CLIMATOLOGY

NAME:
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GRADE:
 UNIT 1
The Atmosphere – Composition and structure
The atmosphere is a gaseous layer of air that surround the earth’s surface. The
atmosphere provides the climatic processes to ensure that we receive precipitation which
is needed for life on earth. It also provides oxygen to the living on earth.

What is the atmosphere ?

It is a gaseous layer above and around the earth’s surface.

The layer is from 0 to 100 km above the earth’s surface.
The atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% noble gases. Apart of
the gases there are also small solid particles of dust, salt, smoke and pollutants in the
atmosphere.

DIAGRAM VIEW OF THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

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STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. The troposphere:
 This is the first and the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
 All life on this planet is affected by the changes that happen in this layer, as all
the weather changes take place in the troposphere.
 It starts from the ground (or sea level) of our planet and expands up to 10 km up
in the sky.
 This layer contains the most oxygen. Every living thing on this planet needs this
gas.
 The higher we go in this layer of the atmosphere, the ‘’thinner’’ the air gets,
meaning it is significantly harder for us humans to breathe. (This is when we talk
about the levels of oxygen). That is why climbing high mountain peaks is so
challenging!
2. The stratosphere:
 If we start from the top of the troposphere and go further into the sky, we reach
the layer known as the stratosphere.
 This layer extends from 10 km and goes up around 50 km above the Earth’s
ground. In this layer, the temperature (increase with height) rises as you go
further up, and it has something to do with the ozone layer that is found inside
the stratosphere.
 The ozone layer serves a vital role in the protection of our planet, as the
molecules of ozone prevent ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun to hit our planet
without stopping. The UV light is not technically stopped, but the conversion from
UV light to heat happens (which is why holes in the ozone layer are so
dangerous).
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3. The mesosphere:
 As the name suggests, we are halfway up our atmosphere layers when we reach
this part.
 The mesosphere goes up to 85 km above the surface of our planet, and the
temperatures here behave as they do in the troposphere.
 The higher you go, the colder it gets. This layer of the atmosphere has the lowest
temperature of all layers and they drop down to -90° C. it would also be
impossible to breathe in the mesosphere because of too low oxygen levels. This
layer is not human friendly.
4. The thermosphere:

 The layer that is located between 500 and 1000 km above the Earth’s level is
known as the thermosphere.
 You have guessed it! High temperatures are the name of the game here.
 This layer is under constant attack from the X-rays and UV radiation coming
from the Sun and the space around us.
 Because of this, the temperatures in this layer can even reach up to 2,000° C!

THE PURPOSE OF SOME LAYERS.

1. The troposphere:

 All life on this planet is affected by the changes that happen in this layer, as all
the weather changes take place in the troposphere and it provides oxygen.
 Traveling at high altitudes also means that airplanes can avoid bad weather that
is typically found in the lower regions of the atmosphere.
2. The stratosphere:

 In this layer, the temperature rises as you go further up, and it has something to
do with the ozone layer that is found inside the stratosphere.
 The ozone layer serves a vital role in the protection of our planet, as the
molecules of ozone prevent ultraviolet light from the sun to reach our planet.
 The Earth's ozone layer protects all life from the sun's harmful radiation, but
human activities have damaged this shield.
 Less ozone-layer protection from ultraviolet (UV) light will, over time, damage
crops and lead to higher skin cancer, cataract rates and harm to some crops and
marine life. Beginning in the 1970s, however, scientific evidence showed that the
ozone shield was being depleted well beyond natural processes, a direct
consequence of human activities.
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Some issues of Ozone depletion

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What is the impact of the atmosphere on people and people on the atmosphere?
 The atmosphere provides us with oxygen and rain which is vital for survival of all living
organisms.
 The ozone layer protects earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
 We as people tend to have or is involved in activities that may be harmful to the
atmosphere by polluting the atmosphere, releasing chemicals into the atmosphere that
cause ozone depletion and releasing too many particles e.g. smoke and dust that
impacts negatively on rainfall figures.
How can we contribute positively?
 All the people in the world must take responsibility for our actions in protecting the
atmosphere.
 We must ensure that our children live in a world where they can sustain themselves
with food, land and water.

