LERANING UNIT 5

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

5.1. Introduction
Growing population and industrial development have increased waste generated by
urban areas. Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be defined as the wastes arising from:
• domestic,
• commercial,
• industrial, and
• institutional activities in urban areas.

MSW disposal has become an ever-increasing problem in many parts of the world,
especially in the developing countries. Generally, the greater the economic prosperity
and the higher the percentage of urban population, the greater is the amount of solid
waste produced. This tremendous increase in the amount of MSW generated is due to
changing lifestyles, food habits and living standards of the urban population. Despite
this growth, there has been less parallel effort to properly manage the solid wastes
produced by the urban dwellers, especially in the developing countries. MSW are a
waste consisting of everyday items “used and then thrown away”, such as:

• product packaging,
• grass clippings,
• furniture,
• clothing,
• bottles,
• food scraps,
• newspapers,
• appliances,
• paint, and
• batteries,”

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These items come from homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses.
The management of MSW that has already been generated can be roughly divided into
four methods:
• recycling,
• composting,
• thermal treatment with energy recovery, and
• landfilling
The generation of wastes can however be reduced by various means, such as a better
design of products and packaging, and therefore “Reduction” is placed at the very top
of the waste management hierarchy.

In subsection 5.3, we will describe solid wastes and introduce you to the classification of
solid wastes, followed by solid waste management (SWM) systems (section 5.4). The
functional elements of SWM are described in detail, such as:
• waste generation,
• storage,
• collection,
• transport,
• processing,
• recovery and disposal.

Before you read any further, note that for the purpose of this module, we use the terms
solid wastes and solid waste interchangeably.

5.2. Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, you should be able to:

Identify the sources and quantities of solid waste
Classify solid wastes;
Explain the functional elements of SWM;
Assess the current situation of SWM in South Africa

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5.3. Classification of Solid Wastes
Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product packaging,
grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchen refuse, paper, appliances, paint cans,
batteries, etc., produced in a society, which do not generally carry any value to the first
user(s). Solid wastes, thus, encompass both a heterogeneous mass of wastes from the
urban community as well as a more homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial
and mineral wastes. Table 5.1 presents the general classifications of solid wastes.

Table 5.1. Classification of Solid Wastes

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While wastes have little or no value in one setting or to the one who wants to dispose
them, the discharged wastes may gain significant value in another setting. Knowledge of
the sources and types of solid wastes as well as the information on composition and the
rate at which wastes are generated/ disposed is, therefore, essential for the design and
operation of the functional elements associated with the management of solid wastes.
Solid wastes are classified on the basis of source of generation and type. We will explain
these in sub-sections 5.3.1 and 5.3.2, respectively.

5.3.1. Source-based classification

Historically, the sources of solid wastes have been consistent, dependent on sectors and
activities, and these include the following:
a) Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc., and consists
of :
• leftover food,
• vegetable peels,
• plastic,
• clothes,
• ashes, etc.
b) Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals,
ashes, etc., generated from:
• stores,
• restaurants,
• markets,
• hotels,
• motels,
• auto-repair shops,
• medical facilities, etc.
c) Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated from
educational, administrative and public buildings such as:
• schools,
• colleges,

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 • offices,
• prisons, etc.
d) Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as:
• streets,
• alleys,
• parks,
• vacant lots,
• playgrounds,
• beaches,
• highways,
• recreational areas, etc.

It is important to define the various types of solid wastes that are generated from various
sources (see subsection 5.4.1), which we will do, later on.
5.3.2. Type-based classification
Classification of wastes based on types, i.e.
• physical,
• chemical, and
• biological characteristics of wastes.

The different types of wastes are discussed below. Table 5.1 summarises our
discussion of waste classification based on sources of generation and their types.

a) Garbage: This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from:

• the handling,
• sale,
• storage,
• preparation,
• cooking and
• serving of food.

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 Garbage comprising these wastes contains putrescible (rotting) organic matter,
which produces an obnoxious odour and attracts rats and other vermin. It, therefore,
requires special attention in storage, handling and disposal.

b) Ashes and residues: These are substances remaining from the burning of:
• wood,
• coal,
• charcoal,
• coke and
• other combustible materials for cooking and heating in houses, institutions
and small industrial establishments.
When produced in large quantities, as in power-generation plants and factories,
these are classified as industrial wastes. Ashes consist of fine powdery residue,
cinders and clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal and glass. Since ashes
and residues are almost entirely inorganic, they are valuable in landfills.

c) Combustible and non-combustible wastes: These consist of wastes generated

from:
• households,
• institutions,
• commercial activities, etc.,
The list excludes food wastes and other highly putrescible material. Typically,
while combustible material consists of:
• paper,
• cardboard,
• textile,
• rubber,
• garden trimmings, etc.,
Non-combustible material consists of such items as:

• glass,
• Crockery,

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 • tin and aluminium cans,
• ferrous and non-ferrous material and
• dirt.

d) Bulky wastes: These include large household appliances such as:

• refrigerators,
• washing machines,
• furniture,
• crates,
• vehicle parts,
• tyres,
• wood,
• trees and
• branches.
Since these household wastes cannot be accommodated in normal storage containers,
they require a special collection mechanism.

e) Street wastes: These refer to wastes that are collected from:

• streets,
• walkways,
• alleys,
• parks and
• vacant plots,
These include the following:
• paper,
• cardboard,
• plastics,
• dirt,
• leaves and other vegetable matter.

