, pressure, electric current, temperature are used more in these areas, these types of
computers give only approximate estimates.
Examples:
An analog computer installed on a petrol pump measures the amount of petrol coming out of the
pump and appears in liters. And calculates its value. These quantities vary continuously while
measuring the amount, such as the temperature of a human body changes consistently.
A simple clock, the vehicle’s speedometer, Voltmeter, etc. are examples of analog computing.

2. Digital Computer

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As its name suggests, a digital computer represents the digital computer’s letters, numerical values,
or any other special symbols. This computer is the computer that calculates the number
for processing the data.
They run on electronic signs, and the binary numeral method Binary System 0 or 1 is used for
calculation. Their speed is fast.
It can perform arithmetic operations such as addition, occurrence, subtraction, multiplication, or
division and all types of logical(mathematical) operations. Today, most of the computers available
in the market are digital computers.
Digital computers are built to bring the solution of equations to an almost unlimited precision, but in
a bit slow manner compared to analog computers. To some extent, they all have similar components
for receiving, processing, sorting, and transmitting data and use a relatively small number of essential
functions to perform their tasks.
Digital computers use discrete electrical signals for operation rather than continuous electrical
signals as analog computers have, making them the most common form of computers today because
of their versatility, speed, and power.
The desktop or Laptop at our home is one the common and best example of a digital computer.

Digital Computers

Other Examples of Digital Computers

 Personal Desktop Computers,
 Calculators,
 Laptops, Smartphones, and Tablets,
 Chromebooks,
 Digital watch,
 Accounting machines,
 Workstations,
 Digital clock, etc.

3. Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer is a combined complex computer unit built using both analog and
digital properties and united by a single control system. The purpose of designing hybrid computers
is to provide functions and features that can be found on both analog and digital devices.
The aim behind creating a hybrid computer is to create a kind of work unit that offers the best of both
types of computers. Hybrid computers are extremely fast when driving equations, even when
those calculations are incredibly complex.
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As both the properties of a computer consist in the form of a single hybrid computer made possible to
solve too complex calculations or problems, at the same time, these devices are not only too
expensive but also able to solve complex issues a bit fastly.
Incorporating the properties of both(analog and digital) computers into hybrid computers makes it
possible to resolve more difficult equations immediately.

e
Hybrid Computer
The analog computer systems solve the equation process immediately. But it is not necessary that
those solutions would be completely accurate.
Here, the digital computer system gives 100 % correct solutions, but it takes a bit of time in the
calculation. Therefore, Hybrid computers are made to overcome the flaws of both these analog and
digital systems.
Applications of hybrid Computer:
Hybrid computers are most commonly used in vast industries, research centres, organizations, and
manufacturing firms (where many equations need to be solved).
Also, the solutions and uses of hybrid computers have proved to be much more detailed, accurate,
and useful. Hybrid computers are used in scientific calculations, for nations’ defence and radar
systems as well.
Examples:
Auto Gasoline pump is the example of a hybrid computer, this device is installed on a petrol pump
do not only to measure the amount of petrol but also to calculates its value, in this way It is capable
of both functions i.e hybrid function.

Assignment

Discuss in detail the components of computer and computer system

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 VARIOUS COMPUTERS AND THEIR USAGE

This section deals with the different types of computers and their uses.
There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words imply the size, expected
use or capability of the computer. While the term computer can apply to virtually any device that has
a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that receives input from the user
through a mouse or keyboard, processes it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen. The
description of computer are arranged in the following order:

(i.) Personal Computer (PC)

Personal computers come in many forms, including the new Apple iPad.

The Personal Computer (PC) is defined as a computer designed for general use by a single person.
PCs were first known as microcomputers because they were a complete computer but built on a
smaller scale than the huge systems in use by most businesses. They often contain a communication
device. Two popular styles of Personal Computers are the PC and the Apple. Personal Computers
use PC windows operating system while Apple computers use Macintosh Operating System (MAC OS
X).

(ii.) Desktop

Desktop computers with minitower CPU style : Desktop computer with desktop CPU style
A desktop computer is one that we are mostly familiar with. They are commonly used in workplaces,
schools and in the home. It consists of several separate pieces of equipment which are all connected
to each other with cables and placed entirely on or under a desk or table: CPU (Central Processing
Unit); monitor; keyboard; mouse. Most modern desktops have a tower (i.e., minitower) CPU which
you can stand on the desk or a flat CPU (i.e., desktop), a flat screen monitor.

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(iii.) Laptop:

Diagram of a labeled Laptop

A laptop (sometimes called a notebook) is a small, portable computer that you can take with you and
use wherever you go – on the train, on holiday, in someone else’s house etc. It consists of a screen,
keyboard and a track pad or trackball which serves as a mouse. You can use it anywhere from its
battery or you can use its power adapter to plug it in to the main electricity supply, You will need to
do this sometimes to charge the battery.

(iv.) Netbooks / Notebooks

Netbooks/Notebooks are ultra-portable computers that are even smaller than traditional laptops
computers. They have 9 or 10 inch screens and are light in weight of about 2-3 pounds. They are
cheaper than a laptop, internal components are less powerful than those in regular laptops thereby
making them have less processing power than a full-sized laptop.

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 Netbooks are smaller than laptops

They can be used effectively for word processing, surfing/browsing the web, connecting wirelessly
to the Internet, their small size makes them convenient for travel. Netbooks usually don’t have a
CD/DVD drive – which helps reduce the size, but you can use them with a separate CD/DVD drive.

(v.) Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

A Pharmacist uses PDA device to Examples of PDA devices

keep drug records (database).

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory
instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on
touchscreen technology for user input. PDAs are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very
lightweight with a reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the PDA is the
handheld computer. It provides personal organizer functions such as a calendar, an appointment
book, an address book, a calculator and a notepad. Most PDAs also offer a variety of other application
software e.g., word processing, spreadsheet, games etc. They are Internet-enabled so users can check
e-mail and access the web.

(vi.) Workstation Most sound editors use computer workstations for sound editingAnother
type of computer is a workstation. A workstation is simply a desktop computer that has a more
powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of
task, such as 3D (3 – Dimensional) Graphics or game development.
(vii.) Server

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 Web server racks

A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a network. Servers
usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives.

(viii.) Mainframe

Whether it's a desktop (PC) or a Mainframe, the computing power depends on PROCESSOR. In the early
days of computing, mainframes were huge computers that could fill an entire room or even a whole
floor! As the size of computers has diminished while the power has increased, the term mainframe
has fallen out of use in favor of enterprise server. Mainframes are used in large companies or
industries that require huge processing and millions of transactions every day

(ix.) Supercomputer (Monster)

Supercomputers at Korea Institute of Science and Information Technology for research

purpose.

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This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most are composed of multiple high performance
computers working in parallel as a single system. Very powerful and expensive, used by large
organisations such as banks. The best known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.

(x.) Wearable Computer:

A woman wears Team Tsukamoto's prototype of a wearable PC

The latest trend in computing is wearable computers. Essentially, common computer applications
(i.e., e-mail, database, multimedia, music, notebook, play store, google+, calendar/scheduler) are
integrated into watches, cell phones, visors and even clothing.

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 LECTURE 2

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure. Computer hardware is the
physical parts or components of a computer that can be seen, touched or carried about as the case
may be. They are the tangible parts of the computer.
There are four major hardware components, namely:
(i) Input device.
(ii) Output device.
(iii) Central Processing Unit/System Unit
(iv) Backing Storage

Input Device: Is any hardware component that allows users to enter data and instructions into a
computer such as: Keyboard, mouse, joystick, Scanner, game controller, touch screen, biometric
input, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Magnetic Stripe Card Reader, digital pen, Bar Code
Reader (BCR), PC Video Camera (Webcam), Digital Camera, Microphone, Digital Video Camera,
Optical Mark and Character Recognition (OMCR) etc.

A labelled Keyoboard and Mouse

Output Device: Is any hardware component that conveys information to one or more people such
as: Monitors/Visual Display Unit (VDU)/Cathode Ray Tube(CRT), printers, speakers, headphones,
earphones, fax machines, projectors etc.
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 A labelled Printer

Central Processing Unit (CPU)/System Unit

Well Annotated Diagram of CPU

The System Unit is a box like structure of the computer. Inside this box you can find the power supply,
storage device, Hard Disk Drive (HDD), and floppy drives graphic cards, sound cards, memory,
motherboard and chips and so on, all of which are physical objects that can be touched
It also contains expansion slots and cards to connect various input and output devices. It can also
contain optional cards like the modem card, mouse card, video card, sound card. System unit or CPU
comes in two styles Mini-Tower model and Desktop model.

MONITORS, USES AND TYPES

A computer monitor is an electronic device that shows texts (i.e., letters), pictures (i.e.,
objects/diagrams, graphs/charts). Monitors often look similar to televisions. The main difference
between a monitor and a television is that a monitor does not have a television tuner to change
channels. Monitors often have higher display resolution than televisions. A high display resolution
makes it easier to see smaller letters and fine graphics.

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 TYPES OF MONITORS
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor.

A CRT Monitor

These are heavy, use a lot of desk space and electricity. It is the oldest technology used by monitors
and is based on the cathode ray tube technology that was developed for television. Monitors are made
with better parts which give a much higher display resolution and picture sharpness than a
television. This type of monitor is no longer popular.

Flat Panel Monitor

LCD Flat Monitor much thinner and lighter than monitors with a Cathode Ray Tube.

They take less space and are lightweight. These monitors use much less power than CRTs. It does not
emit harmful radiations. It is much expensive than CRT. Notebook computers, PDA and cellular
phones use flat panel monitors. Flat panel monitors are available in different sizes such as 15”, 17”,
18” & 19” etc. There are two types of technologies used in flat panel display screens.

