LEARNING UNIT 8:

ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICS

Table of Contents Page no.

1 Introduction and General Overview ................................................................................... 1
2 Purpose and Expected Outcome of the Learning Unit ....................................................... 2
3 Definitions and Abbreviations ............................................................................................ 2
4 Readily Available Sources and Student Guidance .............................................................. 3
5 Introduction to Geophysics ................................................................................................ 4
6 Geophysical Properties ....................................................................................................... 6
6.1 Density ......................................................................................................................... 7
6.2 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity......................................................................... 7
6.3 Seismic Wave Velocities and Geomechanical Properties ........................................... 8
6.4 Magnetic Susceptibility ............................................................................................. 12
6.5 Porosity...................................................................................................................... 13
6.6 Reflectivity ................................................................................................................. 14
6.7 Radioactivity .............................................................................................................. 14
7 Geophysical Methods ....................................................................................................... 16
7.1 Electrical (Resistivity) Method .................................................................................. 17
7.2 Gravity Method ......................................................................................................... 20
7.3 Magnetic Method...................................................................................................... 24
7.4 Seismic Method ......................................................................................................... 25
7.4.1 Seismic Refraction.............................................................................................. 26
7.4.2 Seismic Reflection .............................................................................................. 28
7.4.3 Continuous Surface Wave (CSW) Method ......................................................... 28
7.5 Electromagnetic Methods ......................................................................................... 29
7.6 Radiometric Methods................................................................................................ 31
 7.7 Thermal Methods ...................................................................................................... 32
8 Basic Summary of Different Geophysical Methods .......................................................... 35
9 Selection and Application ................................................................................................. 38
10 Self‐Assessment Activities ................................................................................................ 41
11 Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 43
12 Informative Website Links ................................................................................................ 43
13 References ........................................................................................................................ 44
List of Tables Page no.
Table 1: Typical S‐Wave Velocities (Knappett & Craig, 2012, p. 223) ................................................... 10
Table 2: Summary of Selective Geophysical Techniques, Measurements, Application and General
Notes ..................................................................................................................................................... 36
Table 3: Suitability of Engineering Geophysical Methods (CIRIA‐C562, 2002, p. 34) ........................... 38
Table 4: NDT Methods Used in Structural Investigations (after Robery and Casson, 1995) (CIRIA‐C562,
2002, p. 35) ........................................................................................................................................... 39
Table 5: Geophysical Methods of Exploration Summarised (Hunt, 2005, p. 45) .................................. 40

List of Figures Page no.

Figure 1: Outline of the Module (Focus on Learning Unit 9) .................................................................. 1
Figure 2: Geophysical Applications and Main Focus of the Learning Unit ............................................. 5
Figure 3: Typical Ranges of Material Densities (FHA‐P83, 2003, p. 405) ................................................ 7
Figure 4: Typical Conductivity Ranges of Some Materials (FHA‐P83, 2003, p. 398) ............................... 8
Figure 5: Seismic Waves Generated (Olivadoti, 2001)............................................................................ 9
Figure 6:Typical P‐Wave Velocities (Mah & Wyllie, 2004, p. 52) .......................................................... 11
Figure 7: Typical Ranges of S‐Wave Velocities (FHA‐P83, 2003, p. 407)............................................... 11
Figure 8: Typical Ranges of P‐Wave Velocities (FHA‐P83, 2003, p. 407) .............................................. 12
Figure 9: Typical Magnetic Susceptibility of Common Materials (FHA‐P83, 2003) .............................. 13
Figure 10: P‐wave Velocities ad a Function of Porosity (FHA‐P83, 2003, p. 53) ................................... 14
Figure 11: Uranium‐238 Decay Chain (USGS, 2004) ............................................................................. 15
Figure 12: Thorium‐232 Decay Chain (USGS, 2004).............................................................................. 16
Figure 13: Electrical Resistivity Method (Knappett & Craig, 2012) ....................................................... 18
Figure 14: Electrode Array Configurations For Resistivity Measurements (Hunt, 2005)...................... 19
Figure 15: Resistivity Survey ................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 16: Gravitational Illustration – Dolomite Site of Interest (20m station spacing) ....................... 21
Figure 17: Bouger Gravity Results (Applied “Noise” Corrections) ........................................................ 22
Figure 18: Residual Gravity Results (Site‐Specific Geology Calibration) ............................................... 23
Figure 19: Elector‐Magnetic Survey Results (Dolerite Dyke Identification) ......................................... 25
Figure 20: Transmission Paths of Direct, Reflected and Refracted Waves (Hunt, 2005)...................... 26
Figure 21: Seismic Refraction Method (Knappett & Craig, 2012, p. 224) ............................................. 27
Figure 22: Seismic Refraction Survey Results (Dam Foundation) ......................................................... 28
Figure 23: Electromagnetic Spectrum................................................................................................... 29
Figure 24: Ground Penetration Radar Results – Cross Section (Cavity Identification) ......................... 30
Figure 25: Ground Penetration Radar Results – Plan View (Cavity Identification) ............................... 31
Figure 26: Nuclear Densimeter (Moisture and Density Measurement) (APNGA, 2009) ...................... 32
Figure 27: Thermographs in Pavement Defects (Milovanovic & Pecur, 2016) ..................................... 33
Figure 28: Infra‐red Imagery in Temperature Induced Stresses (Milovanovic & Pecur, 2016) ............ 34
Figure 29: Infra‐red Imagery in Identification of Structural Elements (Milovanovic & Pecur, 2016) ... 34
1 Introduction and General Overview
This is Learning Unit 8 of 11 units in this module (see Figure 1). The module consists of ten
structured learning units and one unit that will be one (or more) geological engineering
project(s). The focus of this learning unit is on “Engineering Geophysics” for the prospective
engineer.

Basic Geology
(Learning Unit 1)
Basic Fundamentals
Geological
and Introduction to
Engineering Projects
Structural Geology
(Learning Unit 11)
(Learning Unit 2)

Geological Factors
Discontinuities and
Affecting Construction
“Properties of Rock”
Projects
(Learning Unit 3)
(Learning Unit 10)

Civil
Engineering
Design
Slopes Construction Geomorphology
(Learning Unit 9) (Learning Unit 4)

Engineering Geological Hazards

Geophysics and Problem Soils
(Learning Unit 8) (Learning Unit 5)

Soil and Rock

Geotechnical Site
Parameters for
Investigations
Design Input
(Learning Unit 7)
(Learning Unit 6)

Figure 1: Outline of the Module (Focus on Learning Unit 8)

“Geophysics” refers to the indirect measurement of certain properties of the

Earth/material/medium of interest, through quantitative physical methods.
Geophysics can be widely applied. For the purposes of this learning unit, we will consider the
methods and applications of geophysics in the geological, geotechnical, geo-environmental
and structural/civil engineering fields.

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This unit provides some basic principles of geophysical surveying and an introduction to
selected geophysical techniques with applications in the engineering field in general. Self-
study forms an important part of this learning unit. The compulsory sources are freely available
and are listed in the unit.