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 Littering in public places is indeed a widespread and acute problem in many countries
including India, and a solid waste management system must address this menace
appropriately.

f) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes: Biodegradable wastes mainly refer

to substances consisting of organic matter such as:
• leftover food,
• vegetable and fruit peels,
• paper,
• textile
• wood, etc.,
These are generated from various household and industrial activities. As a result of
the action of micro-organisms, these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler
compounds. Non- biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials
such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc. Table 5.2 below shows a comparison of
biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes with their degeneration time, i.e., the
time required to break from a complex to a simple biological form. From Table 5.2,
we can easily deduce the environmental consequences associated with non-
biodegradable wastes such as plastics, glass, etc.

Category Type of waste Approximate

time taken to
degenerate
Organic waste such as vegetable A week or two
and fruit peels, leftover foodstuff,
etc.
Biodegradable Paper 10-30 days
Cotton cloth 2-5 months
Woollen items 1 year
Wood 10-15 years

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 Tin, aluminium, and other metal 100-500 years
Non- items such as cans
biodegradable Plastic bags One million
years
Glass bottles Undetermined

Table: 5.2: Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Wastes: Degeneration Time

g) Dead animals: With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are those that die
naturally or are accidentally killed on the road.

Note that this category does not include carcasses and animal parts from slaughter-
houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are divided into two
groups – large and small. Among the large animals are:

• horses,
• cows,
• goats,
• sheep,
• pigs, etc.,

Among the small ones are dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, etc. The reason for this
differentiation is that large animals require special equipment for lifting and handling
when they are removed. If not collected promptly, dead animals pose a threat to
public health since they attract flies and other vermin as they decay. Their presence
in public places is particularly offensive from the aesthetic point of view as well.

h) Abandoned vehicles: This category includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that
are abandoned on streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles
have significant scrap value for their metal, and their value to collectors is highly
variable.

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i) Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated as a result of
construction, refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial
buildings and other structures. They consist mainly of:
• earth,
• stones and concrete,
• bricks,
• lumber,
• roofing and plumbing materials,
• heating systems and electrical wires and
• parts of the general municipal waste stream.

j) Farm wastes: These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities such as:
• planting,
• harvesting,
• production of milk,
• rearing of animals for slaughter and
• the operation of feedlots.
In many areas, the disposal of animal waste has become a critical problem,
especially from feedlots, poultry farms and dairies.

k) Hazardous wastes: Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial,

institutional or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or
over a period of time to human beings and the environment. This is due to their
physical, chemical and biological or radioactive characteristics like ignitability,
corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.

Note that in some cases, the active agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous
wastes. These are, nevertheless, classified as solid wastes as they are confined in
solid containers. Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers of
solvents, paints and pesticides, which are frequently mixed with municipal wastes

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 and become part of the urban waste stream. Certain hazardous wastes may cause
explosions in incinerators and fires at landfill sites. Others such as pathological
wastes from hospitals and radioactive wastes also require special handling. Effective
management practices should ensure that hazardous wastes are stored, collected,
transported and disposed of separately, preferably after suitable treatment to render
them harmless.

l) Sewage wastes: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage
wastes. They are mostly organic and derived from the treatment of organic sludge
separated from both raw and treated sewages. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage
such as grit and eggshells is separated at the preliminary stage of treatment, as it
may entrain putrescible organic matter with pathogens and must be buried without
delay. The bulk of treated, dewatered sludge is useful as a soil conditioner but is
invariably uneconomical. Solid sludge, therefore, enters the stream of municipal
wastes, unless special arrangements are made for its disposal.

Having described solid wastes and their classification, we will now discuss some of the
management aspects of solid wastes in Section 5.4. Before we do so, let us complete
Learning Activity 5.1.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 5.1.

• Based on the source and type, classify the waste generated in your
locality.

Provide your answer on the space provided below:

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5.4. Solid Waste Management
MSW has different definitions. Gershman et al. (1986) described MSW as rubbish from
residences, institutions, and commercial establishments and non-hazardous light
industrial refuse. McBean et al. (1995) defined MSW as residential solid waste produced
from the house, and outdoor activities of a single or multi-family house. Dixon and Jones
(2005) defined MSW as a mixture of waste primarily originating from residential and
commercial establishments. The Malaysian Solid Waste and Public Cleansing
Management Act of 2007 (Act 672) defines MSW as any substance requiring disposal
because it is broken, worn out, contaminated, or physically spoiled.

