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certain genera of the Caryophyllaceæ, in the Chenopodiaceæ,
Amarantaceæ, and others. When the number of stamens is
increased to more than 5 in the whorl, it is always possible to show
that some of the stamens have been divided. The number of the
carpels and ovules also becomes reduced; in the highest there is a
central placenta, not free in its early stages, with a large number of
ovules; in those which are most reduced there is only a single ovule,
which is placed centrally at the base of the ovary [Fig. 364].
Somewhat corresponding changes are found in the fruit, which is a
many-seeded capsule in those which have many ovules, but a one-
seeded nut where there is one ovule. In the most reduced forms the
flowers are generally unisexual.—Similar features are also present in
the vegetative parts. Almost all the species are herbaceous, the
leaves are simple and most frequently without stipules. The structure of
the stem, especially in Chenopodiaceæ, Amarantaceæ, Nyctaginiaceæ and
others, often differs from that of the ordinary Dicotyledon. In the woody portion of
the stem and root several rings are sometimes formed which resemble annual
rings but which are formed by new cambium-rings arising outside the old ones
which then cease to divide.
Order 1. Caryophyllaceæ. Herbaceous plants, with round,
nodose stem; leaves opposite, slightly amplexicaul, simple, with
sessile, undivided, entire lamina; stipules nearly always absent; the
inflorescences are dichasia passing over into unipared scorpioid
cymes. The flowers are regular, ☿ or unisexual, hypogynous or
perigynous, 5-(or 4-) merous with 2–3–4–5 carpels; calyx persistent;
corolla polypetalous. The ovary is unilocular (or originally, and
sometimes also in the later stages, plurilocular below, e.g. Viscaria),
with free styles and 1–several curved ovules on a central, free
placenta. The fruit is a nut or a capsule opening apically with long or
short valves (teeth, Fig. 362), equal to or double the carpels. For the
seeds refer to the family. In Dianthus the embryo is straight.
The flowers which are most complete have Sn, Pn, An + n (obdiplostemonous),
Gn where n = 5 (Figs. 360, 361 A) or 4 (Fig. 361 B); the carpels may be placed
opposite to the sepals (Fig. 360) or opposite to the petals (Fig. 361 A, B). Without
any change taking place in the position of the other whorls, the carpels are next
found reduced to 2–3–4 (see the genera); their number may easily be recognised
by that of the styles. This is the construction in the majority of the genera in the two
first groups. Stellaria media differs considerably. It may have (a) the flower as
described above, with G3; (b), the corolla only absent, or (c) only the petal-
stamens (A5 + 0, Fig. 361 C), or (d) all these as well as some of the sepal-
stamens. The same applies to Sagina, Alsine, Cerastium, and others, and, finally,
a series of genera are formed, with certain conditions of reduction which have
become constant, and by a gradual series of steps lead to the most reduced form,
which has only 5 sepals and 5 (or even as far as only 1) sepal-stamens (Fig. 361
D, E, F).—The petals in the Alsineæ are often deeply bifid. The sepal-stamens
are most frequently the longest, and bear nectaries at the base (Fig. 363 st). In the
most complete forms the ovary has partition-walls in the lower portion (Fig. 360);
these do not, however, reach to the top, and generally soon disappear. The ovules,
when numerous, are situated on the placenta in as many double rows as there are
carpels. In the number of ovules a reduction from many to 1 takes place (Fig. 361).
A comparison proves that the “free, centrally placed” placenta is formed by the
ventral portion of the carpels. The single basal ovule in Herniaria (Fig. 364),
Scleranthus, and others, is also borne on the carpels.
The vegetative branching is characteristic. One of the leaves in a pair is formed
before the other, and has a more vigorous axillary bud; these stronger leaves
stand in a ¼-spiral, the fifth above the first one, and the branches are
consequently arranged in the same manner. In the inflorescence, however, it is the
upper or second bracteole (β) whose axillary bud (w in Fig. 361) is most advanced.
