The Structure of Academic Texts

Structure is an important feature of academic writing. A well-structured text enables the reader
to follow the argument and navigate the text. In academic writing a clear structure and a logical flow
are imperative to a cohesive text. Most academic texts follow established structures. Structure should
be considered on all levels of text so you will also find information on structuring paragraphs.

Common Structures
The structure of your writing depends on the type of assignment, but two common structures
used in academic writing are the three-part essay structure and the IMRaD structure. Even shorter
essays that are not divided into titled sections follow such a structure. Longer texts may be further
divided into subsections. Different disciplines or departments may prefer that students use a certain
structure, so make sure to check with your instructor if you are not sure what is expected of you.

A. The Three-part Essay Structure

The three-part essay structure is a basic structure that consists of introduction, body and
conclusion. The introduction and the conclusion should be shorter than the body of the text. For
shorter essays, one or two paragraphs for each of these sections can be appropriate. For longer texts
or theses, they may be several pages long.

Introduction
Your introduction should include the following points (be aware that not all points may be
relevant for your project):
1. Introduce your topic
2. Place your topic in a context
3. Provide background information
4. Point out the aim of the text
5. Describe how you will fulfill the aim
6. Provide a thesis statement or research question
7. Suggest what your findings are
8. Explain why your topic is interesting, necessary or important
9. Give the reader a guide to the text
10. Catch your reader’s interest
The thesis statement you make in the introduction are to be developed in the body of the text and
returned to in the conclusion. You may write the introduction at the beginning or at the end of the
writing process. If you write it early in the process it can serve as a guide to your own writing, but be
aware that you most likely will have to go back to it and edit it as the writing progresses.

Body
This is the main section of your text and it should also be the longest. Depending on the length
of the text, the body may be divided into subsections. If your text is divided into subsections,
remember to briefly introduce each section. For longer works you may also need to conclude
sections. The body of the text is where you as a writer and researcher are the most active. It is the
most substantial part of the text; this is where the research or findings are presented, discussed and
analyzed. This is also where you present your arguments that support your thesis or answer your
question. The structure and contents of this main part may differ depending on your discipline.

Conclusion
In the conclusion you should return to the thesis or problem that you presented in the
introduction. But be careful to not merely repeat what you wrote in the introduction; instead, show
your reader how what you have written sheds new light on the problem presented at the beginning.
For longer works a brief summary of your findings may be in place, but this should not be necessary
for shorter texts. Be careful that your conclusion is not just a repetition of what you have already
written. In your conclusion, you may also evaluate and explain whether or not you have reached the
aim or solved the problem presented in the introduction, and how. No new material should be
introduced in the conclusion, but it is quite common to suggest topics for further studies.

B. The IMRaD Structure

The sections of the IMRaD structure are Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion.

Introduction
See the description of the introduction in the above section about the three-part essay
structure.

Method
In this section you describe how you have conducted your study. This is where you present
your material and your research as well as any previous research and background material. You
describe what method or methods you have used and how you have come up with your results. You
may also explain why you have chosen a particular method.
However, you should be aware that there can be differences between disciplines in the contents and
structure of this section.

Results
In this section you report the results of your research. Usually the results are not discussed or
analyzed in this section but you may have to explain some of your findings to avoid
misunderstandings.

Discussion
The discussion is the section where you as a writer are the most active and it should be the
most substantial section of the entire paper. You should interpret, analyze and discuss your results as
well as compare and contrast them to previous research. Sometimes papers that use the IMRaD
structure will have a separate conclusion and sometimes the conclusion will be merged with the
discussion. Be sure to check with your instructor what is expected of you.

Other Parts of Academic Papers

Apart from the parts that are treated in the above sections about the three-part structure and
the IMRaD structure, academic papers also consist of other often quite formalized parts.

Title
The title should catch the reader’s attention and interest and also indicate what to expect of the
paper. Many academic titles consist of two parts where the first part catches the reader’s attention
and the second part is explanatory. Look at the titles of other academic papers and articles within
your discipline for inspiration on how to construct titles. Most often you are required to use a certain
format or template for your title page. Make sure to check the instructions or ask your course teacher
to find out what is expected of you.