2 Purpose and Expected Outcome of the Learning Unit

This unit offers an introduction to engineering geophysics for the prospective engineer.
The main objectives of the learning unit are to:
a) Provide an understanding of the geophysical properties involved in the science.
b) Provide an introduction to geophysical techniques.
c) Introduce you to geophysical applications in the geological, geotechnical, geo-
environmental and structural engineering fields.
d) Introduce you to a number of reliable sources.
At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to:
Illustrate a basic understanding of the different geophysical methods;
Illustrate a basic understanding of the geophysical properties involved in the science;
Discuss some advantages and limitations of the different geophysical techniques;
Select appropriate geophysical methods to determine the selected geotechnical
material properties of soil/rock (elastic modulus, density, porosity, permeability, etc.);
Select appropriate geophysical methods to evaluate ground conditions (soil corrosivity,
stiffness, rock mass quality, rock mass deformability, excavatability and liquefaction
potential);
Select appropriate geophysical methods through which to identify potential
construction materials on a site;
Select appropriate geophysical methods that can be applied in foundation
assessments of structures (stratigraphy, material strength, settlement and potential
subsidence assessments);
Select appropriate geophysical methods that can be applied in the geo-environmental
field (pollution and contamination identification);
Select geophysical methods that can be applied to building and civil engineering
structures (concrete, masonry, metal, timber and composite material/structures).

3 Definitions and Abbreviations

Definitions and abbreviations are provided and clarified in the relevant sections in the learning
unit. Where these are not covered or where there is uncertainty, refer to the original source,
article or publication, or do research.

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4 Readily Available Sources and Student Guidance
Geophysics is a wide and specialised field. You can obtain and refer to any textbook (or
alternative reliable source/s) that covers the sections addressed in this learning unit. For the
purposes of this unit, you will be directed to a number of readily available and reliable sources.
You should obtain the sources listed as compulsory sources. All questions or potential projects
will be based on information contained in the learning unit and/or in these sources.
The compulsory sources include (refer to download links under the references in this
learning unit):
 Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, Geophysics in
Engineering Investigations (McDowell P.W., et al., 2002);
 Manual on Subsurface Investigations, National Highway Institute Publication No.
FHWA NHI-01-031, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, Geotechnical
Site Characterization, July 2001 (NHI-01-031, 2001);
 Technical Manual on the Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway-Related
Problems, Federal Highway Administration, September 2003 (FHA-P83, 2003).
 South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 7, Geotechnical Investigations
and Design Considerations, The South African Roads Agency SOC. Ltd (SAPEM
Chapter 7, 2014).
 Code of Practice: SAICE 2010, Site Investigation Code of Practice, The Geotechnical
Division of SAICE, January 2010 (SAICE, 2010).
 Technical paper: “Ground stiffness measurement by the continuous surface wave test”
(Heymann, 2007).
Suggested textbooks and additional informative sources include:
 Looking into the Earth, An Introduction to Geological Geophysics by Alan E. Mussett
and M. Aftab Khan (Mussett & Khan, 2007);
 Principles of Foundation Engineering by Braja M. Das (Das, 2016);
 Craig’s Soil Mechanics by J.A. Knappett and R.F. Craig (Knappett & Craig, 2012);
 Technical paper: “Application, advantages and limitations of high-density gravimetric
surveys compared with three-dimensional geological modelling in dolomite stability
investigations” (Breytenbach & Bosch, 2011);
 Technical paper: “The application of geophysics in South African coal mining and
exploration” (Schoor & Fourie, 2014);
 Technical paper: “The applications of continuous surface wave testing for settlement
analysis with reference to a full-scale load test for a bridge at Pont Melin, Wales, UK
(Heymann, Rigby-Jones, & Milne, 2019).

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5 Introduction to Geophysics
Geophysics is the study of the rocks and other substances that make up the Earth and the
physical processes happening on, in and above the Earth. It is simply the study of the Earth
by means of physics. Some methods have been adapted to investigate engineering structures.
Geophysical methods can broadly be divided into two groups:
1) Passive geophysical methods; and
2) Active geophysical methods.
Passive methods involve the detection and accurate measurement of variations in naturally
occurring fields, in order to locate and delineate the features producing them. These naturally
occurring fields are, for example, gravitational acceleration, magnetics and naturally occurring
radioactivity.
Active methods require some form of additional energy being directed into the ground or
medium under investigation, from where the returning signals or resultant fields are measured
to determine properties or identify anomalies. Examples are induced seismicity surveys,
electric surveys and electro-magnetic methods where an energy source is applied.
Geophysical methods offer a quick, non-intrusive and cost-effective means of exploring
subsurface conditions.
The different major or common fields of geophysics are:
1. Electric;
2. Gravitational;
3. Magnetic;
4. Seismic (acoustic);
5. Electromagnetic;
6. Radiometric (nuclear/atomic);
7. Thermometric.
The different fields of geophysics can be applied in the atmosphere, in a marine environment,
on the surface of the Earth or in the subsurface.
Methods varying from identifying geological structures and hazards to groundwater,
contamination, material properties and the evaluation of structural elements, will be introduced
in this learning unit. The focus of this unit is visually depicted in Figure 2.

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 Selective Geophysical Methods (Passive or Active):
Electric, Gravitational, Magnetic, Seismic (Acoustic), Electromagnetic, Radiometric, Thermometric

Environments Applied From:

Atmosphere, Marine, Surface, Subsurface

Atmosphere Marine Surface Subsurface

Self-study
Covered in the Unit
Selective Geophysical
Applicational Fields

Exploration Geological Geotechnical Geo-Environmental Structural Engineering

Combined Application to
the Engineering Field in Focus of the Learning Unit
General

Identify Identify Identify and Define Determine

Geological Geological Ground or Water Integrity of
Formations Hazards Pollution Existing Works

Define the Define the Determine Soil/Rock Structural Evaluation

Geological Groundwater Properties and Design (Concrete, Masonry, Timber,
Model Model Parameters Metal, Composites)

Figure 2: Geophysical Applications and Main Focus of the Learning Unit

Geophysical testing offers notable advantages and disadvantages that should be considered
before the technique is recommended for a specific application.
General advantages are:
 Many geophysical tests are non-invasive and offer significant benefits in cases where
conventional drilling, testing and sampling are difficult (e.g., deposits of gravel or talus)
or where potentially contaminated subsurface soils may occur.
 In general, geophysical tests cover a relatively large area, thus providing the
opportunity to characterise large areas, in order to optimise the locations and types of
in-situ testing and sampling. Geophysical methods are particularly well suited to
projects that have a large longitudinal extent, compared to their lateral extent (e.g., for
new highway construction).
 Selective geophysical measurement assesses the characteristics of soil and rock at
very small strains, typically in the order of 0.001%, thus providing information on truly
elastic properties which are used to evaluate service limit states.