(i.) The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitor: Liquid crystal display screen contains a
substance called liquid crystal. This is the most common kind of flat panel display. It is a newer
technology than CRT. LCD monitors use much less desk space, are lightweight and use less electricity
than CRT. They have been used for many years in the screens of laptop and notebook computers.

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They also work as touch screens in tablet computers, mobile phones, and other handheld
technologies.
(ii.) Gas plasma Display: Gas plasma display uses gas plasma technology. Plasma display is
available in the sizes of up to 150 inches wide. It provides richer colors than LCD monitors but are
more expensive, that is why it is not commonly used. It provides higher display quality.

Touch Screen Monitors

Touch screen monitors are used for input as well as output. It lets the user to interact with a computer
by the touch of a finger rather than typing on a keyboard or moving a mouse. The user enters data by
touching icons or menus identified on the screen. Touch screen is well suited for simple applications
like ATM. It has also become common in departmental stores and supermarkets.

BACKING STORAGE DEVICES, USES AND CARE

Backing storage holds data, instructions and information for future use. For example, the home user
might store letters, budgets, bank statements, a household inventory, records of stock purchases, tax
data, addresses of friends and relatives, daily schedules, e-mail messages, homework, assignments
etc. Storage requirements among users vary greatly, home users typically have much smaller storage
requirements than business users or office users.
Backing up your digital storage is like insurance is to driving, you need it even though you hope you'll
never have to use it. Unfortunately, backing up is not required by law, and I've seen a lot of accidents
where individuals or institutions or departments lose their precious data. You can buy a new car but
you can't buy back lost memories/data/information, no matter how much money you have.
In short, I can't stress enough how important backing up is, the good news is it's very easy, and cheap,
to have a backup drive for your computer. Here are the lists of backing storage media. They are all
affordable, easy to use, and work with both Windows PCs and Macs. Examples of backing storage
media are: Hard Disks Drive (HDD), external hard disk, floppy disks, CDs and DVDs, tape, Flash
Memory Cards, USB Flash Drives, Smart Cards etc.

BACKING STORAGE AND USES

BACKING STORAGE USES
Hard Disks Drive (HDD) The main/primary device that a computer uses to store
(internal or Fixed) information. Most computers come with a hard drive, called drive
C, located inside the computer case.
External or Removable Is a separate free-standing hard disk that connect with a cable to
Hard Disk USB port or FireWire port on the system unit. The advantages are:
It is used to transport a large number of files, back up important
file or an entire internal hard disk, easily store large audio and
video files, secure your data, add storage space to a notebook
computer etc.
OPTICAL DISCS A CD can store a large amount of data including
CD-ROM(Compact Disk – documents, photographs, software, and music (about 20 songs)
Read Only Memory)
CD-R
A CD-Recordable drive can put data onto a disk in just one session,
and then is "closed" - one "burn" only - you can't add to it after you
create it.
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 CD-RW
A CD-ReWritable drive can be written onto more than once -
similar to a floppy or hard disk
DVD-ROM(Digital Video Used to store full-length movies, large programs, etc.
Disk or Digital Versatile
Disk- Read-Only Memory
USB Flash Drive These can hold documents, pictures, and music. Some flash drives
are also MP3 players.
Online storage (e.g., Some users choose online storage instead of storing data locally on
Dropbox, Google drive, hard disk. It is service on the Web that provides hard disk storage
Google+ etc) to computer users for free or minimal monthly fee. Advantage is to
access files on the internet hard disk from any computer or device
anywhere at anytime.
Floppy disks/diskette Is a portable, inexpensive storage medium. Floppy disks are not as
widely used as they were 15 years ago because of their low storage
capacity. A floppy disk drive is a device that reads from and writes
on a floppy disk.
Flash Memory Cards e.g., CompactFlash: It is used in Digital cameras, PDAs, smart phones,
CompactFlash (CF), Secure photo printers, portable media players, notebook computers,
Digital(SD), xD Picture Card desktop computers. Capacity: 64MB to 16GB
and Memory Stick
USB Flash Drives/pen Is a flash memory storage device that plugs in a Universal Serial
drive/thumb drive Bus (USB) port on a computer. It is convenient for mobile users,
small and lightweight to be transported
Smart Cards It is similar in size to a credit card or ATM card, stores data on a
thin microprocessor embedded in the card. It contains a processor,
input, process, output and storage capabilities. When you insert
the card in a specialized card reader, the information on the smart
card is read and, if necessary updated. Uses of the smart cards are:
storing medical records, vaccination data, health care or
identification information, storing a prepaid amount of money,
student purchases on campus and building access.

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 LECTURE 3

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF COMPUTING

Ancient Times

Early Man relied on counting on his fingers and toes (which by the way, is the basis for our base 10
numbering system). He also used sticks and stones as markers. Later notched sticks and knotted
cords were used for counting. Finally came symbols written on hides, parchment, and later paper.
Man invents the concept of number, then invents devices to help keep up with the numbers of his
possessions.

Roman Empire

The ancient Romans developed an Abacus, the first "machine" for calculating. While it predates the
Chinese abacus we do not know if it was the ancestor of that Abacus. Counters in the lower groove
are 1 x 10n, those in the upper groove are 5 x 10n

Industrial Age - 1600

John Napier, a Scottish nobleman and politician devoted much of his leisure time to the study of
mathematics. He was especially interested in devising ways to aid computations. His greatest
contribution was the invention of logarithms. He inscribed logarithmic measurements on a set of 10
wooden rods and thus was able to do multiplication and division by matching up numbers on the
rods. These became known as Napier’s Bones.

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1621 - The Sliderule

Napier invented logarithms, Edmund Gunter invented the logarithmic scales (lines etched on metal
or wood), but it was William Oughtred, in England who invented the sliderule. Using the concept of
Napier’s bones, he inscribed logarithms on strips of wood and invented the calculating "machine"
which was used up until the mid-1970s when the first hand-held calculators and microcomputers
appeared.

1642 - Blaise Pascal(1623-1662)

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematical genius, at the age of 19 invented a machine, which he called the
Pascaline that could do addition and subtraction to help his father, who was also a mathematician.
Pascal’s machine consisted of a series of gears with 10 teeth each, representing the numbers 0 to 9.
As each gear made one turn it would trip the next gear up to make 1/10 of a revolution. This principle
remained the foundation of all mechanical adding machines for centuries after his death. The Pascal
programming language was named in his honor.

1673 - Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented differential and integral calculus independently of Sir Isaac
Newton, who is usually given sole credit. He invented a calculating machine known as Leibniz’s
Wheel or the Step Reckoner. It could add and subtract, like Pascal’s machine, but it could also
multiply and divide. It did this by repeated additions or subtractions, the way mechanical adding
machines of the mid to late 20th century did. Leibniz also invented something essential to modern
computers — binary arithmetic.

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1725 - The Bouchon Loom

Basile Bouchon, the son of an organ maker, worked in the textile industry. At this time fabrics with
very intricate patterns woven into them were very much in vogue. To weave a complex pattern,
however involved somewhat complicated manipulations of the threads in a loom which frequently
became tangled, broken, or out of place. Bouchon observed the paper rolls with punched holes that
his father made to program his player organs and adapted the idea as a way of "programming" a
loom. The paper passed over a section of the loom and where the holes appeared certain threads
were lifted. As a result, the pattern could be woven repeatedly. This was the first punched paper,
stored program. Unfortunately the paper tore and was hard to advance. So, Bouchon’s loom never
really caught on and eventually ended up in the back room collecting dust.

1728 - Falçon Loom

In 1728 Jean-Batist Falçon, substituted a deck of punched cardboard cards for the paper roll of
Bouchon’s loom. This was much more durable, but the deck of cards tended to get shuffled and it was
tedious to continuously switch cards. So, Falçon’s loom ended up collecting dust next to Bouchon’s
loom

1745 - Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)

It took inventor Joseph M. Jacquard to bring together Bouchon’s idea of a continuous punched roll,
and Falcon’s ides of durable punched cards to produce a really workable programmable loom.
Weaving operations were controlled by punched cards tied together to form a long loop. And, you
could add as many cards as you wanted. Each time a thread was woven in, the roll was clicked
forward by one card. The results revolutionized the weaving industry and made a lot of money for
Jacquard. This idea of punched data storage was later adapted for computer data input.

1822 – Charles Babbage (1791-1871) and Ada Augusta, The Countess of Lovelace

Charles Babbage is known as the Father of the modern computer (even though none of his computers
worked or were even constructed in their entirety). He first designed plans to build, what he called
the Automatic Difference Engine. It was designed to help in the construction of mathematical tables
for navigation. Unfortunately, engineering limitations of his time made it impossible for the computer
to be built. His next project was much more ambitious.

While a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University (where Stephen Hawkin is now), a

position he never actually occupied, he proposed the construction of a machine he called the Analytic
Engine. It was to have a punched card input, a memory unit (called the store), an arithmetic unit
(called the mill), automatic printout, sequential program control, and 20-place decimal accuracy. He
had actually worked out a plan for a computer 100 years ahead of its time. Unfortunately it was never
completed. It had to wait for manufacturing technology to catch up to his ideas.

During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada Lovelace translated Italian mathematician Luigi
Menabrea's memoir on Charles Babbage's Analytic Engine. With her translation she appended a set
of notes which specified in complete detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the
Engine. Historians now recognize this as the world's first computer program and honor her as the
first programmer. Too bad she has such an ill-received programming language named after her.

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1880s – Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)

The computer trail next takes us to, of all places, the U.S. Bureau of Census. In 1880 taking the U.S.
census proved to be a monumental task. By the time it was completed it was almost time to start over
for the 1890 census. To try to overcome this problem the Census Bureau hired Dr. Herman Hollerith.
In 1887, using Jacquard’s idea of the punched card data storage, Hollerith developed a punched card
tabulating system, which allowed the census takers to record all the information needed on punched
cards which were then placed in a special tabulating machine with a series of counters. When a lever
was pulled a number of pins came down on the card. Where there was a hole the pin went through
the card and made contact with a tiny pool of mercury below and tripped one of the counters by one.
With Hollerith’s machine the 1890 census tabulation was completed in 1/8 the time. And they
checked the count twice.