Abstract
An abstract summarizes the main contents of your thesis and should give the reader a well-
defined idea of what the thesis is about. Readers often use the abstract to determine whether or not
the text is relevant for them to read. It is recommended that you read abstracts that are written within
your own discipline to learn what is expected of you, since what is included in an abstract may differ
in each field of study. Make sure that your abstract has the length that is required in the assignment
and keep in mind that shorter assignments do not usually require an abstract.
Table of Contents
Longer works usually have a table of contents. You will most likely be expected to use a
certain format according to the template you are using. Otherwise most word processors will have
formatting tools you can use to create a table of contents. Make sure to structure your table of
contents in a way that makes the relationship between sections and subsections apparent to the
reader.

Reference List
The reference list is placed after the text. Any appendices should however be placed after the
reference list. The list should include all sources you have used in your work. How to construct the list
and how to cite sources differ between disciplines and reference systems.

Paragraphs
A paragraph is a collection of sentences that deal with one topic or idea. When a new
paragraph begins it signals to the reader that the focus shifts to a new idea or thought. At the same
time, all paragraphs should connect to the main topic.

Topic Sentence and Supporting Sentences

Paragraphs consist of sentences. Each paragraph should have a topic sentence that presents
the main point or theme of the paragraph. This sentence is most often near the beginning of the
paragraph. All other sentences in the paragraph are supporting sentences that connect back to the
topic sentence. These sentences develop the idea that is expressed in the topic sentence. This
development may for example be a deeper analysis, a contrast or an illustrative example. The last
sentence of the paragraph is the concluding sentence or transitional sentence. It sums up the
contents of the paragraph and leads the reader to the following paragraph. It is important to transition
smoothly from one paragraph to the next. Otherwise the impression will be that the paragraphs are
piled onto each other rather than constitute one coherent text.
The length of each paragraph depends on its contents. This means that the length of
paragraphs may vary. That is, you should not begin a new paragraph simply because you feel that
now it is long enough. However, if a paragraph is very short it could be an indication that something
needs to be developed. If it is very long it could be an indication that it contains more than one central
idea.

Paragraph Development
Paragraphs can be structured in different ways. The internal structure of each paragraph often
depends on the idea that is treated in that specific paragraph and its relationship to the surrounding
paragraphs as well as to the text as a whole. Your topic and the purpose of the paragraph should
determine its organization. For example, if your purpose is to illustrate the differences between two
theories, your topic sentence should tell the reader that you are about to contrast two theories. You
may then describe first one theory, then the other, and finally contrast the two.

Source: Linnaeus University. 2017. "The Structure of Academic Texts." Last modified August 15.
https://lnu.se/en/library/Writing-and-referencing/academic-writing/the-structure-of-academic-texts/

Types of Academic Texts

1. Understanding the importance of genre

When you read English in your academic studies, you will do more than just understand the
words in the text. You will consider meaning, but you will also think about other aspects of the text.
These include structure, audience and purpose. First, however, you need to understand what genre a
text belongs to – in other words, what kind of text it is. When you begin to understand different
genres, you will be able to use this knowledge as a tool to approach new or unfamiliar academic
texts.