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  For the purpose of obtaining subsurface information, geophysical methods are
relatively inexpensive compared to invasive work, when considering cost relative to
the large areas regarding which information can be obtained.
General disadvantages of geophysical methods include:
 Most methods work best for situations where there are large differences in stiffness or
conductivity between adjacent subsurface units.
 It is difficult to develop good stratigraphic profiling if the general stratigraphy consists
of hard material over soft material or resistive material over conductive material.
 Results are generally interpreted qualitatively and, therefore, only an experienced
engineer or geologist familiar with the particular testing method can obtain useful
results.
 Specialised equipment is required (compared to more conventional subsurface
exploration tools).
 Since evaluation is performed at very low strains (or no strain at all), information
regarding ultimate strength for an evaluation of strength limit states is only obtained by
correlation.
 Geophysical methods generally require corrections, calibration and some confirmation
based on verification or ground-truth investigation.
The above are very broad advantages and disadvantages. Each method has its own
advantages and limitations, which should become clear in the course of the learning unit.

6 Geophysical Properties
Developing an understanding of the theory and science of geophysical methods requires a
grasp of the geophysical properties involved in the methodologies (McDowell P.W., et al.,
2002). The geophysical property terms introduced in this learning unit are:
1) Density
2) Electrical conductivity and resistivity
3) Seismic wave velocities and geomechanical properties
4) Magnetic susceptibility
5) Porosity
6) Reflectivity
7) Radioactivity
Once the terms are introduced, we will go into some detail on the selected geophysical
methods applicable to the engineering field in general. Having gained an overview of the
terms/properties and different geophysical methods, we will see how to apply these in the
engineering field.

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6.1 Density
You should be familiar with this term. It is the intrinsic unit mass of a material, generally
expressed as kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3). Typical ranges of different material densities
are presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Typical Ranges of Material Densities (FHA-P83, 2003, p. 405)

6.2 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity

Electrical conductivity (σ) is the proportionality factor relating to the current that flows in a
medium to the electric field applied across the area of measurement. It is a measure of the
ability of the material to allow an electrical current to move through it. Resistivity (p) is the
reciprocal of conductivity. The unit of conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m). The practical
unit is millisiemens per metre (mS/m). Because siemens, the unit of conductance, is the
reciprocal of Ohm (the unit of resistance), the units of conductivity are sometimes given as
ohms/metre or milliohms/metre. Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity (p=1/σ). The unit of
resistivity is Ohm metres (Ωm).
Factors that influence electrical conductivity include:
1) Metal content;
2) Porosity;
3) Clay content;
4) Permeability;
5) Water content; and
6) Skin depth.
Typical conductivity ranges for materials are provided in Figure 4.

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Figure 4: Typical Conductivity Ranges of Some Materials (FHA-P83, 2003, p.
398)

6.3 Seismic Wave Velocities and Geomechanical Properties

Seismic surveys measure the velocity of propagation of elastic waves travelling through the
medium under investigation. If a sudden force (by means of, say, a hammer blow or explosive
charge) is applied to the ground/medium, four different elastic pulses travel away from the
source at different speeds. The pulses consist of two body waves (propagating as spherical
fronts P-wave and S-wave) and two surface waves (Rayleigh wave and Love wave). The two
body waves are termed the “primary wave” (P-wave or compressional wave) and “secondary
wave” (S-waves or shear wave). The P-wave and S-wave differ in terms of direction of motion
and speed: the P-wave is a longitudinal compressive wave in the direction of propagation; the
S-wave induces shear stress in the medium (Knappett & Craig, 2012, p. 51). The four wave
types are presented in Figure 5.

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Figure 5: Seismic Waves Generated (Olivadoti, 2001)

The velocities at which the waves travel through a medium, are related to the elastic constants
and density of the medium, given by the equations:

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𝐾 ∙𝐺 Equation 6.1
𝑉 3
𝜌

𝐺 Equation 6.2
𝑉
𝜌

Where:
𝑉 is the velocity of the primary wave or P-wave (compression wave)

𝑉 is the velocity of the secondary wave or S-wave (shear wave)

𝐾 is the bulk modulus of the material/medium
𝐺 is the shear modulus of the material/medium
𝜌 is the bulk density of the material/medium.
𝐸
𝐾 Equation 6.3
3 1 2𝜈

𝐸
𝐺 Equation 6.4
2 1 𝜈

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Where:
𝐸 is the dynamic elastic modulus or the Young’s modulus of the medium
𝜈 is the Poisson’s ratio of the medium.
The P-wave velocity can then be written as:

𝐸 1 𝜈 Equation 6.5
𝑉
1 𝜈 1 2𝜈

The Poisson’s ratio is related to the P-wave and S-wave by:

𝑉 0.5 𝜈 Equation 6.6

𝑉 1 𝜈

The small strain shear modulus (G or rather G0) can be written as:

𝐺 𝜌∙𝑉 Equation 6.7

Material properties such as the Poisson’s ratio (𝜈 , elastic modulus (E) and small strain shear
modulus (G0) can thus be determined by measuring wave velocities.
Typical S-wave and P-wave velocities are depicted in Table 1, and Figure 6,Figure 7 and
Figure 8.
Table 1: Typical S-Wave Velocities (Knappett & Craig, 2012, p. 223)

Soil or Rock Type Shear Wave Velocity (Vs)

(m/s)
Hard rocks (e.g. metamorphic) 1400 +
Firm to hard rocks (e.g., igneous, conglomerates, 700–1 400
competent sedimentary)
Gravelly soils and soft rocks (e.g., sandstone, shale, 375–700
soils with >20% gravel)
Stiff clays and sandy soils 200–375
Soft soils (e.g., loose submerged fills and soft clays) 100–200
Very soft soils (e.g., marshland, reclaimed soil) 50–100

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Figure 6:Typical P-Wave Velocities (Mah & Wyllie, 2004, p. 52)

Figure 7: Typical Ranges of S-Wave Velocities (FHA-P83, 2003, p. 407)

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Figure 8: Typical Ranges of P-Wave Velocities (FHA-P83, 2003, p. 407)

6.4 Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of the ability of a material to be magnetised. The
proportional constant links magnetisation to the applied magnetic field intensity. Magnetic
susceptibility, k, is related to magnetic permeability (µ) (EPA, 2020):

𝜇 𝜇 1 𝑘 Equation 6.8

Where:
𝜇 is the magnetic permeability (unit of measure is Henrys per metre (H/m))
𝜇 is the magnetic permeability of free space (4 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 10 )
𝑘 is the magnetic susceptibility.
The most magnetically susceptible materials are called ferromagnetic materials, which contain
iron, nickel, cobalt and alloys of these materials. A magnetic object or geological formation is
detected in the subsurface by the way in which the magnetic fields distort the Earth’s
geomagnetic field. These disturbances result in magnetic anomalies in the survey and are
particularly useful in the identification of certain geological contacts, intrusive dykes,
underground ferrous services, etc. Typical ranges of the magnetic susceptibility of common
materials are depicted in Figure 9.