After the census Hollerith turned to using his tabulating machines for business and in 1896 organized
the Tabulating Machine Company which later merged with other companies to become IBM. His
contribution to the computer then is the use of punched card data storage. BTW: The punched cards
in computers were made the same size as those of Hollerith’s machine. And, Hollerith chose the size
he did because that was the same size as the one dollar bill at that time and therefore he could find
plenty of boxes just the right size to hold the cards.

1939-1942 Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff(1903-1995) and Clifford Berry (1918-1963)

Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff and his graduate assistant, Clifford Barry, built the first truly electronic
computer, called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer or ABC. Atanasoff said the idea came to him as he
was sitting in a small roadside tavern in Illinois. This computer used a circuit with 45 vacuum tubes
to perform the calculations, and capacitors for storage. This was also the first computer to use binary
math.

1943 – Colossus I

The first really successful electronic computer was built in Bletchley Park, England. It was capable of
performing only one function, that of code breaking during World War II. It could not be re-
programmed.

1944 – Mark I - Howard Aiken (1900-1973) and Grace Hopper (1906-1992)

In 1944 Dr. Howard Aiken of Harvard finished the construction of the Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator, popularly known as the Mark I. It contained over 3000 mechanical relays and was the first
electro-mechanical computer capable of making logical decisions, like if x==3 then do this not like If
its raining outside I need to carry an umbrella. It could perform an addition in 3/10 of a second.
Compare that with something on the order of a couple of nano-seconds (billionths of a second) today.

The important contribution of this machine was that it was programmed by means of a punched
paper tape, and the instructions could be altered. In many ways, the Mark I was the realization of
Babbage’s dream.

One of the primary programmers for the Mark I was Grace Hopper. One day the Mark I was
malfunctioning and not reading its paper tape input correctly. Ms Hopper checked out the reader and
found a dead moth in the mechanism with its wings blocking the reading of the holes in the paper

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tape. She removed the moth, taped it into her log book, and recorded... Relay #70 Panel F (moth) in
relay. First actual case of bug being found.

She had debugged the program, and while the word bug had been used to describe defects since at
least 1889, she is credited with coining the word debugging to describe the work of eliminating
program errors. It was Howard Aiken, in 1947, who made the rather short-sighted comment to the
effect that the computer is a wonderful machine, but I can see that six such machines would be
enough to satisfy all the computing needs of the entire United States.

1946 – ENIAC - J. Prosper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980)

The first all electronic computer was the Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator, known
as ENIAC. It was designed by J. Prosper Eckert and John W. Mauchly of the Moore School of
Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC was the first multipurpose electronic
computer, though very difficult to re-program. It was primarily used to computer aircraft courses,
shell trajectories, and to break codes during World War II.

ENIAC occupied a 20 x 40 foot room and used 18,000 vacuum tubes. ENIAC also could never be
turned off. If it was it blew too many tubes when turned back on. It had a very limited storage capacity
and it was programmed by jumper wires plugged into a large board.

1948 – The Transister

In 1948 an event occurred that was to forever change the course of computers and electronics.
Working at Bell Labs three scientists, John Bordeen (1908-1991) (left), Waltar Brattain (1902-1987)
(right), and William Shockly (1910-1989) (seated) invented the transistor.

The change over from vacuum tube circuits to transistor circuits occurred between 1956 and 1959.
This brought in the second generation of computers, those based on transisters. The first generation
was mechanical and vacuum tube computers.

1951 – UNIVAC

The first practical electronic computer was built by Eckert and Mauchly (of ENIAC fame) and was
known as UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer). The first UNIVAC was used by the Bureau of
Census. The unique feature of the UNIVAC was that it was not a one-of-a-kind computer. It was mass
produced.

1954 – IBM 650

In 1954 the first electronic computer for business was installed at General Electric Appliance Park in
Louisville, Kentucky. This year also saw the beginning of operation of the IBM 650 in Boston. This
comparatively inexpensive computer gave IBM the lead in the computer market. Over 1000 650s
were sold.

1957-59 – IBM 704

From 1957-1959 the IBM 704 computer appeared, for which the Fortran language was developed.
At this time the state of the art in computers allowed 1 component per chip, that is individual
transistors.

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1958 - 1962 – Programming languages

From 1958-1962 many programming languages were developed. FORTRAN (FORmula

TRANslator), COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language), LISP (LISt Processor), ALGOL
(ALGOrithmic Language), BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

1964 – IBM System/360

In 1964 the beginning of the third-generation computers came with the introduction of the IBM
System/360. Thanks to the new hybrid circuits (that gross looking orange thing in the circuit board
on the right), the state of the art in computer technology allowed for 10 components per chip.

1965 - PDP-8

In 1965 the first integrated circuit computer, the PDP-8 from Digital Equipment Corporation
appeared. (PDP stands for Programmable Data Processor) After this the real revolution in computer
cost and size began.

1970 - Integrated Circuits

By the early 70s the state of the art in computer technology allowed for 1000 components per chip.
To get an idea of just how much the size of electronic components had shrunk by this time look at the
image on the right. The woman is peering through a microscope at a 16K RAM memory integrated
circuit. The stand she has her microscopy sitting on is a 16K vacuum tube memory curcuit from about
20 years previous

1971 – Intel

The Intel corporation produced the first microprocessor chip which was a 4-bit chip. Today’s chips
are 64-bit. At approximately 1/16 x 1/8 inches in size, this chip contained 250 transistors and had
all the computing power of ENIAC. It matched IBM computers of the early 60s that had a CPU the size
of an office desk.

1975 – Altair 8800

The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics carried an article, the first, to describe the Altair 8800,
the first low-cost microprocessor computer which had just became commercially available.

Late 1970s to early 1980s – The Microcomputer Explosion

During this period many companies appeared and disappeared, manufacturing a variety of
microcomputers (they were called micro to distinguish them from the mainframes which some
people referred to as real computers). There was Radio Shack’s TRS-80, the Commodore 64, the
Atari, but...

1977 - The Apple II

The most successful of the early microcomputers was the Apple II, designed and built by Steve
Wozniak. With fellow computer whiz and business savvy friend, Steve Jobs, they started Apple
Computer in 1977 in Woz’s garage. Less than three years later the company earned over $100 million.
Not bad for a couple of college dropout computer geeks.

1981
In 1981, IBM produced their first microcomputer. Then the clones started to appear. This

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microcomputer explosion fulfilled its slogan computers by the millions for the millions. Compared
to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 80s:

Microcomputers were 20 times faster (Apple II ran at the speed of ¼ Megahertz). Had a memory
capacity as much as 16 times larger (Apple had 64 K). Microcomputers were thousands of times more
reliable. Consumed the power of a light bulb instead of a locomotive. Microcomputers were 1/30,000
the size. Cost 1/10,000 as much in comparable dollars (An Apple II with full 64 K of RAM cost $1200
in 1979. That’s the equivalent of about $8000 to $10000 in today's dollars)

1984-1989

In 1984 the Macintosh was introduced. This was the first mass-produced, commercially-available
computer with a Graphical User Interface. In 1989 Windows 1.0 was introduced for the PC. It was
sort of Mac-like but greatly inferior. Macintosh owners were know to refer to it sarcastically as AGAM-
84 Almost as Good As Macintosh 84.

1990s
Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the 90s: Were 36,000 times faster (450 Megahertz was the
average speed). Had a memory capacity 1000 to 5000 times larger (average was between 4 and 20
Megabytes) Were 1/30,000 the size . Cost 1/30,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC still cost
around $1500 the equivalent of about $2500 in 2008 dollars)

Early 2000s

Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 2000s: Are 180,000 times faster (2.5+ Gigahertz is
the average speed). Have a memory capacity 25,000 times larger (average 1+ Gigabytes of RAM). Are
1/30,000 the size Cost 1/60,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC can cost from $700 to $1500)

Data Storage

Data storage has also grown in capacity and shrunk in size as dramatically as have computers. Today
a single data DVD will hold around 4.8 gigabytes. It would take 90,000,000 punch cards to hold the
same amount of data. And, there is talk of a new high density video disk (HVD) that will be able to
hold fifty times that much data. That's more than 240 gigabytes.

Just how much data is that:

8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 K = 1 Megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes
1024 Mb = 1 Gigabyte = 10,73,741,824 bytes
1024 Gb = 1 Terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
1024 Tb = 1 Petabyte = 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes
1024 Pb = 1 Exabyte = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes
1024 Eb = 1 Zettabyte = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes
1024 Zb = 1 Yottabyte = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
The First Generation (1946 – 1958)

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• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and
were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions
• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming
language understood by computers, to perform operations and they could only solve one problem at
a time.
• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts

Vacuum tube

The Second Generation (1959 – 1964)

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
• One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes
• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energyefficient and more
reliable
• Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words
• Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology

Transistor

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The Third Generation (965 – 1970)
• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
• Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.
• It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.
• Users interact with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and
interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at
one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors

Integrated Circuit

The Fourth Generation (1971 – today)

• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

Microprocessor

The Fifth Generation (Today to future) • Based on

Artificial Intelligence (AI).

• Still in development.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality

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• The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

Computer Generations and Their Characteristics

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 LESSON 4
INFORMATION SYSTEMS

An information system (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to

collect, process, store, and distribute information.

From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed of four components: task,
people, structure (or roles), and technology.