Solid waste management (SWM) is associated with the control of waste generation, its
storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal in a manner that is in
accordance with the best principles of:
• public health,
• economics,
• engineering,
• conservation,
• aesthetics,
• public attitude, and
• other environmental considerations.

Put differently, the SWM processes differ depending on factors such as:
• economic status (e.g., the ratio of wealth created by the production of primary
products to that derived from manufactured goods, per capita income, etc.),
• degree of industrialisation, social development (e.g., education, literacy,
healthcare, etc.) and
• quality of life of a location.

In addition, regional, seasonal and economic differences influence the SWM processes.
This, therefore, warrants management strategies that are economically viable, technically
feasible and socially acceptable to carry out such of the functions as are listed below:
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 • Protection of environmental health.
• Promotion of environmental quality.
• Supporting the efficiency and productivity of the economy.
• Generation of employment and income.
To learn more about the factors that influence the SWM processes, click on the link
below. (http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/SWMTR/TR85.html):

SWM has socio-economic and environmental dimensions. In the socio-economic

dimension, for example, it includes various phases such as:
• waste storage,
• collection,
• transport and disposal

The management of these phases has to be integrated. In other words, wastes have to be
properly stored, collected and disposed of by co-operative management. In addition, poor
management of wastes on the user side such as disposing of wastes in the streets, storm
water drains, rivers and lakes has to be avoided to preserve the environment, control vector-
borne diseases and ensure water quality/resource.
Against this background, we will now look at in sub-sections 5.4.1 to 5.4.5, covering
Solid waste production, Municipal solid waste management, SWM system,
Environmental SWM systems and factors affecting SWM, respectively.

5.4.1. Solid Waste Production

Solid waste generally refers to unused solid materials generated as a result of human
activities. Many of these items can be considered as waste such as:
• domestic rubbish,
• sewage sludge,
• wastes from manufacturing activities,
• packaging items,
• discarded cars,
• discarded electronic devices,
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 • garden waste,
• old paint containers etc.

Accordingly, all human daily activities can give rise to a large variety of different wastes
arising from different sources. Based on their sources, solid waste can be classified into
various types which include:
• MSW,
• hazardous waste,
• agricultural waste and
• industrial waste.

In Malaysia; the generation of MSW has significantly increased in recent years, ranging
between 0.5 - 2.5kg per capita per day (or a total of 25000 - 30000 tons per day). More
than 70% of the generated wastes are collected using both curbside and communal
centers with a collection frequency varying from daily to every two days. MSW defined
as a waste collected from households, in addition to the commercial waste collected by
a municipality but it generally excludes hazardous wastes. Urbanization and population
growth have rapidly increased the rate of MSW production and disposal in many cities
of the world, therefore the management of MSW has emerged as a major concern around
the world particularly the rapidly developing countries. The generation of solid waste is
expected to increase steadily along with economic growth if we continue the lifestyle of
mass production, mass consumption and mass disposal as illustrated in Figure 5.1. Like
Malaysia, solid waste is one of the biggest environmental problems in Africa and South
Africa as well. The generation rate of solid waste is expected to increase tremendously
due to the rapid increase in population and economic growth in the country. China has
the highest waste generation in the region, followed by South Korea, Japan and
Indonesia. Currently, there is no data on municipal waste generation at the national level
for Cambodia and Mongolia. In Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, the amount of
municipal waste is observed. Actual statistics of municipal waste generation is
illustrated in countries like Brunei Darussalam, Phnom Penh - Cambodia, PR China,
Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Mandalay in Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand

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and Vietnam. Most of the member countries do not have the data and information on the
actual municipal waste generation, so that estimated and/or projected amount of
municipal waste generation.

Figure 5.1: Typical SWM System: Functional Elements

5.4.2. Municipal Solid Waste Management

Due to rapid increase in the production and consumption processes, societies generate as
well as reject solid materials regularly from various sectors such as:
• agricultural,
• commercial,
• domestic,
• industrial and
• institutional.

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The considerable volume of wastes thus generated and rejected is called solid wastes. In
other words, solid wastes are the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are
normally solid and are discarded as useless or unwanted. This inevitably places an
enormous strain on natural resources and seriously undermines efficient and sustainable
development. One of the ways to salvage the situation is through efficient management of
solid wastes, and this is the focus of this course, which is Management of Municipal Solid
Waste.