The bud of the first bracteole (α) becomes sometimes entirely suppressed, or in
some this bracteole itself is suppressed.

Fig. 360.—Diagram of Lychnis: α, β

bracteoles.
 Fig. 361.—A-F Diagrams of flowers of the Caryophyllaceæ: A Agrostemma; B
Sagina; C Stellaria; D Corrigiola; E Paronychia; F Herniaria.
The most original type appears to be represented by the Alsineæ. From this
form on one side the Sileneæ, adapted in a higher degree for insect-pollination,
are developed, and on the other side the Paronychieæ, with various reductions.

1. Alsineæ, Stitchwort Group. Sepals free, and connected

with them stellately expanded, slightly unguiculate (white or
inodorous) petals; these, however, often become suppressed (Fig.
363). The fruit is a capsule.
 Fig. 362.—Cerastium arvense: A fruit; B seed; C section of seed.
a. As many carpels as sepals (4 or 5). Cerastium (Chickweed).
The petals are bifid. Capsule cylindrical, frequently curved at the top,
and opening by 10 teeth (Fig. 362).—Malachium differs only in the 5-
toothed capsule with bifid teeth.—Spergula (Spurry). The petals are not
bifid, capsule 5-valved; seeds winged. The leaves are linear, and
appear as if placed in large numbers in a whorl, a branch being
situated in the axil of each with leaves placed very close together at
its base; stipules membranous.—Sagina has Sn, Pn, An + n, or An, Gn,
where n = 4 or 5. The corolla is often wanting.
b. 3 (rarely 2) carpels (Fig. 361 C). Stellaria (Stitchwort) has
deeply cleft petals. The number of stamens varies (see above).—
Arenaria has entire petals. (To this group belong Alsine, Moehringia,
Halianthus, or Honckenya (Fig. 363), which differ from each other, especially in the
form of the seed and number of the capsular valves.) Spergularia has
membranous stipules, as in Spergula.—Holosteum.
 Fig. 363.—Arenaria (Halianthus) peploides: ♀-(A) and ♂-flower (B, C).
2. Paronychieæ (Figs. 361 D, E, F; 364). Small, greenish plants.
The leaves, in the majority, are opposite, with membranous stipules.
The flowers are most frequently arranged in small dichasia; they are
small and insignificant, perigynous (Fig. 364) or hypogynous. The
corolla is in most cases wanting, and when present is very small; in
general the calyx-stamens are developed, but the corolla-stamens
may be represented by small scales (Fig. 364). Ovary most
frequently with 1 ovule. Fruit, a nut, rarely a capsule; it is enclosed
by the strongly perigynous floral axis (torus).
Scleranthus (Knapwell) is perigynous with bell-shaped torus; no
corolla; corolla-stamens are wanting or rudimentary; some calyx-
stamens may also be absent.—Corrigiola (Fig. 361 D); Illecebrum;
Paronychia (Fig. 361 E); Herniaria (Figs. 361 F, 364).
3. Sileneæ, Pink or Carnation Group. This has a
gamosepalous calyx and unguiculate, white or red, petals, with
outgrowths (ligule, corona, paracorolla) at the throat of the corolla.
These structures are not found in the other groups, and are merely
outgrowths at the junction of the limb and claw. The corolla, stamens
and ovary are frequently raised above the calyx, upon a lengthened
internode (gynophore). The flower has S5, P5, A5 + 5; fruit a capsule
with many seeds.
a. 5-(rarely 3–4) carpellate ovary.—Lychnis (Campion, Fig. 360).
The corolla is longer than the calyx; corona present. The capsule is
10- or 5-toothed, completely 1-chambered or 5-chambered at the
base,—the genus has been divided accordingly into several genera:
Melandrium, Lychnis, Viscaria. Some species are unisexual by the abortion
of stamens or carpels (L. vespertina, diurna). Agrostemma (A. githago,
Corn-cockle, Fig. 361 A) has a long-toothed calyx, the teeth
exceeding the corolla; corona absent; 5-toothed capsule.