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Climatology:
Consolidation Activity 1
Study the diagram below and answer the question that follows:

1. Answer the questions below.

1.1. Name the upper limit of the troposphere.
1.2. Which layer of the atmosphere provide rainwater to the planet?
1.3. Use the graph to determine the temperature of the atmosphere at the tropopause.
1.4. Explain why the temperature changes as you move further away from the earth in
the troposphere.
1.5. What is the importance of the composition of the atmosphere for living organisms?
1.6. State the main gases that the atmosphere consists off.
1.7. In which layer of the atmosphere to we find the ozone layer?
1.8. What is the function of the ozone layer?
1.9. Why is the temperature in the stratosphere increasing?
1.10. In which layer do we find meteors?
1.11. Why is the mesosphere an unfriendly environment for humans?
1.12. How can we protect the atmosphere in our everyday actions?
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 UNIT 2
Heating of the Atmosphere: Factors that affect the temperature of
different places around the world – latitude, altitude, ocean currents
and distance from the ocean.

Factors that affect the temperature of different places around the world.
Why do temperature differ in different parts of the world?

• Temperatures in different places in the world differ because the earth and the lower
layer of the atmosphere are not heated in the same way.
• Different parts of the world receive and retain different amounts of heat.

What factors influence the temperature of different places?

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1. Latitude

• At A (Fig.1) the Sun's rays are directly perpendicular to the place and heating is
concentrated in a very small area. The sun's rays pass through a small part of the
atmosphere; with the result that a minimal amount of heat is lost. As a result, it is hot.

• At B (Fig.1) the sun's rays shine at an acute angle and heat is spread over a larger
area. The rays are less concentrated and pass through a larger amount of the
atmosphere; consequently, more heat is lost. As a result, it is cooler.

2. Ocean currents

• Ocean currents are the large-scale circulation of seawater.

• The purpose of ocean currents is to balance sea temperatures.
• If an ocean current is warm, it brings warm water from equatorial regions towards the
poles. The air above the ocean current is warmer, which in turn warms the land mass
through a warm onshore breeze. over a warm ocean current to land warms the land.
Warm currents flow along the eastern coast lines of continents.
• If an ocean current is cold, it carries cold water from polar regions towards the
equator. The air above the ocean current is cooler, which in turn lowers the
temperature over the land mass.

Example:
• Two South African towns have a similar latitude - Port Nolloth on the west coast
and Durban on the east coast. However, their average annual temperatures
differ:
Port Nolloth - 14.2 ° C (cold Benguela current)
Durban – 18,6° C (warm Agulhas / Mozambique current).
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3. Altitude
• The earth's surface which is heated by insolation, heats up the air that is in contact
with the surface by terrestrial radiation.
• As the warm air rises, it expands and cools. As a result, the temperature decreases
with an increase in height.
• At higher altitudes the air is less dense and consequently more heat can escape into
the atmosphere, cooling the air further.
• Temperature decreases with altitude at a rate of 6.5 ° C for every 1000 meters. This is
known as the normal lapse rate.

Kilimanjaro in Tanzania - the higher you climb, the colder it gets.

4. Distance from the ocean.
• Land surfaces are solid and are heated up rapidly by conduction. The land surface will
also radiate its heat rapidly and cool down quickly.
• Water takes a long time to heat up as it is transparent and the sun's rays can
penetrate deep into the ocean. Oceans are heated by convection and take a long time
to cool.
• Land and water react differently to insolation and consequently result in two main
types of climate:
(a) Maritime climates – are found at places close to the ocean. Warm summers and mild
winters, with a small annual temperature range are experienced.

(b) Continental climates – are found at places located inland. Very hot summers and
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cold winters, with a large range in annual temperature are experienced. An example
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is Bloemfontein.
Activity 1
1.1 Choose a term in Column B that matches the description in COLUMN A. Write only
the letter (A-E) next to the question number (1.1.1-1.1.5), for example 1.1.6 F.
COLUMN A COLUMN B

1.2 Study the map of South Africa below and answer the questions that follow.

1.2.1 Identify the ocean currents along:

(a) west coast of South Africa
(b) east coast of South Africa
1.2.2 (a) Which of Bloemfontein or Durban on the map experiences the lowest
temperature?
(b) Give evidence from the map to proof your answer.
1.2.3 Briefly explain the factor that influences the temperature of Bloemfontein and
Durban.
1.2.4 Explain in a paragraph of about EIGHT lines why Port Nolloth (29 ° 14 'S) has an
average annual temper
• Heating of the Atmosphere:
• The greenhouse effect - impact on people and the environment;
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• Global warming - evidence, causes and consequences, with reference to Africa;

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• The impact of climate and climate change on Africa's environment and people
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Global warming - evidence, causes and consequences
What is it?
Global warming is the slow rise in the average temperature of the earth's oceans and the lower
layer of the atmosphere.