5.4.3. SWM System

A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements associated with
the management of solid wastes. The system, when put in place, facilitates the collection
and disposal of solid wastes in the community at minimal costs, while preserving public
health and ensuring little or minimal adverse impact on the environment. The functional
elements that constitute the system are:

a) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at
every stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption. The source of
waste generation, as we touched upon earlier in Section 5.5, determines quantity,
composition and waste characteristics. For example, wastes are generated from
households, commercial areas, industries, institutions, street cleaning and other
municipal services. The most important aspect of this part of the SWM system is the
identification of waste.

b) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes

never takes place at the source or at the time of their generation. The heterogeneous
wastes generated in residential areas must be removed within 8 days due to shortage
of storage space and presence of biodegradable material. Onsite storage is of primary
importance due to aesthetic consideration, public health and economics involved. Some
of the options for storage are plastic containers, conventional dustbins (of households),
used oil drums, large storage bins (for institutions and commercial areas or servicing
depots), etc. Obviously, these vary greatly in size, form and material.

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 c) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling them to the location,
where the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a transfer station (i.e.,
intermediate station where wastes from smaller vehicles are transferred to larger ones
and also segregated), a processing plant or a disposal site. Collection depends on:

• the number of containers,

• frequency of collection,
• types of collection services and
• routes.
Typically, collection is provided under various management arrangements, ranging from
municipal services to franchised services, and under various forms of contracts.

Note that the solution to the problem of hauling is complicated. For instance, vehicles
used for long distance hauling may not be suitable or particularly economic for house-to-
house collection. Every SWM system, therefore, requires an individual solution to its
waste collection problem.

d) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves:

• the transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles, where necessary to
overcome the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger ones at transfer
stations;
• the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to disposal
sites.
e) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical characteristics
of wastes for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The important processing
techniques include:
• compaction,
• thermal volume reduction,
• manual separation of waste components,
• incineration and

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 • composting.

f) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment and facilities
used to improve both the efficiency of disposal system and recovery of usable material
and energy. Recovery involves the separation of valuable resources from the mixed
solid wastes, delivered at transfer stations or processing plants. It also involves size
reduction and density separation by air classifier, magnetic device for iron and screens
for glass. The selection of any recovery process is a function of economics, i.e., costs
of separation versus the recovered-material products. Certain recovered materials like
glass, plastics, paper, etc., can be recycled as they have economic value.

g) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential
wastes, semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment plants, incinerator
residues, composts or other substances that have no further use to the society. Thus,
land use planning becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design and
operation of landfill operations. A modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing
solid waste without creating a nuisance and hazard to public health. Generally,
engineering principles are followed to confine the wastes to the smallest possible area,
reduce them to the lowest particle volume by compaction at the site and cover them
after each day’s operation to reduce exposure to vermin. One of the most important
functional elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the final use of the reclaimed land.

Figure 5.1 shows a typical SWM system with its functional elements and linkages.
You must, however, note that all the elements and linkages shown in Figure 5.1 need
not necessarily be always present in a SWM system. Being generic in its form, this
system is applicable to all regions, irrespective of their relative state of development
(Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977).

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5.4.4. Environmental SWM Systems

We must recognise that each functional element discussed earlier in subsection 5.3 is
closely interconnected to minimise adverse impact of wastes on the environment and to
maximise the ecosystem carrying capacity. To derive optimal benefits from this, we
must apply environmentally sound solid waste management (ESSWM). This is an
integrated approach for controlling and preserving the resources, both in quantity and
quality. To improve environmental quality and achieve sustainable development, it is
necessary we use EST – environmentally sound technologies. We will describe
ESSWM and EST, next.

In any waste or resource management system, we must pay attention to the interaction
between human activities and the ecosystem. We have to recognise that human
activities including consumption of goods/services, production of wastes, etc., have a
serious impact on the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. This in turn affects human
health, as the environment deteriorates. The fundamental principles of ESSWM, which
take into account economic and social issues along with environmental impact
consideration, include the following:
• To ensure sustainable development of the ecosystem and human
environment.
• To minimise the impact of human activities on the environment.
• To minimise the impact on the environment and maximise the ecosystem’s
carrying capacity.
• To ensure the implementation of ESSWM through environmentally sound
technologies.

EST refers to cost effective and energy efficient technologies, which generally
perform better on the environment, as they do not pollute the ecosystem’s vital
components such as air, land or water and consider the reuse, recycling or recovery
of wastes. EST can be categorised broadly as follows:

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 • Hard EST: This includes equipment, machines and other infrastructure with
their material accessories to handle waste products and monitor/measure the
quality of air, water and soil.
• Soft EST: This supports and complements hard technologies and include
nature-based technologies and management tools. Nature-based
technologies include processes and mechanisms nature uses within a
specific ecosystem (such as vermin composting) and its carrying capacity,
while management tools include system and procedures, policy and
regulatory frameworks, and environmental performance standards and
guidelines.
Note that, as implied above, hard and soft technologies complement one
another to achieve the goal.