Welcome to the world of information systems, a world that seems to change almost daily. Over the
past few decades information systems have progressed to being virtually everywhere, even to the
point where you may not realize its existence in many of your daily activities. Let us consider how
we interface with various components in information systems every day through different electronic
devices; Smartphones, laptop, and personal computers, all these connect us constantly to a variety of
systems including messaging, banking, online retailing, and academic resources, just to name a few
examples. Information systems are at the center of virtually every organization, providing users with
almost unlimited resources.

Have you ever considered why businesses invest in technology? Some purchase computer hardware
and software because everyone else has computers. Some even invest in the same hardware and
software as their business friends even though different technology might be more appropriate for
them, some businesses do sufficient research before deciding what best fits their needs. It is always
good to be wise in taking decisions as this will stabilize the growth for your future enterprise.
Information systems surround you almost every day. Wi-fi networks on your university campus,
database search services in the learning resource center, and printers in computer labs are good
examples. Every time you go shopping you are interacting with an information system that manages
inventory and sales. Even driving to school or work results in an interaction with the transportation
information system, impacting traffic lights, cameras, etc. Vending machines connect and
communicate using the Internet of Things (IoT). Your car’s computer system does more than just
control the engine – acceleration, shifting, and braking data is always recorded. And, of course,
everyone’s smartphone is constantly connecting to available networks via Wi-fi, recording your
location and other data.

Defining Information Systems

Many programs in business require students to take a course in information systems. Various authors
have attempted to define the term in different ways. Read the following definitions, then see if you
can detect some variances.

(i.) “An information system (IS) can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components
that collect, process, store, and distribute information to support decision making and control in an
organization.
(ii.) “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications
networks that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute useful data, typically in
organizational settings.

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(iii.) “Information systems are interrelated components working together to collect, process, store,
and disseminate information to support decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and
visualization in an organization.

As you can see these definitions focus on two different ways of describing information systems:
the components that make up an information system and the role those components play in an
organization. Each of these need to be examined.

The Components of Information Systems

Information systems can be viewed as having five major components: hardware, software, data,
people, and processes. The first three are technology. These are probably what you thought of when
defining information systems. The last two components, people and processes, separate the idea of
information systems from more technical fields, such as Computer Science. In order to fully
understand information systems, you will need to understand how all of these components work
together to bring value to an organization.

A. Technology

Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. From
the invention of the wheel to the harnessing of electricity for artificial lighting, technology has
become ubiquitous in daily life, to the degree that it is assumed to always be available for use
regardless of location. As discussed before, the first three components of information systems are:
hardware, software, and data – all fall under the category of technology.
(i.) Hardware
Hardware is the tangible, physical portion of an information system – the part you can touch.
Computers, keyboards, disk drives, and flash drives are all examples of information systems
hardware.
The hardware components of the computer system are the parts of the computer that can be handled
physically. They are the basic part upon which the computer software runs. Unlike the software
which can be modified, created, or deleted, the hardware part of the computer are changed
infrequently. Because they are physical, they are susceptible to damages. Hence, the reason they are
changed.

Computer hardware does not just apply to our personal desktop or laptops as we see it. There are
many other systems such as cars, DVD players, ovens, etc. that also use computer hardware. Here are
10 computer hardware and their importance.

(a.) The Motherboard: The name "Motherboard" is very suitable for this hardware. It is a circuit
board – the computer's main circuit board that contains different components that are soldered and
non-removable, as well as the removable ones with slots or sockets. It is the part of the computer
that houses the CPU chips, and the ROM and RAM chips, etc.
(b.) Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is like the computer's brain that takes instructions
and works on them. It applies the program instructions to the input data then turns it into an output.
There are two components of the CPU. These are the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control
Unit.

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 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit is the part of the CPU responsible for executing the instructions.
It is able to convert data to diverse internal formats, as well as compare data, multiply and add
numbers, etc.
 The Control Unit is responsible for "housekeeping." It ensures the swift processing of the
instructions in its proper sequence and only works on correct data To put it in one sentence, the CPU
is the life/brain of the computer.
(c.) Monitor/ Display Screen: This is an essential part of the computer as it is the part that users
relate to the most. It is an output device that works just the same as a TV and basically shows the
users' activities on the screen. Monitors vary among different computers in both resolution and size.
The screen size varies from sizes as small as 12 -14 inches to the bigger 40+ inches used for video
conferences. The difference in the resolution also depends on different technical factors.
(d.) The Keyboard: This is an important input device on the computer system. It is one means by
which information can enter the computer. This information is usually displayed first on the
computer's monitor. The keyboard has a layout similar to the typewriter which was modeled after.
While the QWERTY layout of the keyboard was designed to slow down the typewriter operator to
prevent the keys from getting stuck it is now counter-productive on computers being able to process
the input faster
(e.) The Mouse – Pointing Device: The mouse is another input device that is essential for moving
and pointing on the monitor. The outer part is plastic molded and the bottom has a small bat. It is
designed so that it fits right into the palm and can be moved easily by the hand. The small ball at the
bottom rolls as the mouse is moved over a flat surface. This movement corresponds with the pointer
or cursor which is seen on the monitor. The mouse also has two buttons – the right and left buttons
– which can be used for showing menu items, selecting icons, or tracing drawings on the monitor.
The trackball in between the two mouse buttons also does the work of the mouse. It can be
manipulated to move the cursor on the monitor without having to move the mouse around a surface.
(f.) Random Access Memory (RAM): The RAM is made up of silicon microchips with millions of
small transistors. It is very similar to the CPU chips in this regard and the technology is based on the
Law of Moore. One chip of a RAM can hold up hundreds of Megabyte. These chips are pre-soldered
on some memory circuit boards known as SIMMS or DIMMS (Single/Dual In-line Memory Modules).
There are two types of RAM: Cache memory which operates at the same speed with the CPU and
Flash RAM which is made of RAM chips. It is not as volatile as the normal RAM and can hold content
even in the absence of external power.
(g.) Read-only memory (ROM): The ROM is also made of electronic microchips and is able to
retain its content when power switches off. ROM is used for holding program instructions that can't
be changed throughout the life of the computer because the content of ROM is impossible or very
difficult to remove. For instance, ROM is used mainly for storing a boot program which is the
instructions that the computer follows to perform self-diagnosis when it's switched on. This tells the
computer how it will load the OS from secondary storage. ROM has different forms which include
PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory), EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory,)
and EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory).
(h.) Printers and plotters: These are output devices that are popular for producing computer
output that is permanent and paper-based. There is a distinction which divides printers into two
types: impact printers and non-impact printers. Impact printers use a needle or hammer hitting the
inked ribbon so that it leaves the desired impression on the paper. But non-impact printers do not
have many parts moving mechanically, so they are more reliable and also much quieter. There are

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different types of printers that are in use currently. They are Dot-matrix printers, Laser printers,
Thermal printers, Inkjet printers, plotters, chain, and line printers.
(i.) Power Supply: This is a device that takes power to the different components of the computer
as its name suggests. The outer case has a voltage control, transformer, and a fan. It is responsible for
supplying low-voltage DC power to the different internal components of the computer, which
converts from 100-120 volts of AC power. This power supply is usually built in a way that conforms
to the ATX form factor. With this, it is enabled to interchange with other components in the computer.

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 Lecture 5

B. Software

A diagram showing how the user interacts with application software on a typical desktop computer.
The application software layer interfaces with the operating system, which in turn communicates
with the hardware. The arrows indicate information flow.

Software is a collection of instructions and data that tell a computer how to work. This is in contrast
to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In computer
science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer
systems, including programs and data. Computer software includes computer
programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media.
Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.
At the lowest programming level, executable code consists of machine language instructions
supported by an individual processor—typically a central processing unit (CPU) or a graphics
processing unit (GPU). A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor
instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an
instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location in the computer—an effect
that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also invoke one of many input or output
operations, for example displaying some text on a computer screen; causing state changes which
should be visible to the user. The processor executes the instructions in the order they are provided,
unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction, or is interrupted by the operating system.
As of 2015, most personal computers, smartphone devices and servers have processors with multiple
execution units or multiple processors performing computation together, and computing has become
a much more concurrent activity than in the past.
The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages. They are easier and more
efficient for programmers because they are closer to natural languages than machine
languages.[1] High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or
an interpreter or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly
language, which has strong correspondence to the computer's machine language instructions and is
translated into machine language using an assembler. Based on the goal, computer software can be
divided into:

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(i.) Application Software: which is software that uses the computer system to perform special
functions or provide entertainment functions beyond the basic operation of the computer itself.
There are many different types of application software, because the range of tasks that can be
performed with a modern computer is so large.
(ii.) System software: which is software for managing computer hardware behaviour, as to
provide basic functionalities that are required by users, or for other software to run properly, if at
all. System software is also designed for providing a platform for running application software, and
it includes the following:
 Operating systems which are essential collections of software that manage resources and
provide common services for other software that runs "on top" of them. Supervisory programs, boot
loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating
system comes bundled with additional software (including application software) so that a user can
potentially do some work with a computer that only has one operating system.
 Device drivers which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a
computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; because a computer typically
has at minimum at least one input device and at least one output device, a computer typically needs
more than one device driver.
 Utility Programs which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance
and care of their computers. They help to manage, maintain and control computer resources.
Operating systems usually contain the necessary tools for this, but separate utility programs can
provide improved functionality.
 Translating Programs: which are computer programs that translate one program (source
program) into another program (target program/code) without changing or altering the
functionality of the program being translated.

Malicious software or malware which is software that is developed to harm and disrupt computers.
As such, malware is undesirable. Malware is closely associated with computer-related crimes, though
some malicious programs may have been designed as practical jokes.

Nature or domain of Software execution

Desktop applications such as web browsers and Microsoft Office, as well
as smartphone and tablet applications (called "apps"). (There is a push in some parts of the software
industry to merge desktop applications with mobile apps, to some extent. Windows 8, and
later Ubuntu Touch, tried to allow the same style of application user interface to be used on desktops,
laptops and mobiles.)

JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally embedded in web pages that are run directly
inside the web browser when a web page is loaded without the need for a web browser plugin.
Software written in other programming languages can also be run within the web browser if the
software is either translated into JavaScript, or if a web browser plugin that supports that language
is installed; the most common example of the latter is ActionScript scripts, which are supported by
the Adobe Flash plugin.

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Server software, including:
Web applications, which usually run on the web server and output dynamically generated web pages
to web browsers, using e.g. PHP, Java, ASP.NET, or even JavaScript that runs on the server. In modern
times these commonly include some JavaScript to be run in the web browser as well, in which case
they typically run partly on the server, partly in the web browser.

Plugins and extensions are software that extends or modifies the functionality of another piece of
software, and require that software be used in order to function;

Embedded software resides as firmware within embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single use
or a few uses such as cars and televisions (although some embedded devices such as wireless
chipsets can themselves be part of an ordinary, non-embedded computer system such as a PC or
smartphone).[12] In the embedded system context there is sometimes no clear distinction between
the system software and the application software. However, some embedded systems run embedded
operating systems, and these systems do retain the distinction between system software and
application software (although typically there will only be one, fixed application which is always
run).

Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of embedded software which tells the
processor itself how to execute machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine code. It is
typically proprietary to the processor manufacturer, and any necessary correctional microcode
software updates are supplied by them to users (which is much cheaper than shipping replacement
processor hardware). Thus an ordinary programmer would not expect to ever have to deal with it.

Programming tools
Programming tools are also software in the form of programs or applications that software
developers (also known as programmers, coders, hackers or software engineers) use to
create, debug, maintain (i.e. improve or fix), or otherwise support software.
Software is written in one or more programming languages; there are many programming languages
in existence, and each has at least one implementation, each of which consists of its own set of
programming tools. These tools may be relatively self-contained programs such
as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to
accomplish a task; or they may form an integrated development environment (IDE), which combines
much or all of the functionality of such self-contained tools. IDEs may do this by either invoking the
relevant individual tools or by re-implementing their functionality in a new way. An IDE can make it
easier to do specific tasks, such as searching in files in a particular project. Many programming
language implementations provide the option of using both individual tools or an IDE.

Software architecture
Users often see things differently from programmers. People who use modern general purpose
computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers and supercomputers) usually see
three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.

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(i.) Platform software: The Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system,
and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and
its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer.
On a PC one will usually have the ability to change the platform software
(ii.) Application software: Application software or Applications are what most people think of
when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application
software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are
bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent
applications. Applications are usually independent programs from the operating system, though they
are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system
software" as applications.
(iii.) User-written software: End-user development tailors systems to meet users' specific needs.
User software includes spreadsheet templates and word processor templates. Even email filters are
a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it
is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into default
application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the original packages,
and what has been added by co-workers.
Execution
Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as the hard
drive or memory). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This
involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the
hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the
computer to carry out an operation—moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control
flow of instructions.
Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data
between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data,
especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data
instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data
element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together.

Quality and reliability

Software quality and Software testing
Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software like Microsoft
Office, Microsoft Windows and Linux. If software is faulty (buggy), it can delete a person's work, crash
the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called "bugs" which are often
discovered during alpha and beta testing. Software is often also a victim to what is known as software
aging, the progressive performance degradation resulting from a combination of unseen bugs.
Many bugs are discovered and eliminated (debugged) through software testing. However, software
testing rarely—if ever—eliminates every bug; some programmers say that "every program has at
least one more bug" (Lubarsky's Law).[13] In the waterfall method of software development, separate
testing teams are typically employed, but in newer approaches, collectively termed agile software
development, developers often do all their own testing, and demonstrate the software to
users/clients regularly to obtain feedback. Software can be tested through unit testing, regression
testing and other methods, which are done manually, or most commonly, automatically, since the
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amount of code to be tested can be quite large. For instance, NASA has extremely rigorous software
testing procedures for many operating systems and communication functions. Many NASA-based
operations interact and identify each other through command programs. This enables many people
who work at NASA to check and evaluate functional systems overall. Programs containing command
software enable hardware engineering and system operations to function much easier together.
Software license
The software's license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment, and
in the case of free software licenses, also grants other rights such as the right to make copies.
Proprietary software can be divided into two types:

 freeware, which includes the category of "free trial" software or "freemium" software (in the
past, the term shareware was often used for free trial/freemium software). As the name suggests,
freeware can be used for free, although in the case of free trials or freemium software, this is
sometimes only true for a limited period of time or with limited functionality.
 software available for a fee, often inaccurately termed "commercial software", which can only
be legally used on purchase of a license.
Open-source software, on the other hand, comes with a free software license, granting the recipient
the rights to modify and redistribute the software.

C. DATA AND INFORMATION

Data

Data can be defined as a representation of facts (raw facts), concepts or instructions un a formalized
manner which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine. Data is represented with the help of chatracters like alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits
(0-9) or special characters (+,-,/,*,>,<,#,$,=, etc.).

They are input raw materials from which information is produced. Data are facts obtained by reading,
observation, counting, measuring, weighing, etc., which are then recorded. Data are driven from both
external and internal sources and whilst most external data are in readily usable and concrete forms
(e.g. bank statements, purchase invoices), internal activities required appropriate measuring and
recording systems so that facts can be captured.

Data Processing Cycle: Data processing is the re-structuring pr re-ordering of data by people or
machines to increase their usefulness and add values for particular purpose. Data processing consists
of basic steps input, processing and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

 Input: In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing, the form
will depend on the processing machine. For electronic computers, the input data could be recorded
in any one of several types of input medium such as magnetic disks, tapes, etc.
 Processing: In this step, input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. This is
an intermediary between the input and the output cycle
 Output: Here the result of the preceding processing step are collected. The particular form of
the output data depends on the use of the data.


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Information

What is Information?: Information is organized or classified data which has some meaningful
values for the receiver. Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics:

 Timely- Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy- Information should be accurate.
 Completeness- Information should be complete.

Information is knowledge and understanding that is usable by the recipient. It reduces uncertainty
and has surprise value. It must tell the recipient something not already known which could not be
predicted. If a message or report does not have these attributes, as far as the recipient is concerned,
it contains merely data not information.

Information is to assist to plan, to control, and to make decisions. Relevant information:

a) Increases knowledge
b) Reduces uncertainty
c) Is usable for the intended purpose

Information Classifications
Information may be classified in many ways including:
By Source: e.g. internal, external, primary, secondary, Government etc
By Nature: e.g. quantitative, qualitative, formal, informal etc
By Level: e.g. strategic, tactical, operational etc
By Time: e.g. historical, present, future
By Frequency: e.g. continuous (real time), hourly, daily, monthly, yearly, annually etc
By Use: e.g. planning, control, decision making etc
By Form: e.g. written, aural, visual, sensory etc
By Occurrence: e.g. at planned intervals, occasional making etc
By Type: e.g. detailed, summarized, aggregated, abstracted etc

The Functions Performed by Information

In addition to the general function of improving knowledge, information assists management in
several ways including:
 The reduction of uncertainty: uncertainty exists where there is less than perfect knowledge.
Rarely, if ever, is there perfect knowledge but relevant information helps to reduce the unknown.
This is particularly relevant in planning and decision making.
 As an aid to monitoring and control: by providing information about performance and the
extent of deviation
 As a means of communication: Managers need to know about developments, plans, forecasts,
impending changes and so on.
 As a memory supplement: By having historical information about performance, transactions,
results of past actions and decisions available for reference, personal memories are supplemented.
 As aid to supplication by reducing uncertainty and enhancing understanding problems and
situations are simplified and become more manageable.

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Quality of information
Useful information should have certain attributes it should be:
 Brief: The information needs to be concise as possible: too much detail can result in
overlooking vital facts. A stock report giving the amount sold and quality in stock of every one of a
hundred thousand items which is not useful to a manager who needs to know which are the top
selling items or the items which are not selling enough: a summary or aggregate of data is needed.
Reports which only list items on which some action may be required are known as exception reports.
 Accurate: Information which is inaccurate is likely to lead to poor decisions made and a loss
of confidence in the source of the information. Sometimes information can only be given with a
certain probability that it will be correct: for example, a farmer may rely on the weather forecast is
unlikely to be 100% accurate.
 Up-to-date. Sometime information needs to be up to the minute, for example in a booking
system or ordering system where a customer needs to know whether a certain item is available. In
other cases, it may not matter if the information is not up to the minute: a theatre manager reviewing
the season’s ticket sales does not necessary need the figure for the right person at the right time.
 Timely: Report must reach the right person at the right time.
 Right level of detail: Information is sometimes too detailed for a manager to be make sense
of it. The principle of reporting by exception is very important in management information - in other
words, only items that need some action on them are reported.
 In an appropriate format. Information can be useless if presented in a format which
managers cannot understand. Sometimes a graph or chart may be a better way of presenting
information than giving a list of figures.+