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3. The impact of climate and climate change on Africa's environment and its people:
Climate change is the long-term change in weather patterns.
 More than 30% of the world's drylands are found in regions of North Africa, the
Sahel and the southern part of Africa.
 Dry land areas in Africa are threatened by deforestation, soil erosion, soil nutrient
loss, frequent droughts and climate change.
 Africa is home to the poorest people on the planet and the population is growing at a
rapid pace.
 Many people in Africa are subsistence farmers or live almost entirely on resources
they harvest from the natural environment.
 Climate change will have serious consequences that will cause widespread famine
and food shortages.

What is it? (Factors and impact) What is it like?

(a) DESERTS: A desert is an area with infertile soil where little precipitation takes place
and living conditions are harsh for plant and animal life.
Desertification: It occurs when soil turns into desert. This is the process where large
areas that are on the border of deserts change from semi-desert to desert areas. It is
caused by persistent drought and the way people use their environment.

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Impact on the environment:
• The dry and arid climates of deserts limit farming to river valleys or to water sources
such as oases.
• With climate change, deserts are expected to become warmer and even drier.
• In Africa, deserts spread rapidly and took over precious farmland and marginal (on the
edge) areas such as the Sahel (area that stretches across Africa just south of the
Sahara Desert to the denser savannah vegetation regions).
Impact on people:
• Deserts cannot support large numbers of people.
• Higher temperatures can threaten settlements in desert areas.
• Desertification could turn more areas around the Sahara into deserts and force
populations to migrate.
• In recent years, millions of people in East Africa have suffered from consequent
famine and disease.
• The poverty in the region will make it very difficult for the people there to recover and
adapt to desertification.
(b) DROUGHTS: A long period of abnormally low rainfall in an area.

Impact on the environment:

• Land degradation.
• Lower crop yields and crop damage
• Increase in livestock deaths.
• Increase in risk of veld fires.
• Increase in risk of water shortages.
Impact on people:
• Decrease in food security.
• Increase in risk of malnutrition.
• Increase in human and livestock deaths.
• Migration.
• High costs associated with disaster relief.
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(c) FLOODS: A flood occurs when there is prolonged rainfall or a short period of heavy
rain. Floods that happen very quickly are known as flash floods.

Impact on the environment:

• Areas that have more rainfall will experience floods.
• Damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges and buildings due to landslides
and flash floods.
• Decrease in agricultural productivity due to lost crops and soil erosion.
Impact on people:
• Increase in many types of human and animal diseases such as cholera, malaria,
diarrhea, foot-and-mouth disease as well as waterborne diseases.
• Loss of human and animal life.
• Disruption of settlements, communities, trade, transportation and livelihoods due to
floods.

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(d) RISING SEA LEVELS: Continuous global warming may melt large amounts of ice
from the large ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica. As a result, sea levels
around the world could rise.
Impact on the environment:
 Warmer temperatures will melt the ice sheets and glaciers.
 Many coastal areas will experience floods, as well as coastal erosion, loss of
wetlands and a flow of seawater in freshwater areas.
 Loss of coral reefs as the depth of the water increases and temperatures
decrease.
 Agricultural land, especially fertile river deltas and some islands, may be under
water.
 Impact on people:
 High sea levels will submerge some coastal cities and other populated regions.
 Less land for people to live on and farm.
 Floods of settlements along the coast give rise to large numbers of
environmental refugees.
 People will have to move to higher-lying areas.
 Many nations in Africa that are most vulnerable to rising sea levels do not have
the resources to prepare for them.
 The increase in pressure on and demand for land may lead to conflict and war.

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Activity 1
1.1 Choose the term in COLUMN B that matches the description in COLUMN A. Write
only the letter (A-E) next to the question number (1.1.1-1.1.5), for example 1.1.6 F.