 Fig. 364.—Herniaria glabra: a1
flower; b1 longitudinal section through
the flower; c1 stigma with two pollen-
grains.
b. Tricarpellate.—Silene (Catch-fly). Six-toothed capsule; corona
present in the majority.—Cucubalus has berry-like fruits which finally become
dry but do not dehisce.
c. Bicarpellate (2 styles, 4-toothed capsule).—Dianthus (Pink); at
the base of the calyx 1–several pairs of floral-leaves are situated;
corona absent. The straight embryo is a peculiar exception.—
Gypsophila has a campanulate, open calyx, 5-nerved, membranous
between the nerves; corona absent; the flowers are generally small
and numerous, in a large, paniculate dichasia.—Saponaria
(Soapwort) has corona.
Pollination. Alsineæ has ordinary nectaries at the base of the calyx-stamens
(Fig. 336): they are frequently protandrous but may often, in the absence of cross-
pollination (in the less conspicuous species) pollinate themselves. Their open
flowers are accessible to many kinds of insects (particularly flies and bees).
Gynodiœcious flowers are found in several species, and the ☿-flowers are then
generally more conspicuous than the ♀ -flowers. That the ♀ -flowers have
descended from ☿-flowers is seen by the large staminodes found in them (Fig.
363). Arenaria peploides is diœcious (Fig. 363). The Sileneæ are as a rule
adapted for pollination by insects with long probosces—especially butterflies,—and
they are frequently protandrous, so that at first the calyx-stamens open, later on
the corolla-stamens, then the stigmas expand. The honey is secreted by a ring-like
nectary round the base of the ovary or by nectaries at the base of the stamens.
Some only blossom and emit scent at night or in the evening (Lychnis vespertina,
Silene nutans, Saponaria officinalis) and, like other night-flowers, are of a white or
pale colour.
Distribution. 1,100 species, especially in temperate climates, fewer in the
colder zone, less still in the Tropics. The Paronychieæ are especially found in dry,
sandy fields.
Uses. “Soap-root” (with Saponin, forming a lather in water) from Saponaria
officinalis was formerly officinal, and Gypsophila struthium. The seeds of
Agrostemma githago are said to be poisonous.—The following are ornamental
plants: species of Pinks (D. caryophyllus, garden Pink, often with double flowers;
D. barbatus, plumarius, etc.). Lychnis, Gypsophila, Silene, Cerastium (C.
tomentosum as edging for borders), Saponaria officinalis (often coronate).—
Spergula arvensis is sometimes cultivated.
Order 2. Amarantaceæ. The flowers are essentially the same as in the
Chenopodiaceæ and the extremely reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. 361 F); they are
regular, hypogynous, generally ☿, have 5 free (rarely slightly united) perianth-
leaves; in front of these 5 stamens, which are often united at their base into a
shorter or longer tube and have stipule-like teeth between them (the division
Gomphreneæ has 2-locular anthers, each of which opens longitudinally); and a 2–
3 carpellate gynœceum with one loculus and most frequently one, more rarely
several ovules; the fruit is a nut, more rarely (in Celosia, Amarantus, Gomphrena)
a capsule, dehiscing irregularly, or like a pyxidium. The characters which
especially separate them from the allied orders are found in the perianth. The
perianth-leaves are not green and herbaceous, but membranous, dry, and often
coloured; they are frequently produced into a bristle or awn; they have also both
subtending floral-leaves and 2 large bracteoles similar to the perianth; all these dry
leaves persist without alteration after the withering of the flower.—The flowers are
without scent. They are arranged in spike- or capitulum-like inflorescences;
sometimes placed singly, sometimes aggregated in the panicle-like inflorescences;
in others, on the contrary, in dichasia. The majority are herbs, some are shrubs.
The leaves are scattered, or opposite, but always simple and without stipules;
some are smooth, others hairy.