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Figure 9: Typical Magnetic Susceptibility of Common Materials (FHA-P83,
2003)

6.5 Porosity
Saturation and density are related as a function of porosity (n) as:

𝑝 𝑝 1 𝑛 1000 ∙ 𝑆 ∙ 𝑛 Equation 6.9

Where:
𝑝 is the density (subscript f refers to formation)

𝑝 is the density (subscript m refers to matrix)

𝑛 is the porosity
𝑆 is the fractional water saturation.
The wave velocity is dependent on the density of the material. The P-wave velocity of
water/competent rock mixture can be expressed by Wyllie’s Equation (up to porosities of 0.35)
(EPA, 2020, p. 406):

𝑆 𝑆 1 𝑛 𝑆 ∙𝑛 Equation 6.10

Where:

S is the “slowness” ( (inverse of P-wave velocity).

Thus, if you have the P-wave velocity of the material (say 5 950 m/sec for sandstone) and the
water velocity (say 1 500 m/sec) you can express the P-wave velocity as a function of porosity,
as illustrated in Figure 10.

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Figure 10: P-wave Velocities as a Function of Porosity (FHA-P83, 2003, p. 53)

There are limitations to this method. The purpose is to illustrate the relationship between wave
velocities and material properties.

6.6 Reflectivity
The cause of seismic (or acoustic) reflections is the contrast in the seismic impedance across
a boundary, such as a geological formational contact. The impedance is defined as:

𝐼 𝑝∙𝑉 Equation 6.11

Where:
𝐼 is the impedance (kg/m2 × s)
𝑝 is the bulk density of the medium/material
𝑉 is the velocity of seismic wave propagation through the rock (you can use Vs [shear] or
Vp [compressional]).
The seismic reflection coefficient (R) for a two-layer system can be expressed as:
𝐼 𝐼 𝜌 𝑉 𝜌 𝑉
𝑅 Equation 6.12
𝐼 𝐼 𝜌 𝑉 𝜌 𝑉

6.7 Radioactivity
The atoms of isotopes of a number of elements spontaneously convert to other elements in
order to achieve equilibrium/stable conditions. In this breakdown there is a release of energy
and matter. This process is referred to as radioactive decay, which occurs due to unstable
atomic nuclei that do not have sufficient binding energy to hold the nucleus together due to
either an excess of protons or neutrons.
Some radioactive elements are found naturally in the environment, such as uranium, radium,
radon, polonium and potassium (or rather potassium-40 isotope). Geological radioactivity
surveying generally measures natural radioactivity due to the potassium-40, thorium and
uranium in near-surface rocks. Uranium decays towards the stable element lead, as does
Thorium.

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The two decay chains are somewhat different – see Figure 11 and Figure 12. Note that the
element radon (Rn) is a radioactive gas. Radon gas detection is widely applied in soil surveys
involving reclaimed tailing storage facilities.

Figure 11: Uranium-238 Decay Chain (USGS, 2004)

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Figure 12: Thorium-232 Decay Chain (USGS, 2004)

When radioactive decay occurs, energy is released in the form of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation. Alpha (α) and beta (β) radiation produces particle radiation. Gamma (γ) radiation is
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves with a very short wavelength (high-energy
ionising electromagnetic wave). Alpha radiation is weak and can be stopped with a single
sheet of paper. Beta radiation is stronger and can be stopped by aluminium foil. Gamma
radiation, which is high-energy radiation, is prevented or stopped by means of heavy elements
such as lead. The gamma radiation of caesium-137 (Cs-137) as radiation source is used in
everyday engineering practice, such as the nuclear density gauge in compaction control.

7 Geophysical Methods
Geophysical prospecting covers a series of techniques for investigating materials based on
variations detected in physical parameters. Selected parameters were introduced in the
previous section.
The different techniques or methods are grouped according to the physical parameters under
investigation. These methods are:
1) Electric (resistivity);
2) Gravitational (density);
3) Magnetic (magnetic susceptibility);
4) Seismic (acoustic) (velocity of seismic wave propagation);

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 5) Electromagnetic (electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability);
6) Radiometric (natural or induced radiation levels);
7) Thermal methods (thermal properties).
A distinction is made in the field between surface and subsurface (borehole) techniques
and they are usually described separately, although they are based on the same theory (de
Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011). The focus of this learning unit is on surface methods; subsurface
methods form part of the self-study section.

7.1 Electrical (Resistivity) Method

This method depends on differences in the electrical resistance of the different mediums under
consideration (soil/rock/concrete/metal/voids/water, etc.). Resistivity, which refers to the
resistance to current flow through a medium, is expressed as Ω m2/m or simply Ω m.
The electrical resistivity apparatus consists of a battery as energy source, a milliammeter, a
potentiometer and electrodes. An electrical current (I) is passed into the medium through two
electrodes and the potential drop (or voltage drop, V) is measured across a second pair of
electrodes (see Figure 13).
In the electrode setup presented (Wenner array configuration) in Figure 13, the current is
applied to the outer electrodes and the voltage drop is measured between the inner electrodes
with equally spaced distances between the electrodes. The electrodes are then spaced further
apart (equal distances) around a fixed centre point, and a series of increments and voltage
drop with calculated apparent resistivity are taken/calculated. As spacing between the
electrodes is increased, so the apparent resistivity is influenced by the greater depth of the
medium under consideration. The apparent resistivity is plotted against the electrode spacing
and the results can be interpreted.
Voltage can be expressed as:
𝐼 Equation 7.1
𝑉
𝑅
Where:
V is the voltage
I is the current
R is the resistivity.
The apparent resistivity (averaged resistivity through the medium) (𝑅Ω ) can then be expressed
as:
2𝜋𝐿𝐸 Equation 7.2
𝑅Ω
𝐼
Where:
L is the distances between the electrodes
E is the potential drop (voltage drop)
I is the current.

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Figure 13: Electrical Resistivity Method (Knappett & Craig, 2012)

When an increase in apparent resistivity is noted with an increase in electrode spacing, it

signals that the deeper horizons are more resistant (less conductive). When a decrease in
resistivity is noted with increasing electrode spacing, the lower horizons are less resistant
(more conductive).
Three basic electrode configurations can be considered (Hunt, 2005), namely:
1. Wenner array. This configuration employs four equally spaced electrodes. All four
electrodes are moved between successive operations;
2. Schlumberger array. This configuration is similar to the Wenner array, but the spacing
between the two centre electrodes is smaller than that of the outer electrodes. In
operation, the inner electrodes remain fixed and the outer electrodes are moved. The
test is then repeated, changing the spacing between the inner electrodes;
3. Dipole-dipole array. The source and receiving dipoles are separated and the
distances between the two dipoles are varied.
The three basic configurations are illustrated in Figure 14. Other configurations are also used,
such as pole-dipole array. We will only consider the three main configurations for the purposes
of this learning unit.

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Figure 14: Electrode Array Configurations for Resistivity Measurements (Hunt,
2005)

The results can be contoured, and two-dimensional models can be constructed to visually
present the resistivity results. The sections can be combined to construct three-dimensional
models. The results of a resistivity survey along one line of 189 m are depicted in Figure 15.
The results indicate an upper horizon with high electrical resistivity (e.g., loose dry sand) along
the western portion (left-hand side of the figure) with a localised area with very low electrical
resistivity (waterlogged conditions) along the eastern portion (right-hand side). If a conceptual
geological model can be constructed, the resistivity measurements can be correlated with the
geological formations.