2. Understanding text type

2.1 Six main text types

2.1.1 Textbooks are specifically designed to help the learner. For example, they might have
summaries or review quizzes. Textbooks vary in style, tone and level depending on their audience.
They are a good place to start when learning about a new topic.
2.1.2 Student essays vary in length and formality, but they usually contain three sections:
Introduction, Main body, Conclusion. They usually need to include citation of sources. Essays help
teachers to see what students have learnt and how deeply. Try to read examples of student essays in
your discipline to become more familiar with what is expected of you.
2.1.3 You will probably have to write longer texts at postgraduate level. Longer texts include
dissertations (typically 10,000 to 20,000 words) at Master's level, and theses (typically 60,000 to
80,000 words) at Doctor's level (PhD). These texts are the result of a long period of reading, research
and reflection – perhaps several months or years. The structure and style varies across disciplines
but is likely to include the following:
Introduction, Background, Literature Review, Research Design/Methodology, Results/Findings,
Discussion/Interpretation, Recommendations, Conclusion
2.1.4 Research articles are written mainly for a specialist audience – researchers, academics
and postgraduate students. They usually contain the following:
Introduction to the research, Literature review, Background to the research and method,
Results or main findings, Discussion, including authors' interpretation of the results,
Recommendations: ideas for future research, Conclusion, Bibliography, Appendix (optional) to give
information such as tables of raw data from the research
2.1.5 Case studies may be found in any discipline, though they are most common in disciplines
such as business, sociology and law. They are primarily descriptive. A typical structure is as follows:
Context (what is the focus, where, when?), Description of the setting (person, company or
place), An account of how this changed over the period of time under investigation, Headings help the
audience work through the text
2.1.6 The purpose of reports is to describe what happened (e.g. in a piece of research) and
discuss and evaluate its importance. Reports are found in different disciplines, such as science, law
and medicine. They typically include some or all of the following:
Context/Overview (Title, Contents etc.), Introduction, Methodology/Description of the event
(e.g. piece of research), Findings/Main points, Discussion/Evaluation, Conclusion

3. Analyzing text: Genre, audience and purpose

The term 'genre' refers to the typical structure and organizational patterns of a text, its intended
audience and its purpose. All texts are written to communicate with a specific audience – this
audience could be experts, or it could be newcomers to the topic. The audience becomes part of a
community when interacting with the genre, based partly on what they expect from it and their
understanding of its purpose.
The purpose of a particular genre might be to:
Present and explain information
Persuade the audience to accept a new argument
Describe a process.
At a greater level of detail, the purpose of a particular genre could be to:
Present a claim → offer citations to support the claim → provide explanation and examples to help
understanding → evaluate this material.
 You will be able to manage your studies more effectively when you have developed a good
understanding of the main types of text you will read (and listen to), as well as those you need to write
(and speak).

Source: "Unit 1: Types of academic English: Differences and key features."

https://eas.epigeum.com/courses/eas/45/course_files/html/uta_3_10.html

Structure of Academic Texts

Academic texts are typically formal. They have a clearly structured introduction, body, and
conclusion. They also include information from credible sources which are, in turn, properly cited.
They also include a list of references used in developing the academic paper.

Content and Style of Academic Texts

Academic texts include concepts and theories that are related to the specific discipline they explore.
They usually exhibit all the properties of a well-written text i.e., organization, unity, coherence and
cohesion, as well as strict adherence to rules of language use and mechanics.

In general, authors/writers observe the following when writing academic texts.

1. They state critical questions and issues.
2. They provide facts and evidence from credible sources.
3. They use precise and accurate words while avoiding jargon and colloquial expressions.
4. They take an objective point of view and avoid being personal and subjective.
5. They list references.
6. They use hedging or cautious language to tone down their claims.

Here are some examples of hedging expressions used in academic texts.

Types Examples As used in the sentence

Modal auxiliary May, might, can, could, would, should The measure might have
verbs negative effects on the
patient's health.
Modal lexical To seem, to appear (epistemic verbs), to The discussion appears to
verbs doubting believe, to assume, to suggest, to estimate, have a positive implication.
and evaluating to tend, to think, to argue, to indicate, to
rather than propose, to speculate
merely
describing
Probability Possible, probable, unlikely, likely A number of significant
adjectives changes are possible.
Nouns Assumption, claim, possibility, estimate, There are a number of claims
suggestion pertaining to the possibility of
divorce.
Adverbs Perhaps, possibly, probably, practically, The proposal is practically an
likely, presumably, virtually, apparently answer to the confusion.
Indicators of Approximately, roughly, about, often, Fever is present in about a
degree, occasionally, generally, usually, somewhat, third of cases.
quantity, somehow, a lot of
frequency and
time
Introductory Believe, to our knowledge, it is our view that, The committee believes that
phrases we feel that the issue needs to be
explored.
"If" clauses If true, if anything If anything, the opinion holds a
number of truths.
Compound Double hedges: seems reasonable, looks This probably indicates that
hedges probable, it may suggest that, it seems likely the assigned personnel is
that, it would indicate that, this probably misinformed.
indicates