450 species; especially in the Tropics, principally S. Am. and E. Ind.: few are
found outside these countries.—Only a few are used; some, chiefly E. Indian
species, are cultivated as ornamental plants: Amaranthus (Fox-tail); Gomphrena
globosa; Celosia cristata (Cock’s-comb) remarkable for its fasciated inflorescence;
Alternanthera. Some are employed as culinary plants in the Tropics, and in a few
of the E. Indian species the seeds are farinaceous, and used for food.

Order 3. Chenopodiaceæ. Generally herbaceous plants like the

Caryophyllaceæ, but the leaves are arranged spirally (except
Salicornia), and are simple, exstipulate; they are generally fleshy and
like the stem “mealy,” that is, covered with small hairs, whose large
spherical terminal cell readily falls away; otherwise they are seldom
hairy. The inflorescences are generally flower-clusters borne in
panicles. Bracteoles generally absent. Flowers generally unisexual:
with the single exception of Beta the flowers are hypogynous; they
are regular, small and inconspicuous, with single, green, 5-leaved,
but more or less united perianth; 5 stamens opposite the perianth,
and a 2–5-carpellate, unilocular ovary with 1 basal, curved ovule; but
in some genera the number of the perianth-leaves and stamens is
reduced to 3–2–1–0. The fruit is generally a nut,—thus this flower
and fruit are the same as in the reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. 361
F). The seed is similar to that generally found in the family (for
exceptions see the genera).
The floral diagram most frequently present is the same as in Fig. 361 F. There
is no indication of corolla or of corolla-stamens, which may be supposed to have
belonged to the plant, but which are now entirely and completely suppressed. This
order appears to have been an offshoot from the Caryophyllaceæ.—The perianth
persists after the withering of the flower, and envelopes the nut; it is very variable,
and, together with the position of the seed, the form of the embryo, the sex of the
flowers, etc., gives the characters of the genera.

1. Chenopodieæ, Goosefoot Group (Fig. 365), has ☿ (or

polygamous) flowers, with regular 5-parted perianth (C); the embryo
is ring-like (H). The leaves have the ordinary flat forms.—
Chenopodium (Goosefoot). The flower is hypogynous, and the fruit
(which is compressed) perfectly free; Mulberry-like collections of
fruits are formed in some species (sub-genus Blitum) by the perianth
becoming finally fleshy and coloured.—Beta (Beet, Mangold, Fig.
365) differs from all genera in the perianth, which finally becomes
cartilaginous, being epigynous (D). Small, most frequently 2–3-
flowered clusters without bracteoles, situated in a long, interrupted
axis (A, B); the flowers and fruits in each cluster are more or less
united individually, and fall off together—they are commonly known
as seeds (E, F). The seed lies horizontally.—Hablitzia (H.
tamnoides).
Fig. 365.—Beta vulgaris.
 Fig. 366.—Salsola soda: embryo.
2. Salsoleæ, Saltwort Group, has cylindrical or semi-
cylindrical leaves. Perianth as in the preceding group; the fruit is
most frequently compressed. The two first mentioned genera differ
from most of the others in the order in having a spirally-coiled, and
not a ring-like embryo, so that the endosperm is slight or wanting
(Fig. 366). These plants are sometimes placed as a group by
themselves, Spirolobeæ—in contradistinction to which the others
are termed Cyclolobeæ.—Salsola (Saltwort); leaves subulate, with
spiny tips; the flowers have 2 spinous bracteoles: during the ripening
of the fruit a tough leathery wing is developed transversely to the
back of the perianth.—Chenopodina deviates from Chenopodium chiefly in the
embryo and want of endosperm.—Kochia has a somewhat similar perianth to
Salsola, but a ring-like embryo; it differs from the others in being hairy.
3. Salicornieæ, Glasswort Group. Salicornia (Glasswort) has
a very different appearance. The stems are succulent, jointed, and
almost leafless; the leaves opposite, very small, sheath-like and
connate; there is a depression in the axil of each leaf, in which a
small 3-flowered dichasium without bracteoles is sunk; the flowers
have a trimerous perianth, 1–2 stamens and 1 carpel. No
endosperm. S. herbacea on clayey beaches.