EST is selected based on the following generic criteria, the indicators of which may
vary depending on the regions in which they are implemented:
• Affordability: This means low investment, reasonableness, maintenance-
free and durability.
• Validity: This refers to effectiveness, easy operation and maintenance.
• Sustainability: This means low impact, energy saving and cultural
acceptability.

Set-out container is one of the major factors that most collection system depends on.
This is usually a paper or plastic bag, or a metal or plastic garbage or Kraft paper bags
in a metal or wooden frame. Set-out containers of rural areas include:
• bags,
• pots,
• plastic or paper bags,
• cane or reed baskets,
• concrete or brick vats,
• urns,
• boxes,
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 • clay jars,
• or any kind of container available.

Non-compactor trucks are more efficient and cost-effective than compactor trucks in
small cities and in areas where wastes tend to be very dense and have little potential for
compaction. The use of lighter, more energy- efficient box- trucks, vans, and dump
trucks can be appropriate for sparsely populated areas, where the main constraint on
collection efficiency is distance.

Transfer trailers or compacting vehicles can carry larger volumes of MSW than regular
collection trucks, which allow them to travel longer distances carrying more waste.
This lowers fuel costs, increases labour productivity, and saves on vehicle wear.

5.4.5. Factors affecting SWM system

Many factors influence the decision-making process in the implementation of a SWM
system (Phelps, et al., 1995). Some of the factors that need to be considered in developing
a SWM system are listed below:

a) Quantities and characteristics of wastes: The quantities of wastes generated

generally depend on the income level of a family, as higher income category tends to
generate larger quantity of wastes, compared to low-income category. The quantity
ranges from about 0.25 to about 2.3 kg per person per day, indicating a strong
correlation between waste production and per capita income. One of the measures of

waste composition (and characteristics) is density, which ranges from 150 kg/m3 to 600

kg/m3. Proportion of paper and packaging materials in the waste largely account for
the differences. When this proportion is high, the density is low and vice versa. The
wastes of high density reflect a relatively high proportion of organic matter and
moisture and lower levels of recycling.

b) Climate and seasonal variations: There are regions in extreme north (>70 N
Latitude) and south (> 60 S Latitude), where temperatures are very low for much of
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 the year. In cold climates, drifting snow and frozen ground interfere with landfill
operations, and therefore, trenches must be dug in summer a n d cover material
stockpiled for winter use. Tropical climates, on the other hand, are subject to sharp
seasonal variations from wet to dry season, which cause significant changes in the
moisture content of solid waste, varying from less than 50% in dry season to greater
than 65% in wet months. Collection and disposal of wastes in the wet months are
often problematic.

High temperatures and humidity cause solid wastes to decompose far more rapidly than
they do in colder climates. The frequency of waste collection in high temperature and
humid climates should, therefore, be higher than that in cold climates. In sub-tropical
or desert climate, there is no significant variation in moisture content of wastes (due to
low rainfall) and low production of leachate from sanitary landfill. High winds and
windblown sand and dust, however, cause special problems at landfill sites. While
temperature inversions can cause airborne pollutants to be trapped near ground level,
landfill sites can affect groundwater by altering the thermal properties of the soil.

c) Physical characteristics of an urban area: In urban areas (i.e., towns and cities),
where the layout of streets and houses is such that access by vehicles is possible and
door-to-door collection of solid wastes is the accepted norm either by large compaction
vehicle or smaller vehicle. The picture is, however, quite different in the inner and
older city areas where narrow lanes make service by vehicles difficult and often
impossible. Added to this is the problem of urban sprawl in the outskirts (of the cities)
where population is growing at an alarming rate. Access ways are narrow, unpaved
and tortuous, and therefore, not accessible to collection vehicles. Problems of solid
waste storage and collection are most acute in such areas.

d) Financial and foreign exchange constraints: Solid waste management accounts

for sizeable proportions of the budgets of municipal corporations. This is allocated for
capital resources, which go towards the purchase of equipment’s, vehicles, and fuel
and labour costs. Typically, 10% to 40% of the revenues of municipalities are allocated

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 to solid waste management. In regions where wage rates are low, the aim is to optimise
vehicle productivity. The unfavourable financial situation of some countries hinders
purchase of equipment and vehicles, and this situation is further worsened by the acute
shortage of foreign exchange. This means that the balance between the degree of
mechanisation and the size of the labour force becomes a critical issue in arriving at
the most cost-effective solution.

e) Cultural constraints: In some regions, long-standing traditions preclude the intrusion

of waste collection on the precincts of households, and therefore, influence the
collection system. In others, where the tradition of caste persists, recruits to the labour
force for street cleaning and handling of waste must be drawn from certain sections
of the population, while others will not consent to placing storage bins in their
immediate vicinity. Social norms of a community more often than not over-ride what
many may consider rational solutions. Waste management should, therefore, be
sensitive to such local patterns of living and consider these factors in planning, design
and operation.

f) Management and technical resources: Solid waste management, to be successful,

requires a wide spectrum of workforce in keeping with the demands of the system.
The best system for a region is one which makes full use of indigenous crafts and
professional skills and/or ensures that training programmes are in place to provide a
self-sustaining supply of trained workforce.