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 LECTURE 6

ROLE OF COMPUTER IN SOCIETY

Role of computer in business

Small businesses use the computer as there are now very cheap microcomputers. Business
organizations now have a number of facts and a lot of numbers to be processed. So many businesses
have started using the computer, for example to calculate the salary, to identify the goods sold and
are still in stock, to issue and send or receive business statements, letters, invoices and more.
The use of computers and office equipment to assist other managers, clerks, and the management of
office automation mentioned. One of them is a word processing type of electronic method that
enables us to produce and edit letters, reports, documents, and other than work in a few seconds to
type manually. Many of the office to produce standard letters, such as payment of the balance,
invitations and more. In addition, local business organizations to use computers to create, save, and
send envoys to a particular place. The advantages of using computers in this area, clearly it is very
important in a business organization.
Role of Computers in Banking and Financial
Processing data involving savings accounts, fixed deposits, loans, investments, profitability analysis,
and so on are among the organizations operating budget. The measures used are standard and
recurrent. And with that, the financial institution is the first user is aware of the importance of
computers to save time. Use of financial institutions including electronic fund transfer activities for
example a bank has a terminal in each branch in the country and also in supermarkets, petrol
stations, schools, factories, homes, hotels, and so on.
The company will move employees’ salary into the account by entering employee identification
numbers then pay the money transferred into the account supermarkets, hotels, or gas station when
making a purchase. Money transfer facility is referred to the electronic transfer of money is very
effective use is safe and quick method for financial transactions. With the facility, known as ETC is
also individual can issue, transfer, and include cash or checks to the current balance at any time.
Clearly the main purpose of the use of computers in financial institutions can assist in arranging the
affairs of clients and provide services better and more efficient, reduce fraud in financial transactions
also eliminate cash transactions involving the community with the goal to create a cashless society.
Role of Computers in Industrial Areas
Industry is a lot of benefit from the use of computers and the development of a human machine that
‘robot’. Industrial production, for example requires a lot of computers to process data collected from
employees, customers, sales, product information, production schedules, and so on. Yes said the
computer used to control the production process.
Especially the production of information processing inventory control to keep the latest information
about the remaining inventory of raw materials and finished goods used to determine the value of
inventory and stock status. This computer can alert the staff involved if he should order the raw
materials and when to deliver the goods completed to the customer. Similarly, to store information
about the structure of an item, but the material requirement planning processes also use computers
to facilitate the work. Appear in the computer industry is very broad and also affect the development
of industry in a country.
Role of Computers in Education
Now in this era of science and technology become more advanced, the computer may take over the
role of books in the store and disseminate knowledge to the public. In other words, the computer will

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change the way we learn and the way we store knowledge. Hal-related matters such as student
registration, class scheduling, processing of examination results, students ‘and teachers’ personal
storage can be implemented by a computer with a fast and effective in helping the administration.
Now exams results were processed by computer. The IPT also the duties of office automation,
processing, scientific research results and also use the computer. In fact, cataloging books in libraries
also apply to computer use. Last but not least is used for teaching and learning process is not only at
institutions of higher learning in the schools, both for teaching and studying computer-assisted
education on computer is very emphasized that in the field of education for helping in the
administrative process, research is what is important is the ease and help students and teachers in
the teaching and learning.
Role of Computers in the Medical
Hospitals and clinics use computers to store patient records, scheduling doctors, nurses and other
personnel, inventory and purchase of medicines, medical research and medical diagnosis.
Applications of computer-based equipment or use of information technology has help doctors to
diagnose diseases. It is clear that the use of computers in the medical field to provide solutions to
complex problems. Among the new computer technology that provides assistance to those who are
disabled. Microprocessor-based voice systems assist people with disabilities speaking with a
terminal that directs the computer to perform a verbal task. Similarly, the development of computers
has helped the blind to see, the deaf to communicate, whether with the help of speech synthesizer or
using the keyboard. This can be help them become more active and can do what they could not do
before. Besides works of traditional data processing, such as issuing bills of patients, medical
statistics and scheduling of staff and others have also streamlined and processed by computer.
Hospital Information System that is used can be stored in a centralized patient database. In fact, the
use of information technology the computer is programmed to culture and analyze bacteria, viruses,
and other infections agents to automatically detect and identify a disease thus enabling the hospitals
and laboratories to begin treatment. For example, Computer Help Demography machine (Computer
Aided Demography, CAT) used for the purpose. Similarly, computers are used for a patient oversee
psychological variables such as blood pressure, body temperature, ECG (Electro-Cardiograph) and
sounded a warning if something unusual happens. For this purpose the computer to read different
variables and make comparison with standard values. If there is something extraordinary happens
the computer will draw the attention of doctors and nurses to issue a warning. Clearly, it was found
that the computer has a wide range of accommodation in the medical field.

Role of Computers in Legislation

Computers have been used in the legislative process in recent years. The use of the most important
is the preparation of documents using a word processor. The use of computer accounting legislation
also includes processing to produce weekly and monthly reports, keep records of payments
consulting, diary for the latest attorney information consumers about the various court procedures
and also to keep records of users. As this area is very complicated, it is the need to retrieve the
required information either on journal of law, an important case, scale, and statistics or important
decisions for the purpose of making the decision to retain legal data bank. Thus the use of one
computer will help lawyers and trainee lawyers and law students find relevant data without wasting
time and get better service.
Role of Computers in Government

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Government sector is one of the largest users of computer usage practices in implementing
administrative matters. All the necessary data can be obtained in a short time such as information
about people, services, economic planning, and land development projects and for planning and
decision making. Through long-term weather forecasting computer can now be done. With tie loss of
life can be because of better information and faster. “The success of Neil Am strong on July 23, 1969
landing on the moon is also made possible with the help of computers used to design spacecraft,
space for clothes astronauts, and flight schedules”. This shows the very important use of computers
in the field of space transportation. Service tax and income tax collection was simplified by using the
computer. Keeping records of taxpayers who do it manually, and bring many problems have been
addressed with the use of computer and services can make the task more efficiently and quickly.
Similarly, in the military, use of computer store inventory held until the war simulation on the screen.
Computers are also used to follow the movement of the enemy in the border areas. Traffic flow can
be managed effectively by detecting the direction of traffic using the many tools of detection. In this
way, if there are more vehicles from one direction, the computer will let the green light goes on for a
suitable period of time. “In the field of transport, Cosmos- 11 introduced by Mass by providing
facilities for passengers to know the status including those booking hotel reservations, from
anywhere in the world”. Similarly, business owners and vehicle registration can be performed with
the use of computers. Many of the all administrative affairs are managed by using the computer. This
not only saves time but can do all things more practical.
Role of Computers in entertainment
Now the computer can be programmed to play music. Places of entertainment with music controlled
by computer are cheaper and can be used at any time. Computers are also used to arrange the order
of dance and music. Each game requires movement. Movement can best be obtained by detailed
analysis of a physical system. Computers also can be programmed to depict images of high quality.
Drawing using the computer speeds up the process of creating. The work of art can be done and made
a review in a short time compared with traditional Kedah. Cartoon films produced by computers have
grown so widely.
Role of Computers at daily life
Microcomputer use also home to control the safety and control of air conditioning and lighting. The
use of computers in the home allows housewife get the latest information about fashion and can make
orders to use supermarket with and video. In addition to budget planning and inventory at home.
This is all to do with a microcomputer that is connected to the national data bank. Children can use
computers to learn school subjects or educational games. But it is clear that computers have become
machines of information in our society.

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 LESSON 7
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
We said earlier that software is a program that tells the computer what to do and how to do it. This
implies that without the software computer will practically do nothing and you will not be able to
use it at all. This software cannot be seen like we see the hardware. They are programs.
Programs are coded set of instructions that instruct the computer to perform specific task. In other
word, it tells/instructs the computer what the user intend to do. So to communicate with the
computer we would need software, before we can have software we would need to write a
program. To write a good program we need to develop algorithm and a flowchart. So, what are
they?

ALGORITHM /PSEUDO-CODE
Algorithm: An algorithm is a set of steps for solving a particular problem. To be an algorithm, a set
of rules must be unambiguous and have a clear stopping point”. There may be more than one way
to solve a problem, so there may be more than one algorithm for a given problem.
Pseudo-code: A pseudo-code is an algorithm but in this case it uses a mixture of English statements,
some mathematical notations, and selected keywords from a programming language. Most at time
when we say algorithm in computer science we mean pseudo-code.

Before writing an algorithm/pseudo-code for a problem, one should find out what is/are the inputs
to the algorithm and what is/are expected output after running the algorithm. Now let us take some
exercises to develop an algorithm for some simple problems: While writing algorithms we will use
following symbol for different operations:

„+‟ for Addition

„-‟ for Subtraction
„*‟ for Multiplication
„/‟ for Division and
„ ‟ for assignment. For example A =X*3 means A will have a value of X*3.

SAMPLES OF ALGORITHM AND PSEUDOCODE

PSEUDO -CODE ALGORITHM

START BEGIN:
1. INPUT A First, accept the first number
2. INPUT B Second, accept the second number
3. Sum A + B Add the first and second number together
4. PRINT Sum Print the result
END OF ALGORITHM
END OF ALGORITHM
23

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CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ALGORITHM

 Each step of an algorithm must be exact. This goes without saying. An algorithm must be
precisely and unambiguously described, so that there remains no uncertainty. An instruction
that says “shuffle the deck of card” may make sense to some of us, but the machine will not
have a clue on how to execute it, unless the detail steps are described. An instruction that says
“lift the restriction” will cause much puzzlement even to the human readers.
 An algorithm must terminate. The ultimate purpose of an algorithm is to solve a problem. If
the program does not stop when executed, we will not be able to get any result from it.
Therefore, an algorithm must contain a finite number of steps in its execution. Note that an
algorithm that merely contains a finite number of steps may not terminate during execution,
due to the presence of „infinite loop‟.
 An algorithm must be effective: An algorithm must provide the correct answer to the problem.
 An algorithm must be general: An algorithm must solve every instance of the problem. For
example a program that computes the area of a rectangle should work on all possible
dimensions of the rectangle.