4. Atripliceæ. This group has most frequently unisexual flowers;
the ♂-flower has a 4–5 partite perianth, but the ♀-flower differs from
it. Atriplex is monœcious or polygamous, the ♀-flower is naked, but
has 2 large, herbaceous bracteoles which expand during the
ripening of the fruit, and often become warted and fringed,
enveloping the compressed nut. The section Dichospermum has two kinds
of ♀-flowers, one like those just described, the other similar to the Chenopodium-
flowers, which have been deprived of their stamens, and the fruits of which are
depressed, not pressed together from the sides; some (e.g. A. hortensis) have
even three kinds of nuts. All the flowers of Atriplex, which present vertical fruits,
are accessory shoots, which stand beneath the ordinary flower-clusters, a rather
singular relation.—Spinacia (Spinach) is diœcious; ♂-flower: perianth, 4
(-5); stamens, 4 (-5); ♀ -flower: tubular, 2–4-partite perianth,
hardening during the ripening of the fruit, and uniting with the
compressed nut; in S. oleracea, it also forms thorns; 4 long stigmas.
—Halimus has the 2 long bracteoles almost entirely united and
ultimately adhering firmly to the fruit.
5. Baselleæ. A somewhat exceptional group with more or less perigynous
flowers and 2 bracteoles. Basella, Boussingaultia, Ullucus. The perianth is
sepaloid; ovary 1-ovuled. In Basella the perianth is fleshy, enveloping the nut, and
the cotyledons are so rolled together that a tranverse cut divides them in two
places (as in Spirolobeæ). Herbaceous climbing plants.
Pollination. Wind-and self-pollination, as far as is known; the insignificant
flowers, devoid of honey, appear to exclude insect-pollination.—520 species. Most
of them are annual (out of 26 native species only 5 are perennial); inhabiting salt-
marshes and salt-steppes, and growing as weeds (most frequently on garden or
field soil containing manure) in this country, especially species of Chenopodium
and Atriplex. The majority are found outside the Tropics, and play a very important
part, for example, in the Asiatic salt-steppes. They grow gregariously in large
masses.
Uses. Comparatively few. The only important one is Beta vulgaris (from the
Mediterranean basin), with its different varieties, viz. Beet-root, Cattle-beet or Red-
beet, Sugar-beet, and others. These are biennial, making in the first year a root
which acts as a reservoir of reserve material, with a rosette of leaves, and in the
second year using this material in the production of a long stem, leaves and
flowers. The primary root has been developed by cultivation into a very thick and
fleshy tap-root; its mode of increase in thickness deviates from that of other roots,
concentric rings of vascular bundles being formed from a cambial ring developed
outside the previous ring. In this way several rings of vascular bundles separated
by medullary rays, alternating with rings of parenchyma, may be found in the root
of a Beet. Besides Beta vulgaris, var. hortensis (Beet-root), the following are also
cultivated: var. cicla (Leaf-beet, “Mangold,” or “Roman Spinach ”), Spinacia
oleracea and Atriplex hortensis as Spinach; a form of the latter and of Spinach are
grown as ornamental plants. The tubers of Ullucus tuberosus are used as
potatoes; Chenopodium quinoa, in Chili and Peru, is an important farinaceous
plant. Soda is made from some (Salsola kali, Chenopodina maritima and others).
Aromatic properties are rare: Chenopodium ambrosioides and botrys.
 Order 4. Batidaceæ. Batis maritima, a bushy West Indian maritime plant.
Order 5. Phytolaccaceæ. The ☿ (sometimes unisexual), regular, sometimes
slightly perigynous flowers are inconspicuous and have a single sepaloid or
coloured 4–5-leaved perianth (generally united at the base); stamens either in 1
whorl in the spaces between the perianth-leaves or in 1 whorl opposite the
perianth-leaves, or in 2, one of which alternates with these; but the number may be
increased by the splitting of one or of both the whorls to as many as 10–15–20–25.