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Note:
Write your answer in the space provided below.

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5.5. Design and Operation of Landfills
Municipal solid waste landfills receive wastes from households, non-hazardeous sludge,
industrial solid wastes and construction and demolition debris. Modern landfills are
engineering facilities used to protect the environment from contaminants from solid
waste systems. They must be located, designed, operated, and monitored to ensure
compliance with environmental regulations. Landfill design includes the designing of
physical elements and operation systems. In this section, the ideas presented on landfill
design are mostly qualitative aspects. Students are required to read detailed landfill
design aspects from a standard references listed at the end of this unit.

5.5.1. Types of Landfill

Generally, landfills are classified as: conventional and modern landfills
• Conventional/traditional landfills – in this system, waste is kept effectively
dry by using a base liner and cover. Such systems prevents rain infiltration and
the resulting leachate - liquid resulting from biodegradation of waste. The
containment and restriction of liquid infiltration retards degradation of MSW
and results in slow and unpredictable degradation of MSW over many years.
Slow degradation of waste increases liability and decreases the return on
investment of valuable landfill space. Sanitary landfills are MSW disposal
facility designed and operated to minimize environmental and health impacts.
Sanitary landfills are an affordable and environmentally acceptable method of
MSW disposal.

• Modern landfills - in recent years (1950+), the philosophy of has been a shift
in philosophy of landfill design from the dry storage concept towards the
bioreactor approach. Bioreactor landfills are popular and sustainable systems
compared to the dry landfills. The option can eliminate the costly treatment of
leachates due to the fast degradation of leachates owing to its high moisture
content. Bioreactor landfills have a significant reduction in post-closure
management time as well and operation cost. Figure 5.2 presents examples and

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phases of Biocell operation. The cross-section of a typical modern sanitary
landfills is illustrated in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.2. Duration and Phases of Biocell operation

(source: Hsieh et al., 2008)

Figure 5.3. Cross-section of a typical modern sanitary landfills

(source: Meegoda et al. 2016)

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Learning Activity 5.5:
• Discuss about the three types of bioreactor landfills.

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5.5.2. Site selection and Layouts
One of the most important phases in the establishment of a new landfill facility is site
selection and layout. Landfill site selection is a very lengthy process. The selected site
should be acceptable to the general public. Generally, landfill sites and layout, in
addition to landfill itself, should be done by considering different factors in to account:
• Traffic and Access roads
• Office buildings
• Bridges,
• Workshops
• Storage dams, if any

Consideration must be given to the site layout, such as to avoid contact between storm
water and contaminated run-off water, gravitational leachate collection and using your
first cells for screening, etc. Ideally, all permanent infrastructures (offices, workshops,
weigh bridge) are placed in the corner of the erf, close to the erf boundary closest to the
incoming access road. Workshop or vehicle camps should be placed in a location where
they do not hinder the flow of traffic.

5.5.3. Planning and Regulatory Requirements

Planning Phase

Proper landfill planning requires the following regulatory requirements:

• Size of the landfill: are generally estimated based on different factors, such as
service, buildings, access roads, buffer zones, etc. The volumes of landfill are
calculated based on the expected future waste generation and the expected life of
the landfill.

• Traffic and access: refers to the traffic during construction and operation.
Landfill can create traffic management issues which give rise to noise, vibration,
exhaust emissions, dust, dirt and visual intrusion. The following evaluations
should be done during site selection:

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 o Distance of potential sites from waste generation areas
o Proximity to the existing national/regional road or rail network and
expected vehicle movements
o Any required upgrading or new road infrastructure to accommodate
additional traffic
o The residential nature of potential access routes

• Site specific information: pertinent information should be collected about the

site and the vicinity. These includes:
o Soil, topographic, floodplain, land use, road, and utility maps
o Soil/geological reports
o Presence of water wells
o Aerial photographs
o Flood insurance rating
o Nearby wetlands and nature preserves
o Real estate values
o Distance from airport - at least 15 miles away to avoid impact of birds

• Hydrogeology: this includes the hydrogeological information of the site. A

comprehensive hydrogeological report must be performed. The report includes
the following key components:
o soil boring,
o test pits,
o groundwater sampling and testing and
o hydraulic conductivity (field and laboratory).

Regulatory issues/License Application

• Permits - After completion of the site selection and environmental impact

analysis, the next step is to present the detailed of the project to the regional and
local authorities to obtain a developmental permit. This requires submission of

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 all relevant documents obtained during the planning phase (discussed earlier) as
well as the proof of addressing any issues encountered including public hearings
about the proposed landfill project.