Figure 15: Resistivity Survey

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7.2 Gravitational Method
The gravity method is based on Newton’s Law of gravitation and can be used to identify density
differences in materials by measuring the attractive forces.
𝑚 ∙𝑚
𝐹 𝐺∙ Equation 7.3
𝑟
Where:
F is the attractive force
G is the gravitational constant known as “big G” of 6.672x10-8 m3/Mg*s2
𝑚 is mass 1
𝑚 is mass 2.
The basic principle is that the measurement instrument (gravimeter) contains a mass m1 with
precision measurement capabilities. The gravimeter is placed on the surface and the
gravitational attraction is measured for the specific point. Measurements are taken across an
area of interest, usually on a grid or multiple lines for linear projects. The gravitational attraction
is evaluated, and anomalies are identified for further investigation. There are different types of
gravity measurement equipment, including falling body types, swinging pendulums and spring
gravimeters.
Note: The gravitational measurement taken is the sum of all the attractions of all the mass in
the lateral and vertical extent. The magnitude of attraction depends on the distance squared
(r2) from each point in the model, and the effect of the pull significantly reduces with distance
from the gravimeter. The survey is conducted on a grid across the site and the data are
contoured after a number of corrections are applied, usually based on invasive verification
data. Anomalies can be identified (highs, lows and gradients) that assist in interpreting the
geological model.
Station positions should be determined with great precision, including elevation
measurements. The spacing between gravitational stations depends on the scope of the
assessment, scale of the project and available budget at the specific investigation phase. In
dolomitic surveys, grid spacing less than the overburden thickness is considered good
practice. Closer grid spacing renders higher data resolution. Initial financial investment in high-
density gravitational station spacing will most probably reduce the overall drilling and
investigative cost by a significant amount, due to the increase in definition of the geological
model. However, the client, and sometimes advisory professionals (or rather project
managers), rarely realise the advantages of this early investment. Initial savings on
insufficiently detailed gravitational surveys generally result in excessive spending on drilling
exercises, project delays, the adaptation of layouts and designs, re-applications for land-
usage, re-designs and, very often, the relocation of services due to “unforeseen” conditions
which are exposed during the drilling phases of an investigation. These “unforeseen”
conditions are often easily identifiable in early planning phases if higher-density gravitation
spacing (or other geophysical means, for that matter) is considered. Early investment in proper
geophysical surveys most often results in significant investigation cost savings and, ultimately,
overall project cost savings.

20
Numerous “noise” corrections need to be applied to the raw gravitational attraction
measurements taken in the field, including:
 Drift;
 Latitude;
 Elevation;
 Tidal; and
 Eotvos corrections (only for moving measurement stations, such as aircraft and ships).
The above listed affect the gravitational pull during the time of conducting the survey and the
obtained raw data need to be filtered (corrected) for a more accurate representation of the
subsurface conditions.
The corrected or filtered data are contoured to produce a Bouguer anomaly gravity map. Once
confirmed, site-specific information is incorporated into the survey data (e.g., depth to bedrock,
properties of the overburden, etc.), the model is calibrated and a residual gravity map is
produced. A gravitational survey conducted using a 20 m grid station spacing with the
corrected Bouguer gravity and calibrated residual gravity is illustrated in Figure 16,Figure 17
and Figure 18.

Figure 16: Gravitational Illustration – Dolomite Site of Interest (20 m station

spacing)

21
Figure 17: Bouguer Gravity Results (Applied “Noise” Corrections)

22
Figure 18: Residual Gravity Results (Site-Specific Geology Calibration)

The gravitational high readings (areas of stronger attraction) were proven to be areas of
shallow unweathered rock. The gravitational low readings (areas of weaker attraction) were
areas of deeper rock that is highly weathered and leached, with the presence of localised
cavities (voids). The gravitational grid spacing was not optimum for this site. Bedrock depths
varied between 2, 15 and 20 m below ground level. The grid spacing was 20 m. The optimum
grid spacing will be a station spacing of no more than ten metres apart, within infill stations in
selected areas. The project manager who is the advisory professional to the client did not want
to approve closer station spacing due to cost implications. It is highly probable that the infill
drilling required to properly define the areas of unacceptable risk will far exceed the additional
cost of conducting higher-density gravitational readings.

23
7.3 Magnetic Method
Magnetic methods are based on the measurement of variations in the total magnetic field of
the Earth. The variations are caused by local differences in the magnetism of the subsurface
rocks and soils, due to variations in magnetic susceptibility. The measurements are made by
means of a proton magnometer. No external energy is applied to induce secondary
electromagnetic fields.
Surveys can be done from a number of platforms: from the ground, from a vehicle, from the
air, from a satellite or from the subsurface (boreholes). A number of corrections are applied to
the data and the results are generally contoured for a visual presentation of the magnetic
anomalies encountered.
Data reduction is less than what is required for gravity surveys. The required magnetic
corrections include:
1. Diurnal variations; and
2. Global field variations.
Diurnal variations: The strength of the earth’s magnetic field is not constant. A base station
is required in order to measure the changes and to correct (add or subtract) for this variation.
Regular base station measurements during a survey with one instrument can also be
considered, as diurnal changes are generally smooth (with the exception of magnetic
storms/surges that may render a magnetic survey without a permanent base station
meaningless).
Global field variations: The Earth’s magnetic field varies significantly over its surface. The
magnetic fields at the magnetic poles are approximately twice as strong as what is measured
at the magnetic equator (Mussett & Khan, 2007, p. 140). Local or site-specific surveys do not
require corrections for the global field, but if surveys are conducted on a regional scale, field
corrections are required.
The results of a typical total magnetic field survey are presented in Figure 19. The survey was
conducted to identify dolerite dykes/intrusions on dolomitic land. The dykes were identified
and verified during drilling. The magnetic anomalies (magnetic high readings) indicated three
north-east striking dykes across the site and a prominent north-west striking dyke towards the
far north-eastern corner of the site. The identification of the dykes was critical, as severe
weathering and leaching with cavity formation are present along the dolomite/dolerite contact
zones in this specific setting. The cost of the survey drastically reduced the drilling cost and
allowed for a better-defined conceptual geological model and the identification of potential
high-risk areas (later confirmed as such) in the early planning stages of the project.

24
Figure 19: Electro-Magnetic Survey Results (Dolerite Dyke Identification)

7.4 Seismic Method

Seismic methods are based on the measurement of elastic wave responses through mediums
(refer to section 6.3). The concepts addressed in this unit are seismic refraction and seismic
reflection, with the main focus on refraction measurements (compressional P-waves and S-
waves). The difference between direct, reflective and refractive waves is illustrated in Figure
20. A method where the surface Rayleigh waves are considered (CSW method) forms part of
the self-study portion of this learning unit.