Carpels sometimes only one, sometimes many (4–10) placed in a whorl, either
free or united into a gynœceum with a corresponding number of loculi in the ovary;
but in all cases each carpel bears only its own style and 1 ovule. The fruit is a
berry (or nut, capsule, or schizocarp).—Mostly herbs or herbaceous shrubs, with
scattered, simple leaves without stipules (Petiverieæ; have stipules).
Inflorescences, most frequently racemes or spikes, which in some instances are
apparently placed opposite to a leaf, being displaced by a more vigorous growth of
the axillary bud. Embryo always bent.—Petiveria has a straight embryo with rolled
cotyledons.—Phytolacca, Pircunia, Microtea, Seguieria, Rivina (Pr4, A4, G1;
berry), and others.
The following plant is, with some doubt, placed near this order: Thelygonum
cynocrambe; monœcious. ♂ -flowers: perianth, 2-leaved; stamens indefinite. ♀ -
flowers: perianth-leaves united, 3-toothed; G1, style gynobasic. Fruit a drupe. An
annual plant; Mediterranean. Branching anomalous.
About 90 species; in tropical and temperate countries, principally America and
Africa.—The red juice in the fruits, especially of Phytol. decandra, is used for
colouring wine.

Order 6. Portulacaceæ (Portulacas). The flowers are regular

(except Montia), hypogynous (except Portulaca) and ☿. The diagram
which applies to the majority of genera is that in Fig. 367, but with all
the 5 stamens completely developed: it may be considered as the
Chenopodiaceous diagram with the addition of 2 bracteoles in the
median line (m-n, these by some are considered as sepals), and with
a petaloid perianth (usually designated “corolla”). The “petals” fall off
very quickly, and are sometimes wanting. Most frequently 5 stamens,
situated opposite the “petals,” but in other genera the number varies;
Montia has only 3 stamens (by suppression of the two anterior and
lateral, Fig. 367), others again have more than 5, some a large and
indefinite number. This may be explained partly by the appearance
of a second whorl of stamens alternating with the first, and partly by
the splitting (dédoublement) of the stamens. Gynœceum most
frequently tricarpellate, ovary unilocular with 1–several basal ovules
(sometimes on a branched placenta, as in certain Caryophyllaceæ).
The fruit is a capsule, more rarely a nut.—The majority are annual
herbaceous plants with scattered, entire leaves, often fleshy and
smooth, with or without rudimentary stipules (dry, membranous,
modified into hairs). Inflorescence cymose.

Fig. 367.—Montia.
Diagram of flower.
Portulaca (Portulaca): flower, epigynous or semi-epigynous; fruit,
a pyxidium. The stamens vary in number, and are most frequently
placed in groups (in consequence of splitting) opposite the petals.—
Montia: the corolla is slightly gamopetalous, but cleft on the posterior
side (Fig. 367), and as a consequence of the larger size of the lateral
petals, slightly zygomorphic; 3 stamens.—Calandrinia; Talinum;
Anacampseros; Claytonia.
125 species; mostly in warm and temperate countries, especially the arid parts
of S. Am. and the Cape. Montia fontana (Blinks) is a native plant. Portulaca
oleracea is cultivated as a pot-herb in the south of Europe. A few species of
Portulaca and Calandrinia are ornamental plants.
Order 7. Nyctaginiaceæ. The characteristic feature of this order
is the single, regular, united, and often petaloid perianth, the lower
part of which generally persists after flowering and embraces the fruit
as a false pericarp. The upper portion is most frequently valvate and
folded, or simply valvate in æstivation. The number of stamens
varies. The free gynœceum is unicarpellate and has 1 ovule. The
fruit is a nut, but becomes a false drupe, since the lower persistent
portion of the perianth becomes fleshy (as in Neea, where this fleshy
part is almost always crowned by the upper persistent part of the
perianth. In the majority of the Mirabileæ the lower part becomes the
dry anthocarp, while the upper petaloid part falls away after
flowering). Finally, a peculiar involucre is formed around the flowers
by free or united floral-leaves.—The majority are herbs, some are
trees (Pisonia, etc.); Bougainvillea is a liane. The stems are often
nodose and swollen at the nodes; the leaves are simple,
penninerved, scattered, or opposite, without stipules. In some, the
vascular bundles are scattered; stem anomalous.