• Other issues – includes the regulatory standards for SWM. The regulatory bodies
impose minimum standard for landfills. Thus, it is necessary to obtain
information about all relevant authorities that have the control over different
aspects related to landfill design and operation.

5.5.4. Landfill Design and Construction

Landfill waste footprint area are usually sub-divided in to cells and constructed one
cell at a time in order to minimize the initial capital cost. It also help to minimize the
leachate generation and the costs associated with stockpiling of excavated soils. It a
good practice to work from the lowest point of the landfill towards the higher areas in
order to accommodate leachate drain age and prevent possible overflow of leachate on
to unlined/undeveloped lower areas.

Proper landfill design and construction needs the following:

• Liners
• Covers
• Compaction
• Leachate management
• Gas collection

Figure 5.4 shows a completed landfill with all the components.

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Figure 5.4. Completed landfills

(a) Liners
The objective of liner in landfills is to:
• Provide containment of contaminants
• Prevent/reduce the contamination of soils and groundwater
• Reduce landfill gas migration
• facilitate the collection and removal of leachates near the landfill sites.

Liners are either single layer (clay) or composite type (clay and geomembrane).
Composite liner consists of a geo-membrane sitting on /Geo-synthetic/ clay liner. Liners
are usually composed of multiple layers of clay or geo-synthetics (mostly geo-
membranes) to prevent movement of any liquid between the landfill and surrounding
site. Figure 5.5 illustrates the Biocell Liner construction: HPDE and composite types.
The HPDE (High Density Polyethylene) geomembranes are mostly recommended due
to their resistance to most chemicals. Geosynthetic liners are more efficient in limiting
the leakage of leachates, but they are susceptible to damage during installation. Thus,
liner materials should be selected based on the type of waste and method of landfill
operation. In general, the selection of liner material depends on material availability,
costs, space and time saving, and/or other physical conditions.

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Figure 5.5. Biocell HPDE (Left) and composite (right) Liner construction in Calgary
(Source: Meegoda et al. 2017).

Landfills are designed and constructed as single-lined or multiple-lined landfills

depending upon the landfill classes: class A, class B, class C and class D. The single
layer consists of either a clay or geo-membrane liner. The thickness of a liner depends
on the type of material selected. For geomembrane liners, a general thickness of 1.5 to
2.0 mm are recommended. For clay liners, a thickness of 15 to 30 mm are recommended.

(b) Covers
Landfill cover can be soil and/or geomembrane type. Constructed soil covers consists
of clay or low permeable soil (60 cm) or vegetation layer with certain depth (15 -30 cm)
of soil to support the vegetation. Geomembranes, if used, further reduces infiltration and
should be used above clay cap in direct contact with the clay layer.

Landfill covers have the following objectives:

• Provides protection for human health and environment
• Promotes stormwater runoff
• Reduces stormwater infiltration
• Provides protection against fire
• Improves landfill gas generation and ability to collect landfill gases
• Reduces odors
• Provides vector control

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The objective of stormwater controls in landfills is to promote stormwater runoff before
it infiltrates and becomes leachate and to prevent erosion of final cover. On steep slope
areas, benches can be used as storm control. In high erosion areas, riprap and/or gabions
are usually used.

(c) Compaction
Compaction is the most important part of landfill design and construction. It has the
following objectives:
• Extends the life of the landfill
• Decreases settlement
• Reduces voids
• Discourages wind-blown litter, insects and rodents
• Reduces the possibility of waste runoff
• Reduces the amount of cover needed
• Provides a more solid surface for travel
• Reduces leachate

(d) Leachate management

Leachates above certain prescribed limits should be removed from the landfill
depending upon the regulations of a country for different landfill types. For instance, the
US regulation restricts leachate head on the liner to 30 cm for Subtitle D landfills. That
means leachate above 30 m should be removed from the landfill. Leachate removal can
be done using gravity flow or by pumping. There are two typical types of leachate
storage methods: surface impoundments and tanks. The collected leachates from the
landfill can be stored on site (to be treated later) or be transported for treatment and
disposal off site. The latter option is the most economical one due to its advantages.

Leachate management has the following advantages:

• Prevent stormwater from running onto the working face

• Improve stormwater runoff controls in areas around working face

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 • Reduce infiltration by avoiding ponding on landfill and maintaining vegetative
cover
• prevent stormwater runoff once in contact with waste (for contaminated waste)

Leachate treatment is the most challenging activity, mainly because of the irregular
production rates and variable compositions. The different types of leachate management
systems are summarised in Table 5.3. Usually, more than one method is required to
achieve the intended leachate treatment goal. The following treatment can be used:
coagulation (with polymer), flocculation, sedimentation, anaerobic biological treatment,
aerobic biological treatment, and filtration process.

Table 5.3. Different types of Leachate management systems

(Source: Meegoda et al. 2017)

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Learning Activity 5.6:
• Discuss the advantage of transporting and storing leachates to an offsite facility
compared to storing on site.