1.2 Study the cartoon below of the greenhouse effect and answer the questions that
follow.

1.2.1 What is a greenhouse gas?

1.2.2 Name TWO human activities that release greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.
1.2.3 Name TWO human activities that release the greenhouse gas methane.
1.2.4 Explain in a paragraph of approximately EIGHT lines the impact of increasing
greenhouse gas emissions on people and the environment.
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1.5.1 Study the graph below and answer the questions that follow:

1.5.1 Compare sea levels in 1900 and 2000.

1.5.2 Explain the rise in sea level on Earth.
1.5.3 Suppose you are an Environmental Impact Advisor. What long-term impact of
rising sea levels will you be able to point out to countries at risk?

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CLIMATOLOGY: Moisture in the atmosphere
Water in the atmosphere
The atmosphere provides the earth with oxygen and water. All living creatures and
organisms need water for survival on earth. This is why we want to know more about
water in the atmosphere to ensure that we have a sustainable supply of water. It implies
that we must take a closer look at our daily activities to ensure that all actions are
contributing to the sustainability of the earth.
What is it? Different form of water in the atmosphere
Water has three forms in the atmosphere as indicated in the figure below:

 All the different forms are evident in the atmosphere every day somewhere on
the planet.
 Solid format examples include – frost, snow and hail
 Liquid format examples are dew and rain
 Gas format is water vapor. – an example of gas format is when you boil water
and you see the steam that is released.
 The water change to a form if we add energy(heat) in the atmosphere or it can
change if the energy is reduced (when it cools down). It will only reach a solid if it
is cooled down to below freezing point in the atmosphere – normally in winter
and/or at night.
 If water change from a gas form to a solid form or from a solid to a gas form it is
called sublimation. – this is how snowflakes are formed. 21
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The water cycle -concepts and processes.
A simple diagram of the water cycle.

1- Evaporation: This is where the sun’s energy is added to the water body changing the
format of some of the water, from a liquid to a gas, i.e. water vapor.
Transpiration: is when the moisture in the leaves of plants receive more energy and
some of the moisture change to a gas format- water vapor and is released into the
atmosphere.
2- Condensation occurs when the water vapor rises due to the energy received, it starts
to cool because the air uses the energy to rise until it cools down sufficiently to
change from a vapor to droplets- a liquid to form clouds.
3- Precipitation: if the air cools down further it causes more and more droplets to form
and when it becomes too many the cloud is oversaturated with water droplets the
excess water droplets will fall to the ground in the form of rain or precipitation.

Key concepts:
1. Dew point temperature: The temperature at which water vapor change to a liquid.
2. Relative humidity: Refer to the amount of moisture in a cubic of air.
3. Condensation level: This is the level(height) at which water vapor turn into liquid
format. If we look at clouds it is the height at which the cloud base is. It normally
looks that is on the same height.
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Climatology: Activity 2
2. Answer the question that follows:
2.1.1. To change the water format in the atmosphere from a solid to a liquid
A. Add water
B. Add heat
C. Reduce the heat
D. Remove water
2.1.2. To change the water format from a liquid to a solid the water …
A. must be cooled down.
B. must be heated.
C. must cool down to below freezing point.
D. must be heated to above freezing point.
2.1.3. The point at which gases turn in to liquid is called its
A. Peak point
B. Dew point
C. Converting point
D. Equilibrium point
2.1.4. If the temperature of the air increases without additional water vapor being added
at the air the relative humidity will likely?
A. Increase
B. Decrease
C. Stay the same
D. Temperature has no impact on relative humidity
2.1.5. The factor influencing humidity includes
A. Water
B. Temperature
C. Pressure
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D. osmosis
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2.2. Explain how you will change an ice cube to a liquid only using natural resources.
2.3. Explain the process of transpiration from plants.

CLIMATOLOGY: Moisture in the atmosphere – Clouds and forms of precipitation

Clouds What are Clouds?
Clouds is a daily occurrence and sometimes it A cloud is a large collection of tiny drops of
indicates fine a good weather and another day water or ice crystals. The drops are so small
it can spell stormy and bad weather. Clouds and light it can float in the air. Clouds cover
has inspired many authors to write poems and about half of the sky on any day.
songs about clouds.
How do clouds form?
The sun heats the earth surface which heats the air above the surface and the air starts to rise
and as it rises it expands and cools. Cool air holds less water vapour than warm air, so the water
vapour condenses on tiny particles (very small pieces of dust, salt, smoke or pollution – known as
condensation nuclei) in the air.
Tiny drops form around the condensation nuclei and float in the air. When many of these tiny
droplets come together, they form a cloud. The altitude where this start happening is called the
condensation level.
What are the types of Clouds