Mirabilis; the structure of the stem is abnormal. Dichasial
branching with continuation from the second bracteole, thus forming
unipared scorpioid cymes. The perianth is petaloid, funnel-shaped,
and has a folded and twisted æstivation resembling that of the
corolla of the Convolvulaceæ; the upper coloured portion falls off
after the flowering. Outside, and alternating with it, is a 5-partite,
sepaloid involucre of 5 spirally-placed floral-leaves.—Oxybaphus;
the involucre envelops 1–3 dichasial flowers.—Bougainvillea; the
involucre is rose-coloured, 3-leaved, and envelops 3 flowers (placed
laterally; the terminal flower wanting). The leaves of the involucre in
Boerhaavia, Pisonia, Neea, and others are reduced to teeth or
scales.
157 species; mostly in tropical countries, and especially S. Am. Species of
Mirabilis (Am.) are ornamental plants. Theïn is found in Neea theïfera Oersted
(discovered by Lund in Lagoa Santa, Brazil), which may be used as a tea-plant.
Order 8. Aizoaceæ. Only 3 whorls are found in the flower, which alternate with
one another when their leaves are equal in number. The first is sepaloid, the third
one the carpels, and the intervening one is either uncleft, in which case it is
developed as stamens, or it is divided into a large number of members which then
all become stamens (arranged in groups), or the outermost ones become
developed as petals. The fruit is most frequently a capsule with several loculi. Most
of the species are herbs with thick, fleshy stems, and exstipulate leaves. The
structure of the stem is usually anomalous.
1. Aizoideæ have hypogynous or perigynous flowers with (4–) 5 perianth-
leaves; stamens single, or (by splitting) in groups of 2–3, alternating with the
perianth-leaves. The gynœceum (with 3–5 carpels) has 3–5 loculi in the ovary, and
most frequently numerous ovules in each loculus, borne on the central placenta
formed by the edges of the carpels. The fruit is a capsule. The inflorescences are
dichasia and unipared scorpioid cymes.—Aizoon, Mollugo, Sesuvium, and others
are herbs or bushes, most frequently hairy.
2. Mesembrianthemeæ have semi- or wholly-epigynous flowers.—Tetragonia.
The perianth is 4 (more rarely 3–5–6)-merous. Stamens single, or (by splitting) in
groups alternating with the perianth-leaves. There is an indefinite number of
carpels, and each loculus of the ovary contains only 1 pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut
or drupe. The flowers arise singly in the leaf-axils, with an accessory foliage-bud
below them; in some instances there is also an accessory flower between this bud
and the flower. Southern hemisphere, especially at the Cape; T. expansa, New
Zealand Spinach, is a fleshy plant which is cultivated as a pot-herb (Japan, Austr.,
S. Am.).—Mesembrianthemum: the flowers are 5-merous; the numerous linear
petals and the still more numerous stamens all arise by the splitting of 5 or 4
protuberances (primordia) alternating with the sepals. The ovary presents another
characteristic peculiarity: the carpels alternating with the 5–4 stamens form an
ovary (with several loculi) with the ovules at first borne, as in other cases, on the
inner corner of the inwardly-turned carpels; but during the subsequent
development the whole ovary is so turned round that the placentæ become
parietal and the ovules assume, apparently, a position very rarely met with in the
vegetable kingdom: on the dorsal suture of the carpels. Shrubs or under-shrubs,
more rarely herbs with fleshy stems and simple, entire, more frequently thick or
triangular leaves, containing a quantity of water. The flowers open about noon, and
are brightly coloured, generally red or red-violet, but odourless. The capsules
dehisce in rainy weather. 300 species, mostly found at the Cape. Some are
ornamental plants. M. crystallinum (the Ice-plant) and others are covered with
peculiar, bladder-like, sparkling hairs, the cell-sap of which contains salt—these
serve as reservoirs of water.