25
Figure 20: Transmission Paths of Direct, Reflected and Refracted Waves (Hunt,
2005)

7.4.1 Seismic Refraction

Seismic refraction is based on the principle that seismic waves travel at different velocities
through materials/mediums with varying densities, and that the waves are refracted when they
meet/cross the boundaries of these materials. The wave velocities and refraction data are
used to estimate the depth of boundaries, such as the soil/rock boundary.
The source for generating a wave in exploration or geotechnical engineering is generally
explosives or the striking of a metal plate with a large hammer. A number of very sensitive
vibration transducers (geophones) are set out with a known distance from the energy source,
and the times of the arriving waves at the geophones are recorded with a seismograph
(extremely accurate time-measurement apparatus). One geophone with a number of energy
sources, with known distances from the geophone, can also be considered. A typical setup is
presented in Figure 21.

26
Figure 21: Seismic Refraction Method (Knappett & Craig, 2012, p. 224)

An example of a seismic refraction survey conducted for a dam foundation is presented in

Figure 22. The survey was conducted to determine the thickness of the soil blanketing the
rock, the nature of the soil-rock contact, the variation in the profile at different sections and the
excavatability of the rock. Line 1 indicates a relatively shallow soil cover (1.0–1.5 m for the
northern half of the proposed foundation, with a more prominent soil cover of approximately
3.0 m across the southern portion of the foundation) with a gradual transition between
weathered and unweathered rock, with unweathered rock at approximately 8.0 metres below
ground level. Line 2 indicates a shallow soil cover with slightly undulating bedrock conditions
with a rapid transition to hard rock conditions at a shallow depth of approximately 3.0–5.0
metres below ground level.
Information of the S-wave (shear wave or secondary wave) velocity can be used to determine
the relative stiffness of the soil. Due to the very small strain induced by the shear wave, the
material behaves in an elastic manner, thus the small strain shear modulus can be related to
the shear wave velocity, as provided by Equation 6.7. Once 𝐺 is known, you can infer the
non-linear G- 𝛾 (shear modulus-strain) relationship by using the following estimate:
𝛾
𝐺 1
𝛾 Equation 7.4
1.0
𝐺 𝛾
1
𝛾

27
Figure 22: Seismic Refraction Survey Results (Dam Foundation)

7.4.2 Seismic Reflection

Seismic reflection involves generating seismic waves by applying an appropriate energy
source to an array of geophone sensors aligned on a cross section (de Vallejo & Ferrer, 2011,
p. 281). The arrival times of the reflected waves are measured and used to calculate depths
to interfaces below ground level.

7.4.3 Continuous Surface Wave (CSW) Method

The continuous surface wave (CSW) method is used to determine ground stiffness by
measuring the Rayleigh wave propagation along the ground surface (see Figure 5). It thus
measures the surface waves, rather than the compressional or shear waves as per the
previous methods.
The method consists of a shaker, placed on the ground surface, that generates waves of which
the frequency can be varied. The ground response is measured through an array of
geophones located along the surface.
The CSW method forms part of the self-study section. Refer to the relevant source and
guidance provided in section 10.

28
7.5 Electromagnetic Methods
Electromagnetic (E-m) methods involve the measurement and study of electrical and magnetic
properties of the medium under investigation. An external energy source is required in these
methods to generate the electromagnetic wave. The frequency of different E-m methods can
vary greatly, from as low as 10 Hz to as high as 1 022 Hz, with corresponding wavelengths
ranging from 10-7 m down to 10-14 m. The electromagnetic spectrum is depicted in Figure 23.
The survey is conducted to determine the variation in electrical conductivity of the medium
under investigation, with depth. The E-m methods (except ground-penetrating radar [GPR])
are in many ways similar to the resistivity method, as both measure the response in variations
in the resistivity of the medium under investigation. Electromagnetic methods generally induce
current flows into the medium without electrodes. These methods can thus be used in ground
and aerial surveys. The GPR is dependent on the reflection of pulses of waves, thus it closely
resembles the seismic reflection method.

Figure 23: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Several electromagnetic wave techniques are available. The methods include:

 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR);
 Electrical resistivity (ER) surveys;
 Electromagnetic conductivity (EM);
 Magnetometer surveys (MS);
 Resistivity Piezocone (RCPTu).
The results of typical GPR surveys, for the detection of subsurface cavities, are depicted in
Figure 24 and Figure 25. Figure 24 presents the line cross-sectional view of a line survey

29
with reflection anomalies indicating cavities/voids. Figure 25 presents a plan view contoured
from the data of numerous line surveys for a specific depth range.

Figure 24: Ground Penetration Radar Results – Cross Section (Cavity

Identification)

30
Figure 25: Ground Penetration Radar Results – Plan View (Cavity
Identification)

7.6 Radiometric Methods

Radiometric methods mainly measure natural radioactivity resulting from the potassium,
thorium and uranium in near-surface rocks, which have application in geological and
geochemical mapping, and are used to find ores rich in uranium and thorium, or other types
of ore that have associated radioactivity.
Radon is a radioactive gas that is formed in each of the three uranium and thorium decay
series. The detection of radon is often used in confirming the presence of radioactive material
and the suitability of development on reclaimed land (e.g., reclaimed tailings storage facilities).
It also occurs in naturally occurring geological formations.
The methods can also measure the decay or absorption of an applied radioactive source
through a medium. An example of this method in everyday engineering is the nuclear density
gauge used for compaction control in earthworks and roadworks. The measurement device is
known as the nuclear densimeter. The concept is illustrated in Figure 26.

31
Figure 26: Nuclear Densimeter (Moisture and Density Measurement) (APNGA,
2020)

Moisture content is measured using an Americum-241/Beryllium (am-241/Be) neutron

radiation source which releases high-energy neutrons. The neutrons interact with hydrogen
atoms and moisture estimates can be made. The method is used as a guide, but should be
calibrated to site-specific conditions and moisture.
For density measurements, a hole is made in the soil/ground/medium and the radioactive
caesium source is pushed into the hole. The decay in the gamma rays from the radioactive
source and the measurement in the densimeter at the surface can be correlated with the
density of the material. Once the test is completed, the radioactive sources are pulled back
into and secured in the densimeter.
Various radiometric methods exist, including, but not limited to:
1. Gamma-ray radiography (such as the caesium-137 source in the nuclear densimeter);
2. Neutron radiography (such as the Americum source in the densimeter being used as
neutron source for moisture content correlations);
3. X-ray radiography (requires an accelerator and electricity to generate x-rays, such as
those used in the medical field, to detect breaks/fractures in bones. The same method
is applied in engineering, for example to inspect the integrity of structural elements).

7.7 Thermal Methods

Thermal methods involve the measurement and study of heat or temperature properties and
anomalies in a medium of interest. There are numerous applications in the geological field;
however, for the purposes of this learning unit, we focus on the infra-red thermography method
which is mainly applied in engineering.