Write your answer in the space provided below:

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(e) Gas Collection

Landfills gas collection systems can be designed either as active or passive. In passive
landfill systems (Figure 5.6), landfill gas are released into the atmosphere using gas
venting systems (consists of a series of isolated gas vents). Such systems are usually
used for a small landfills (<40,000 m3). The depth of a passive vent can be shallow (just
few feet below the cap) or deep (75% of the landfill depth). Typically, one vent per
every 7,500 m3 is as spacing.

Active landfill venting system - consists of a series of deep extraction wells linked by
a header pipe. Such systems use vacuum pressure to collect landfill gas through
extraction wells. They are use vertical and/or horizontal wells. Vertical wells (Figure
5.7) are more commonly used.

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Figure 5.6. Schematic view of a passive gas vent (source: USACE, 1995)

Figure 5.7. Vertical landfill gas extraction wells (Source: Bagchi, 2004)

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Learning Activity 5.7:
• Discuss the authorities (all levels) responsible for the regulation of solid waste
management in South Africa. List all the steps required to get permission for
landfills in South Africa.

Write your answer in the space provided below:

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5.6. Summary
In this Unit, we described solid waste and its flow pattern and classified wastes on the
basis of source and type, and in that context, discussed the following as major sources of
waste generation:
• residential,
• commercial,
• municipal,
• institutional,
• industrial and
• agricultural sectors
.
Based on the type, we classified wastes as: garbage, ashes, street wastes, etc., that indicate
the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of wastes. We said that knowledge
of these characteristics is important in evaluating alternative equipment needs, systems,
and management programmes and plans, especially with respect to the implementation
of disposal, and resource and energy recovery options.

We pointed out that the objective of SWM is to minimise the negative environmental
effects and identified the functional elements of SWM as waste generation, storage,
transfer and transport, processing, reuse and recycling and final disposal. We have also
briefly mentioned Guidelines for preparation of detailed project reports for MSWM using

12th finance commission grants. These reports are useful in towns, urban areas for sound
management of solid waste. We also said that SWM has economic, social and
environmental dimensions. In the context of the socio-economic dimension, we discussed
such phases as waste storage, collection, transport and disposal, which are to be integrated.
For effective implementation of integrated approaches to management, we said that we
require environmentally sound management and technologies for controlling and
preserving the resources, both in quantity and quality.

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References
1. Ali, M., Cotton, A., and Westlake, K. 1999. Solid Waste Disposal for Low-
Income Countries. Loughborough University, London.
2. Arne Vesilind, William Worrel and Reinhart Debra, 2002. Solid waste
Engineering, Thomson Brooks/Cole, Singapore.
3. Attarwalla, F. A. 1993. Solid Waste Management - A Manual, All India
Institute of Local Self-Government, Andheri (W), Bombay, India.
4. Bagchi, A. 2004. Design of landfills and integrated solid waste management,
3rd Ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
5. Environmental Management in Developing Countries. 1995. Waste Management
Vol II., Institute for Scientific Co-operation, Tubingen.
6. http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/SWMTR/TR85.html
7. http://stratema.sigis.net/cupum/pdf/E1.pdf
8. Meegoda, J.N., Hettiarachchi H. and Hettiaratchi P. Landfill Design and Operation.
Chapter 18. Sustainable Solid Waste management.
9. Nyika, J.M., Onyari EK., Mishira S. and Dinka, M.O. Waste management in
South Africa (Chapter 14). IGI Global. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-0198-6.ch014
10. Phelps, H.O., Heinke. G. W., Jonker, J.F., Ouano, E.A.R., and Vandecasteele,
C. 1995. Management of Solid Wastes, UNESCO, Paris.
11. Pieter van Beukering, Sehker, M., Gerlagh, R., and Kumar, V. March 1999.
Analysing Urban Solid Waste in Developing Countries, CREED working paper
series no 24.
12. Ramachandra T.V. and Saira Varghese K. 2003. Exploring possibilities of
achieving sustainability in solid waste management, Indian Journal
Environmental Health, 45 (4):255-264.
13. Tchobaanoglous, H., Theisen H., and Samuel A Vigil, 1993. Integrated Solid
Waste Management, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New Delhi.
14. Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H., and Eliassan, R. 1977. Solid Wastes-
Engineering Principles and Management Issues, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York.

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15. UNEP. 1996. International Source Book on Environmentally Sound
Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management (6). IETC, Osaka/Shiga.
16. USACE. 1995. Landfill off-gas collection and treatment systems. U.S. Dept. of the
Army, Washington, DC.
17. US Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. The Solid Waste Dilemma: An
Agenda for Action, Washington.
18. US Environmental Protection Agency. 1995. Decision-Maker's Guide to Solid
Waste Management, Vol II., Washington.

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