FLOWCHART
A flowchart is a graphical or pictorial representation use to solve a giving problem. To be more
precise, it is a graphical representation of algorithm. It shows sequence of operations and procedures
to be taken to solve the problem. This means by seeing a flow chart one can know the operations
performed and the sequence of these operations in a system. Algorithms are nothing but sequence
of steps for solving problems. So a flow chart can be used for representing an algorithm. A flowchart,
will describe the operations (and in what sequence) are required to solve a given problem. You can
see a flow chart as a blueprint of a design you have made for solving a problem.
For example suppose you are going for a picnic with your friends then you plan for the activities you
will do there. If you have a plan of activities then you know clearly when you will do what activity.
Similarly when you have a problem to solve using computer or in other word you need to write a
computer program for a problem then it will be good to draw a flowchart prior to writing a computer
program. Flowchart is drawn according to defined rules.
Information system flowcharts show how data flows from source documents through the computer
to final distribution to users.
Program flowcharts show the sequence of instructions in a single program or subroutine. Different
symbols are used to draw each type of flowchart.
A Flowchart does the following:
 shows logic of an algorithm
 emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections e.g. control flow from one action to
the next

FLOWCHART SYMBOLS
The basic flowchart symbols are as follows:
SYMBOL NAME FUNCTION

Input/output Use for any input/output operation

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 Process Indicate any type of operation done in the
CPU or memory

Decision Use to ask a question that can be

answered in a binary format (Yes/No,
True/False

On-page Provide connection of program flow

connector within the same page

Off-page Provide connection of program flow

connector within different pages

Flow lines Shows direction of flow

EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS

Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r.
Inputs to the algorithm:
Radius r of the Circle.

Expected output:
Area of the Circle

Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input the Radius r of the Circle
Step3: Area PI*r*r // calculation of area Area=3.142*r*r
Step4: Print Area
Step5: End

Start
Print: Area

Read r

End

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Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two numbers and find their sum.
Inputs to the algorithm: num1. um2.
Expected output:
Sum of the two numbers.
Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input: num1.
Step3: Read\input: num2.
Step4: Sum =num1+num2 // calculation of sum
Step5: Print: Sum
Step6: End

Problem 3: Convert temperature Fahrenheit to Celsius

Inputs to the algorithm:
Temperature in Fahrenheit
Expected output:
Temperature in Celsius
Algorithm:
Step1: Start
Step 2: Read Temperature in Fahrenheit F
Step 3: C 5/9*(F32)
Step 4: Print Temperature in Celsius: C
Step5: End

Start Start

Read F
Read: Num1,
Num2

C=5/9* (F- 32)

Sum=Num1+Num2

Print: C

Print: Sum

End

TYPES OF LOGIC (CONTROL STRUCTURES) USED

In the late 1960s, two mathematicians, Carrado Boehm and Giuseppe Jocopini, proved that even the
most complex logic can be expressed using the three general types of logic or control structures:
Sequential (Begin – End), Selection (If-Then-Else) and Iteration (Do-While or Do-Until). Naturally,
these general types of logic or control structures can be combined in any fashion or combination to
produce a process which when executed will yield the desired result.
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 SEQUENTIAL (BEGIN – END)
The sequence is exemplified by sequence of statements place one after the other - the one above or
before another gets executed first. In flowcharts, sequence of statements is usually contained in the
rectangular process box.

SELECTION/ BRANCHING (IF-THEN-ELSE)

The branch refers to a binary decision based on some condition. If the condition is true, one of the
two branches is explored; if the condition is false, the other alternative is taken. This is usually
represented by the „if-then‟ construct in pseudo-codes and programs. In flowcharts, this is
represented by the diamondshaped decision box. This structure is also known as the selection
structure.

ITERATIVE/LOOP
The loop allows a statement or a sequence of statements to be repeatedly executed based on some
loop condition. It is represented by the „while‟ and „for‟ constructs in most programming languages,
for unbounded loops and bounded loops respectively. (Unbounded loops refer to those whose
number of iterations depends on the eventuality that the termination condition is satisfied; bounded
loops refer to those whose number of iterations is known before-hand.) In the flowcharts, a back
arrow hints the presence of a loop. A trip around the loop is known as iteration. You must ensure that
the condition for the termination of the looping must be satisfied after some finite number of
iterations, otherwise it ends up as an infinite loop, a common mistake made by inexperienced
programmers. The loop is also known as the repetition structure.
The three basic control structures can be represented pictorially as shown below:

Sequential Selection Iteration

PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING
Computer Networks
Networks are systems that are formed by links. For example, roads that connect groups of people
together create a physical network. Connections with your friends create your personal network.
Websites that allow individuals to link to each other‟s pages are called social networking sites.

People use the following networks every day:

• Mail delivery system
• Telephone system
• Public transportation system
• Corporate computer network
• The Internet

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Networks share information and use various methods to direct the manner in which information
flows. The information on the network goes from one place to another, sometimes via different paths,
to arrive at the appropriate destination. For example, the public transportation system is a network
similar to a computer network. The cars, trucks, and other vehicles are like the messages that travel
within the network. Each driver defines a starting point (source computer) and an ending point
(destination computer). Within this system, there are rules such as stop signs and traffic lights that
control the flow from the source to the destination. A computer network also uses rules to control
the flow of data between hosts on a network.
A host is any device that sends and receives information on the network. Some devices can serve
either as hosts or peripherals. For example, a printer connected to your laptop that is on a network
is acting as a peripheral. If the printer is connected directly to a network, it is acting as a host.

Many different types of devices can connect to a network:

• Desktop computers
• Laptop computers
• Tablet computers
• Smartphones
• Printers
• File and print servers
• Game consoles
• Home appliances

Computer networks are used globally in businesses, homes, schools, and government agencies. Many
of the networks are connected to each other through the Internet. A network can share many
different types of resources and data:
• Services, such as printing or scanning
• Storage space on removable devices, such as hard drives or optical drives
• Applications, such as databases
• Information, stored on other computers
• Documents
• Calendars, synchronizing between a computer and a smartphone

LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES

A logical topology describes how the hosts access the medium and communicate on the network. The
two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing. In a broadcast
topology, a host broadcasts a message to all hosts on the same network segment. There is no order
that hosts must follow to transmit data. Messages are sent on a First In, First Out (FIFO) basis.

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Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic token sequentially to each host. If a
host wants to transmit data, the host adds the data and a destination address to the token, which is a
specially-formatted frame. The token then travels to another host with the destination address. The
destination host takes the data out of the frame. If a host has no data to send, the token is passed to
another host.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES

A physical topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected
to a network. The figure provides six physical topologies.

Bus Topology

In a bus topology, each computer connects to a common cable. The cable connects one computer to
the next, like a bus line going through a city. The cable has a small cap installed at the end called a
terminator. The terminator prevents signals from bouncing back and causing network errors.

Ring Topology

In a ring topology, hosts are connected in a physical ring or circle. Because the ring topology has no
beginning or end, the cable is not terminated. A token travels around the ring stopping at each host.
If a host wants to transmit data, the host adds the data and the destination address to the token. The
token continues around the ring until it stops at the host with the destination address.
The destination host takes the data out of the token.

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Star Topology

The star topology has a central connection point, which is normally a device such as a hub, switch, or
router. Each host on a network has a cable segment that attaches the host directly to the central
connection point. The advantage of a star topology is that it is easy to troubleshoot. Each host is
connected to the central device with its own wire. If there is a problem with that cable, only that host
is affected. The rest of the network remains operational.

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology connects all devices to each other. When every device is connected to every other
device, a failure of any cable or device along a connection does not affect the network. The mesh
topology is used in WANs that interconnect LANs.

INTERNET
The Internet commonly referred to as the „Net‟ is better described than defined, as a global network
of computers. It is often described as a network of networks because it first began through the linking
of the existing local computer networks used by universities and governmental organizations. The
Internet is a constellation of computers around the world that speak the same language so
information travels seamlessly from one computer to another. Globally, the Internet connects
scientific research, educational, government, commercial and business networks. When you connect
to the Internet, your computer becomes part of the global network of computers. The Internet is
more than a technological marvel. The peace is quick, with messages and information racing round
the world in a few seconds. It has ushered in an era of sweeping changes in networking and
communication that has left no business, agency, organization or government untouched.

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How the Internet Developed
The Internet began in the 1960s when the US Department of Defense through
ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network) began creating a computer network that
would continue to function in the event of a major disaster. In 1969, four mainframe computers at a
U.S. university were linked into a network that transferred data on dedicated high-speed
transmission lines. Through the 1970s and 1980s new similar networks were created to link
educational institutions, government offices and military centers in the United States and other
countries. In the 1990s, as the Internet grew, private businesses and other regional network
providers took over the operation of the major Internet networks and the development of much of
the information available online. Private businesses, educational institutions, organizations and
individuals now develop much of the information content available online.

How Information is transmitted on the Internet

The Internet is a worldwide complex of small regional networks. To understand this, picture a major
road connecting large cities. Smaller roads link the cities to small towns where residents travel on
narrow residential streets. The high-speed Internet is the major road in this scenario. Connected to
it are smaller computer networks (functioning like smaller, less traveled roads) that can share data
information at high speeds. In order to enable different computers to communicate and transmit
packaged information with each other, a standard „protocol‟ has been established for transporting
data. This Internet protocol is called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and
allows all networks all over the world to communicate with each other on the Internet. When
transmitting information over a network or the Internet, it is in the same binary form as when it is
stored on a computer, but the data has to be packaged for transmission. This procedure is necessary
because bits travelling freely on the network will have no meaning to network devices. So before data
is transmitted on the Internet, network software forms the data into packets.
Benefits of the Internet
Basically and generally, the benefits derivable from the utilization of the Internet are mainly as
follows:

• Speed/Time Saving: The speed of transmission on the Internet is the significant benefit of the
Internet. A letter or document that could take days to arrive by regular mail can be sent to the
other side of the world in minutes. Likewise, searching through a card catalogue at a library
can be
a time consuming, tedious process, but you can search an online version of the same catalogue
in a fraction of the time. The speed of transmitting information naturally saves time and
money.