32
Heat describes the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system and is
measured in Joule. Temperature, which describes the average kinetic energy of molecules
within a material or system, is measured in Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), Kelvin (K) or Rankine
(R). The relationship between heat, temperature and the material is expressed by the heat
conduction equation:
∆𝑇 Equation 7.5
𝑄 𝐴∙ ∙𝐾
𝐿
Where:
Q is the heat conducted
A is the cross-sectional area of the material of interest
∆𝑇 is the temperature difference between measurement points
L is the length or distance between the measurement points
K is the thermal conductivity of the medium of interest.
In infra-red thermography methods, the heat at any temperature of the material or structure of
interest is converted into a thermal image using scanning cameras. Defects in materials will
absorb energy from a heat source in a different manner than areas without defects. Detection
of these anomalies is widely applied in the engineering field, from a reconnaissance tool for
the identification of structural defects in concrete buildings, to leakage detection of methane
gas from landfill sites, and even specialised fluid dynamics and mechanical evaluations. This
method is widely applied to the building sciences for evaluating heat flow, air and moisture
flow, insulation quality control, etc., to evaluate and design energy-efficient buildings.
An example of the application of infra-red thermography in identifying structural defects, is
presented in Figure 27. An example of its application in a stress analysis and the identification
of inner structural elements (reinforcing) is presented in Figure 28 and Figure 29.

Figure 27: Thermographs in Pavement Defects (Milovanovic & Pecur, 2016)

33
Figure 28: Infra-red Imagery in Temperature-induced Stresses (Milovanovic &
Pecur, 2016)

Figure 29: Infra-red Imagery in Identification of Structural Elements

(Milovanovic & Pecur, 2016)

Structural defects, thermal properties and subsurface structural elements can be identified by
scanning and interpreting the thermal properties of material.

34
8 Basic Summary of Different Geophysical Methods
A basic summary of the geophysical methods covered in the learning unit is provided in Table
2, for quick reference purposes. Refer to the list of compulsory sources and the different
methods to expand your knowledge of the principles, applications, advantages and limitations
of each method/system. Study each method in detail and familiarise yourself with its limitations
before you apply it in practice.

35
Table 2: Summary of Selective Geophysical Techniques, Measurements,
Application and General Notes

Geophysical Basic
Selective Application Some Basic Advanta
Method Measurement
Economical and non-destructive.
Depth determination can be grossly in error.
Prospection for quarry rock, Materials with widely differing engineering pro
groundwater, sand and gravel. Differentiation between strata may not be pos
Electrical resistance of
Electrical River bottom studies. an extremely high resistance.
volume of material
Resistivity Generally considered as a Water-table location often limits the depth of
between probes
complimentary study to seismic in saturated materials and masks lower layer
refraction surveys. Different geological models can provide the s
To be used in conjunction with other methods
Only to be considered as a preliminary explo
Reasonably accurate results.
Detects anticlinal structures, Equipment is costly.
buried ridges, salt domes, faults Specialised personnel required.
Variations in
and cavities. Data reduction and interpretation are comple
Gravitational gravitational attraction
Depth to bedrock. Values recorded are average values based o
at specific positions
Generally considered in dolomite Different geological models can provide the s
stability assessments. Requires very accurate station survey positio

Minute quantities of magnetic material are de

Presence and location of
Variations in the Earth’s magnetic materials (basic igneous
Magnetic
magnetic field dykes).
Exploration to locate ore bodies.
Only useful for locating magnetic material.
Different geological models can provide the s
Interpretation is highly specialised.
Calibration on site is critical.

Rapid, accurate and economic method.

Softer, lower-velocity material will be masked
material.
Stratum with thickness of <1/4th the depth fro
Seismic velocity of subsurface
stratum cannot be distinguished.
Travel time of layers and depth to contrasting
Averaged results are obtained in boulder form
compressional waves interfaces.
surfaces, or rock with thin, hard layers dippin
Seismic through subsurface Evaluation of excavatability/
Well-defined stratum interfaces are not possi
Refraction layers rippability and bedrock conditions.
with depth.
(mechanical wave Exploration/identification of
In frozen ground, the geophones and applied
measurements) stratigraphy.
zone, as high velocities are obtained in froze
Identifications of buried channels.
Different geological models can provide the s
Limited application in urban areas because o
pavements, foundations, etc.

36
Geophysical Basic
Selective Application Some Basic Advanta
Method Measurement
Rapid testing, thorough coverage of site.
Limited resolution.
Velocities cannot be calculated with reliability
Travel time of
Identify and map selected reflector known, therefore material types and stratum
compressional waves
horizons. refraction methods.
Seismic reflected from
Depth to bedrock. Depths are estimated by assuming water velo
Reflection subsurface layers
Fault displacement. impedance affect the thickness scale.
(mechanical wave
Discontinuities. Different geological models can provide the s
measurements)
Test borings or refraction studies are necess
determinations.

Rapid coverage of site.

Map reflector horizons.
Variations in electrical Various methods/systems available with diffe
Geological anomalies,
conductivity with depth for different applications/conditions.
Electromagnetic underground infrastructure,
(electromagnetic wave Different geological models can provide the s
cavities.
measurements) Specialised interpretation required.
Depth to bedrock.

Can detect any feature in a component struct

differences in thickness or density with the te
X-ray systems provide an instant view of insi
Mineral exploration.
that can be recorded for future analysis.
Identification and mapping of
Short survey time.
contamination such as uranium
Planar defects such as cracks are not always
Detects/records mine tailings.
between the beam and crack.
radioactive emission or Density measurements in
Radiometric Radioactive source that has health concerns
absorption over a compaction control and other
Requires an exclusion zone due to radiation
distance/volume structural elements.
High radiation exposure when inspecting larg
Internal integrity of concrete or
bridge ducts or other structural elements.
other structural elements such as
Gamma-ray systems: less exposure, but long
welds, pavements, etc.
X-ray system can be switched off if anything
Gamma-ray systems cannot be switched off

Water leaks in sewers or water

lines. Gas leaks in waste-disposal
Converts heat at any Very cost-effective reconnaissance tool. Rap
sites. Structural integrity of
Thermography temperature into a measurements. Needs calibration. Applicatio
buildings/pavements.
thermal image may be required over different temperatures
Debonding, mosaic or
delaminating concrete.

37
9 Selection and Application
A basic introduction to geophysics, selective geophysical properties and selective geophysical
methods was provided in the preceding sections. That information should allow you to make
an informed decision about which method(s) to consider in your specific application. However,
if you consider applying any geophysical method, acquire early input from a competent
geophysicist to ensure that the method/technique is suitable for the intended application.
Some guidance on the suitability of different engineering geophysical methods for certain
applications is provided in Table 3. Guidance on geophysical methods that can be applied to
structural evaluations is provided in Table 4 (only refer to the method in bold text). General
methods and relevant applications are also listed in Table 5.
The application of the techniques is covered in the self-study portion of this learning unit.