Treble hedges: it seems reasonable to

assume that

Quadruple hedges: it would seem somewhat

unlikely that, it may appear somewhat
speculative that

Reading Strategies

Reading academic texts requires focus and understanding. You have to interact with the text
by questioning its assumptions, responding to its arguments, and connecting it to real-life experiences
and applications. Critical or reflective reading helps you identify the key arguments presented by the
author and analyze concepts presented in the text.
To adopt a critical reading approach, practice the strategies to be employed during each stage
of reading.

Before reading

1. Determine which type of academic text you are reading.

2. Determine and establish your purpose for reading.
3. Identify the author's purpose for writing.
4. Predict or infer the main idea or argument of the text based on its title.
5. Identify your attitude towards the author and text.
6. State what you already know and what you want to learn about the topic.
7. Determine the target audience.
8. Check the publication date for relevance. It should have been published at most five years earlier
than the current year.
9. Check the reference list while making sure to consider the correctness of the formatting style.
10. Use a concept map or a graphic organizer to note your existing ideas and knowledge on the topic.

During reading

1. Annotate important parts of the text.

Annotating a text can help you determine essential ideas or information, main ideas or
arguments, and new information or ideas. Here are some ways to annotate a text.
a. Write key words of phrases on the margins in bullet form.
b. Write something on the page margin where important information is found.
c. Write brief notes on the margin.
d. Write questions on information that you find confusing.
e. Write what you already know about the ideas.
 f. Write the limitations of the author's arguments.
g. Write notes on the reliability of the text.
h. Comment on the author's biases.
i. Use a concept map or any graphic organizer to note down the ideas being explained.
j. React on the arguments presented in the text.
k. Underline important words, phrases, or sentences.
l. Underline or circle meanings or definitions.
m. Mark of highlight relevant/essential parts of the text.
n. Use the headings and transition words to identify relationships in the text.
o. Create a bank of unfamiliar or technical words.
p. Synthesize author's arguments at the end of the chapter or section.
q. Determine the main idea of the text.
r. Identify the evidence or supporting arguments presented by the author and check their
validity and relevance.
s. Identify the findings and note the appropriateness of the research method used.

After reading

a. Reflect on what you learned.

b. React on some parts of the text through writing.
c. Discuss some parts with your teacher or classmates.
d. Link the main idea of the text to what you already know.

Other Reading Strategies

In addition to the given strategies before, during, and after reading, there are other reading
strategies that you can employ to ensure critical reading not only of academic texts, but also of other
texts in general.

A. SQ3R Method of Reading

The SQ3R Method stands for Survey (or Skim), Question, Read, Recite (or Recall), and
Review.

Stage Guideline
Survey Skim the target text.
Check the headings and tables, diagrams, or figures presented in the text.
Read the first few and last sentences of the text to determine key information.
Get a feel of the text.
Question Annotate the headings with your questions.
Develop questions on the types of information you expect from the text.
Read Look for answers to your questions as you read the text.
Stop and slow down if the passage is not clear.
Make sure to proceed reading only when you already understand the previous
texts.
Recite Recount the main points of the text.
Recall by writing a summary or synthesis based on what you understand of the
text.
Highlight or underline the important point you read.
Review After finishing the text, go back and re-read the questions you wrote and see if
you can answer them; if not, refresh your memory.
Evaluate what you learned to ensure that you are convinced and satisfied with the
information presented in the text.
B. KWL Method
The KWL Method guides you in reading and understanding a text. To apply the KWL method,
simply make a table with three columns. In the first column, write what you know about the topic; in
the second, list down what you want to learn; and in the last column, write down what you learned.

Below is an example of a KWL chart.

K W L

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