There are three basis types of clouds – Cirrus, Stratus and cumulus clouds.
Cirrus clouds: Fine wispy clouds that is transparent and very high and consist of ice
crystals.
Cumulus clouds: Look like big cotton wool balls in the sky.
Stratus clouds: Are flat low clouds that are flat and stretch horizontally across the sky.
 If a cloud type has a prefix with alto- it means it is a middle level cloud e.g.
altostratus
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 If a cloud type has a prefix with cirro- it means it is a high-level cloud e.g.
cirrocumulus.
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Weather associated with clouds.

Every cloud tells a story.

If a cloud name contains, nimbus, it means that it is a rain producing cloud.
 Cumulonimbus clouds are the clouds responsible for most of the
Summer rains in South Africa. They are very tall, 8 km to 10 km
high and are initially white and then turn grey and can become very dark.
They are normally associated with thunderstorms and will produce heavy
showers and may include hail.

 Nimbostratus is grey in colour and stretch across the horizon and produce a
light rain called a drizzle.
 Cirrus clouds produce no rain, but they may indicate a cold front which may
produce rain.
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How do the different types of rain forms?
Conditions needed for rain in the atmosphere:
 The air must be saturated.
 The air must contain condensation nuclei around which raindrops can form.
The temperature of the air must be cooled to dew point or below that so that
condensation can take place.

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Reading and interpreting synoptic weather maps

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Important things regarding a synoptic weather map that one should know.
 The date is always given and it notifies you which season is represented.
 The black lines on a synoptic weather map are called isobars, and these connect places with equal air
pressure.
 The isobars are measured in hectopascal (hPa).
 The interval between two isobars is called isobaric interval, normally it is 4hPa. Sometimes a 2hPa
interval can be used (this is indicated by a broken line).
 If the air pressure to the middle of a series of closed isobars decrease, is it a low-pressure cell.
 If the air pressure to the middle of a series of closed isobars increase, is it a high-pressure cell.

High Pressure Cell (Anticyclone) Low pressure cell (Cyclones)

 Usually oval  Usually circular

 Pressure increases to the center (center) of the
high pressure cell
 Air circulates in a counterclockwise direction
 Also known as anticyclone
 Air descends (sinks) in the middle
 Weather associated with a high pressure cell is
stable with clear, cloudless and dry conditions
 Pressure decreases to the center (center) of the low
pressure cell
 Air circulates in a clockwise direction
 Also known as a cyclone
 Air ascends (rises) in the middle
 Weather associated with low pressure cells is
unstable with cloud cover and rainfall

Cold front Warm front

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Topic: Reading and interpreting Synoptic Weather Maps Term 1 Week6
Consolidation: Activity 1
1.1 Select the term in COLUMN B that matches the description in COLUMN A. Write only the letter (A-E)
next to the question number (1.1.1-1.1.5), for example 1.1.6 F.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
1.1.1 Instrument with which air temperature is measured. A. Isobars
1.1.2 The velocity of wind is measured in this unit.
1.1.3 Lines on a synoptic weather map connecting places with B. Thermometer
equal air pressure.
1.1.4 Instrument used to measure the speed of wind. C. Anemometer
1.1.5 The unit of measurement of air pressure on a synoptic
weather map. D. Hectopascal

E. Knots

1.2 Interpret the four station models below by redrawing and completing the table.
A B C D

Table
A B C D
Air temperature
Dew point temperature
Precipitation
Cloud cover
Wind direction
Wind speed
1.3 Draw a weather station model to indicate the following weather conditions:

Air temperature 24°C

Dew point
11°C
temperature
Wind direction Northwest
Wind speed 10 knots
Cloud cover ½
Precipitation None
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1.4 Refer to the synoptic weather map below and answer the questions that follow.
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1.4.1 Define the concept synoptic weather map.
1.4.2 What are the black lines on the synoptic weather map called?
1.4.3 (a) Is the air pressure cell at B, a high pressure cell or a low pressure cell?
(b) Give a reason for your answer.
1.4.4 Refer to the enlarged weather station of Windhoek (B) on the synoptic weather map. In a paragraph of
about EIGHT lines, describe and give reasons for any TWO weather conditions recorded at the
weather station.

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