• Breadth/Reach: The Internet gives you access to a vast (and growing) collection of databases,
documents, computer software; these and almost any other kind of information can be stored
electronically.
• Cost Saving: Exchanging information via the Internet is less expensive than using telephones
or fax machines especially where telephone access fees are high. Likewise marketing and
advertising your products and services on the Internet can be less expensive than using
conventional printing and document-delivery methods.
• Two-way Communication: Audiences now have the means to respond directly to sources of
information, research and opinion.

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 • Trading: The Internet provides the opportunity for purchase and sale of goods and services.
Specifically, the Internet through the E-Commerce has provided the business community,
among others, the following benefits:
i. Improved response time to clients‟ requests
ii. Improved competitive position
iii. Eased the process of concluding deals and financial transactions
iv. Extended market reach and increased revenue potentials
v. Increased consumer convenience and choice
vi. Reduced prices
vii. Improved customer service

SERVICES OFFERED ON THE INTERNET

The major Internet services are as follows:
Electronic Mail (e-mail): This is the most popular and most utilized Internet service especially in
the developing countries of the world. A conservative estimate puts the number of people using the
e-mail worldwide at more than 90 million people. E-mail is message sent from one person to another
via a computer network. The same e-mail can be sent easily to one address or many addresses.
Commercial electronic mail is used for the same purposes as the organization wide mail system. But
instead of being limited to members of one organization, the service is made available to the public
on subscription bases.
E-mail messages are exchanged between customers, suppliers, friends and business partners. E-mail
service has cut down on the cost of mailing or sending information thus saving time and money. E-
mail is used as a marketing tool, for example, a company, Dealaday.com uses e-mail to prospect for
customers and sends group e-mail to 10,000 user names all customers who have indicated they
would like to receive e-mails. With e-mail they receive a 7%, 8% and sometimes 10% response,
unlike 1% or 2% response in normal direct marketing.

The World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web or the web is one of the Internet‟s most
popular applications and it was launched in 1991. It is a graphical, easy–to-use way to organize and
present information, including texts, images, movies, sounds and more.
The World Wide Web has generated tremendous popular interest in the Internet. The www is unique
for two reasons. Firstly it is highly interactive media bringing documents in graphics, audio and
video. Secondly, it uses hyperlink, which provides connections between different resources. It allows
users to jump from one page to another.
A file in www is called the home page and usually contains a multimedia clip. A page can link you to
other web pages and Internet resources with clicks of a mouse. You can view and download any
information you need on any home page with the aid of software known as the web browser.

File Transfer Protocol (ftp): File transfer protocol (ftp) is an Internet tool used to transfer files
between computers and it is the most common method of transferring files on the Internet. Without
viewing them as they are transferred the ftp enables you to access file on a remote location on the
Internet once you log on to an ftp site, and you are able to access all files on sites and download them
if you so desire. It is fairly easy to publish information on the Internet. Many institutions maintain
publicly accessible archive of information that they want to share with others.

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Telnet: Telnet is an Internet service that allows you to connect to a remote computer to use specific
databases or other applications available on that computer. Telnet is one of the first applications
widely used on the Internet. Many telnet applications are now available on the World Wide Web
where they are easier to use.

Internet Conference: This is an Internet service whereby different techniques are used to allow
people to discuss topics of mutual interest. A conference can be as simple as sending e-mail to many
different people or as complex as arranging to have people link different cities, see images of each
other and hear each other talk in real time- that is video conferencing. Internet conferencing is
possible, but the technology becomes more complex and the speed of the connection becomes more
important as you go from text only, to transmitting sound and video in real time. Internet conference
brings about tremendous savings on travelling, time and money.

Internet Telephony: This is a service in which you can use the Internet as a voice telephone line.
With some types, both you and the person you are calling must have an Internet connection and be
online at the time you wish to talk. Some companies also offer Internet-to- telephone services where
from your computer you can call any telephone number in the world. Internet telephone services are
inexpensive when you compare them with the conventional cost of telephone services. If your
organization spends a lot of money on long distance telephone calls, this might be a good option for
you. There are growing numbers of companies providing Internet telephone services.

Internet Fax: Internet fax is a service that takes a special type of e-mail message and sends it to a fax
machine specified in the message. The message can be faxed to a computer (Internet-to-Internet).

THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

For a modem to bring information, it must have a number to dial. This is where an Internet service
provider (ISP) comes in. The ISP is the organization that gives a subscriber access to the information
super highway. So to be connected to the Internet you need to subscribe to an ISP. There are several
ISPs scattered all over the world; some of the popular ones are American Online (AOL), UK Line and
CompuServe. Here in Nigeria, some of the common ones are Hyperia, Infoweb, Cyberspace, Linkserv,
Nigeria Online, Nigeria Net, Nitel, Nova, Prodigy, etc. The choice of an ISP depends mostly on the
effectiveness in the transmission of information, that is, speed of service is an important criterion for
selecting an ISP. The efficiency of an ISP, in terms of speed of transmission of information, can be
determined by the bandwidth it can support. A bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data line,
satellite link etc. The bandwidth available determines the total capacity of an ISP to move data
anywhere in the world.

INTRANET
An intranet is a local area network that companies use to distribute information and speed up the
movement of data within offices. In other words an intranet allows the job of processing to be
distributed among multiple computers. Intranet activities usually take place behind secure
„firewalls‟ that only authorized users have access to.
An intranet can span multiple business locations via the Internet. Intranets are built using the same
standard Internet software such as TCP/IP, e-mail client, web browser and telephone dialer.

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EXTRANET
When a company makes open its internal network or intranet to selected business partners, the
intranet becomes an extranet. Suppliers, distributors and other authorized users can then connect to
the company‟s network over the „Net‟ or through virtual private networks. Once inside, they can
view the data the company makes available.
COMPUTER MEMORY
The main function of computer memory is to store software. Computer memory is divided into two:
Primary memory and Secondary memory.
Primary memory

Primary memory is divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

Secondary memory:
Secondary memory are called storage device. Example of secondary memory devices are: Hard disk,
floppy disks, CD ROMs etc NOTE:

• The CPU can read and write to RAM but can only read from the ROM but not write into
ROM.
• RAM is volatile but ROM is not volatile.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) chips are located on the motherboard and other circuit boards. ROM chips
contain instructions that can be directly accessed by a CPU. Basic instructions for operation, such as
booting the computer and loading the operating system, are stored in ROM. ROM chips retain their
contents even when the computer is powered down. The contents cannot be erased or changed by
normal means.
NOTE:
Read only memory (ROM) chips: Information is written to a ROM chip when it is manufactured.
A ROM chip cannot be erased or re-written and is obsolete.

CATEGORIES OF ROM
• Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)
Programmable read only memory. Information is written to a PROM chip after it is
manufactured. A PROM chip cannot be erased or rewritten.
• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Information is written to an EPROM chip after
it is manufactured. An EPROM chip can be erased with exposure to UV light. Special equipment
is required.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
Electrically erasable programmable read only memory. Information is written to an EEPROM
chip after it is manufactured. EEPROM chips are also called Flash ROMs. An EEPROM chip can
be erased and re-written without having to remove the chip from the computer.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
There are three categories of programming languages:
1. Machine languages (ML)
2. Assembly languages (AL)
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 3. High-level languages (HLL)
The ML and AL are classified as Low-Level Languages (LLL).

Machine Lanaguage (ML)

This is the fundamental language of the computer‟s processor. It is made up of binary-coded
instructions, which is used directly by the computer. All programs are converted into ML before they
can be executed. The language consists of
0‟s and 1‟s. Example: 100101, 010011

Advantages
• Fast and efficient Machine friendly
• No translation is required
Disadvantages
• Not portable
• Not programmer friendly

Assembly Lanaguage (AL)

Also a low-level language (LLL) which is similar to the machine language is the AL. It was developed
to make programmers job easier. It uses symbolic operation code to represent the machine operation
code.

Symbolic operation codes are in an easy-to-remember form called mnemonics.

Assembly languages have some of the advantages and all of the disadvantages of machine languages.

Advantages
It is machine friendly as compare to high-level language
Disadvantages
• Not portable
• Not programmer friendly
Compare the following machine language and assembly language programs:

8086 Machine language program for var1=var1+ 8086 Assembly language program for
var2 var1=var1+ var2
1010 0001 0000 0000 0000 0000 MOV AX, var1
0000 0011 0000 0110 0000 0000 0000 0010 ADD AX, var2
1010 0011 0000 0000 0000 0000 MOV var!, AX

High Level Lanaguage (HLL)

The HLL began to appear in the 1950‟s – COBOL is an example of such early HLL used to create
complex computer programs without necessarily knowing how the CPU works and without writing
a large number of low-level instructions. The HLL uses English like statements such as PRINT,
WHILE, GOTO etc.

A high level language has two primary components:

1. A set of built-in language primitives and grammatical rules
2. A translator
HLL program consists of English-like statements that are governed by a strict syntax.

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Advantages
• Portable or machine independent
• Programmer-friendly
Disadvantages
• Not as efficient as low level languages
• Need to be translated
Examples are C++, Visual Basic, Pascal, etc.

LANGAUGE TRANLATORS

As mention earlier, one of the disadvantages of a high-level language is that it must be translated to
machine language. High level languages are translated using translators.

A language translator translates a high level language program or an assembly language program
into a machine language program.

TYPES OF TRANSLATORS
• Assemblers
• Compilers
• Translators
ASSEMBLERS

An assembler is a program that translates an assembly language program, written in a particular

assembly language, into a particular machine language

COMPILERS

A compiler is a program that translates a high level language program, written in a particular high
level language, into a particular machine language.

INTERPRETERS
An interpreter is a program that translates a high level language program, one instruction at a time,
into machine language. As instruction is translated it is immediately executed. Interpreted program
are generally slower than compiled programs because compiled programs can be optimised to get
faster execution.

NOTE:
• Some high level languages are compiled while others are interpreted.
• There are also languages like Java, which are first compiled and then interpreted.

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