Table 3: Suitability of Engineering Geophysical Methods (McDowell P.W., et al.,

2002, p. 34)

38
Note: To be considered as an initial guide only. Apply your mind!

Table 4: NDT Methods Used in Structural Investigations (after Robery &

Casson, 1995) (McDowell P.W., et al., 2002, p. 35)

39
Table 5: Geophysical Methods of Exploration Summarised (Hunt, 2005, p. 45)

40
Note: To be considered as an initial guide only. Apply your mind!

10 Self-Assessment Activities
Refer to the purpose and expected outcomes of this learning unit (section 2). Read through
the relevant topics in the compulsory sources.
Ensure that you address at least the following:
Refer to the compulsory source (NHI-01-031, 2001):
o Read through section 5.7, pp. 5-23–5-37.
o Take note of the different geophysical methods. Ensure that you have a basic
understanding of each.
o Note and understand the difference between the mechanical and the
electromagnetic wave methods.
o Take note of the different methods, apparatuses, system setups and typical
material properties provided in this source.
o Take note of the relevance of in-situ tests for different soil types (p. 5-37). Note
the coverage restrictions of in-situ tests vs. geophysical methods.

Refer to the compulsory source (FHA-P83, 2003):

41
 o Read through section 1.3 (p. 3) and Table 1 (p. 5). Familiarise yourself with the
geophysical methods that can be considered for the various applications listed.
There is no need to memorise everything.
o Take note of the wide application range of geophysical methods to
substructures, superstructures, pavements, geological hazards (subsidence
section), the identification of problem soils (clay) and subsurface
characterisations. The different methods, and brief summaries of their
advantages and limitations, are provided. This will be important in the process
of selecting any method.
o Take note of the methods used to determine the physical properties of
materials (section 6.2).
o Take note of the different methods that can be applied to identify buried
manmade features/infrastructure (section 6.3).
o Familiarise yourself with vibration measurements (Chapter 7).
o Read through Chapter 8. Familiarise yourself with the concepts (briefly
discussed in the learning unit).
o Refer to the geophysical methods in Chapter 9. If there is any uncertainty about
a specific method, read through the relevant section and familiarise yourself
with the basics of each.
o We mainly covered surface methods in this learning unit. A number of borehole
geophysical methods are discussed in Chapter 10. You can refer to these for
future reference, but borehole methods do not form part of this learning unit.
Refer to the compulsory source (McDowell P.W., et al., 2002):
o Refer to Table 2.1 (p. 29). Take note of the guidance on geophysical methods
for various applications.
o Read through section 4 (“The conceptual ground model”) (pp. 51–59). Note the
importance of the conceptual ground model and water model for the selection
and interpretation of any geophysical data. Note the various physical factors
that will have an impact on the effectiveness of the geophysical techniques.
The knowledge you developed in previous learning units should come in handy
at this stage.
o It will be beneficial to read through the different techniques (electrical,
gravitational, magnetic, seismic, electromagnetic, radiometric and thermal
methods). These were briefly discussed in the learning unit. You will benefit
from doing additional reading.
o Familiarise yourself with the different applications of the geophysical
techniques (geotechnical, geo-environmental and structural). Read through the
table of content (pp. 7–9). The different applications provided and discussed in
this reference source may come in handy in the module project.
Refer to the compulsory source (SAPEM Chapter 7, 2014):
o Read through section 3.2 (section 2, p. 10; document p. 20 of 87).

42
 o Refer to Table 18.2, “Geophysical methods in ground investigation” (Chapter
7, Appendix B, p. B-8; document p. 84). Familiarise yourself with the methods
and remarks under the listed applications (problems). This may assist in the
selection of appropriate geophysical methods that can be considered for
specific applications.
Refer to the compulsory source (SAICE, 2010):
o Read through section 4.3.2, Geophysics (pp. 34–35). Take note of the common
techniques and short guidance on the applications of the different techniques.
o Note the closing paragraph of this section, regarding when to involve the
geophysicist, and who should carry out and report on the survey.
Refer to the compulsory source (Heymann, 2007):
o Read through the paper and familiarise yourself with the basics of the CSW
method.
The main purpose of the self-study section is to familiarise yourself with the different
geophysical methods. You should have a basic understanding of each. The reference sources
will enable you to expand your knowledge of each method, and will serve as references when
selecting applicable geophysical methods. Familiarise yourself with the contents of the
compulsory sources.

11 Further Reading
Further reading will be beneficial to you. Address the topics introduced in this learning unit, as
well as the self-study portions emphasised in section 10.

12 Informative Website Links

The following links may contain informative information:
 Geophysics: https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-geophysics/web/html/index.html
 NHI Manual on Subsurface Investigations:
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/pubs/nhi16072.pdf
 FHWA Publication Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway-related Problems.
http://www.ce.memphis.edu/7137/PDFs/Geophysical/geotechPdf.pdf
 Very brief summaries on survey methods:
https://www.eoas.ubc.ca/ubcgif/iag/foundations/method-summ.htm
 The application of geophysics in South African coal mining and exploration:
http://www.saimm.co.za/Journal/v114n10p875.pdf
 Technical paper on ground stiffness measurement by the continuous surface wave
test: https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/5332

43
References
APNGA. (2009, February). American Portable Nuclear Gauge Association Manual. <<place:
publisher or URL?>>

Breytenbach, I. J., & Bosch, P. J. (2011, October). Application, advantages and limitations of
high‐density gravimetric surveys compared with three‐dimensional geological
modelling in dolomite stability investigations. Journal of the South African Institution
of Civil Engineering, 53 No. 2, 7‐13.

CIRIA‐C562. (2002). Geophysics in Engineering Investigations. London: <<publisher>>.

Das, B. M. (2016). Principles of Foundation Engineering (8th ed.). Boston, USA: Cengage
Learning.

de Vallejo, L., & Ferrer, M. (2011). Geological Engineering. Oxford: CRC Press; Taylor &
Francis.

EPA. (2020, 02 20). United States Environmental Protection Agency ‐ Web Archive. Retrieved
from https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive‐geophysics/web/html/index‐15.html

FHA‐P83. (2003). Technical Manual, Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related

Problems. Federal Highway Administration, Central Federal Lands Highway Division,
Lakewood, CO, Publication No. DTFH68‐02‐P‐0083, September 2003.

Heymann, G. (2007, March). Ground stiffness measurement by the continuous surface wave
test. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering, 49 No. 1, 25‐31.

Heymann, G., Rigby‐Jones, J., & Milne, C. A. (2019, June). The applicaiton of continuous
surface wave testing for settlement analysis with reference to a full‐scale load test
for a bridge at Pont Melin, Wales, UK. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil
Engineering, 59 No. 2, 49‐58.

Hunt, R. E. (2005). Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Handbook (2nd ed.). Taylor &
Francis.

Knappett, J. A., & Craig, R. F. (2012). Graig's Soil Mechanics. (8th, Ed.) Oxon, USA and
Canada: Spon Press (an imprint of Taylor & Francis).

Mah, C. W., & Wyllie, D. C. (2004). Rock Slope Engineering ‐ Civil and Mining (4 ed.). London
and New York: Spon Press; Taylor & Francis).

Milovanovic, B., & Pecur, I. B. (2016). Review of active IR thermography for detection and
characterization of defects in reinforced concrete. Journal of Imaging. <<volume,
issue, page extent, please>>

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