Family 8. Cactifloræ.
The position of this family is very doubtful; but it seems in many
respects to approach Mesembrianthemum. Some botanists place it
near to the Ribesiaceæ; others, again, to the Passifloraceæ. Only 1
order.
 Fig. 368.—A Echinocactus: a position of a leaf-lamina; b a lateral
shoot on the displaced axillary bud. B Pereskia: b a foliage-leaf on
a small thorny branch which is subtended by a foliage-leaf which
has fallen off and left a scar(a).

Fig. 369.—Echinopsis.
 Order Cactaceæ (The Cacti). The flower is epigynous, ☿, regular,
and remarkable for its acyclic structure; there are, for instance, a
large number of spirally-placed sepals and petals, which gradually
pass over into one another, and which in some species, to a certain
extent, arise from the walls of the ovary as in Nymphæa (Fig. 383 A,
B). The petals are free; rotate, opening widely in Opuntia, Pereskia,
and Rhipsalis; erect and united at their base into a shorter or longer
tube in Cereus, Epiphyllum, Mammillaria, Echinocactus, Melocactus,
and others (Fig. 369). Stamens numerous, attached to the base of
the corolla; gynœceum formed of many carpels, with one style,
dividing into a number of branches corresponding to the number of
carpels; the ovary has one loculus with many parietal placentæ; the
ovules are anatropous, on long and curved funicles. Fruit a berry
with exendospermous seeds. The fruit-pulp is mainly derived from
the funicles.—The external appearance of the Cactaceæ is very
peculiar; Pereskia, which has thick and fleshy leaves (Fig. 368),
deviates the least; foliage-leaves of the usual form are wanting in the
other genera, or are usually very small, and quickly fall off and
disappear (Opuntia), or are modified into thorns; the stem, without
normal foliage-leaves,—so characteristic a feature in this order,—
makes its appearance after the two normally developed cotyledons.
The stems are fleshy, perennial, and may finally become woody. In
some they are elongated, globose, pointed, and more or less
dichotomously branched, e.g. in several of the Rhipsalis species,
which live mostly as epiphytes on trees; in others, elongated,
branched, globose, or, most frequently, more or less angular
(prismatic) or grooved and provided with wings, and either columnar
and erect (as much as about 20 metres in height and 1 metre in
circumference, as in C. giganteus in New Mexico) or climbing by
roots (Cereus and Rhipsalis-species); in others again, compressed,
more or less leaf-like, often with a ridge in the centre (winged),
branched and jointed: Epiphyllum, Phyllocactus, Opuntia, some
species of Rhipsalis; others are thick, short, spherical or ovoid,
unbranched or only slightly branched, and either studded with
prominent warts (mammillæ) each of which supports a tuft of thorns
(Fig. 368 A; Mammillaria and others) or with vertical ridges,
separated by furrows (rows of mammillæ which have coalesced) in
Melocactus, Echinocactus, Echinopsis (Fig. 369); at the same time
the ovary in some is embedded in the stem so that leaves or leaf-
scars, with tufts of thorns in their axils, may be observed on the
ovary just as on the stem.—The flattened shoots of the Cactaceæ
are formed in various ways, either by the compression of cylindrical
axes (Opuntia) or, as in Melocactus, etc., from winged stems in
which all the wings are suppressed except two.
The thorns are produced directly from the growing points of the axillary buds,
and are modified leaves. The axillary bud is united at its base with its subtending
leaf, which as a rule is extremely rudimentary; and these together form a kind of
leaf-cushion, larger in some genera than in others. This leaf-cushion attains its
highest development in Mammillaria, in which it is a large, conical wart (see Fig.
368 A), bearing on its apex the tuft of thorns and rudimentary lamina.—The
seedlings have normal cotyledons and a fleshy hypocotyl.
All the species (1,000?) are American (one epiphytic species of Rhipsalis is
indigenous in S. Africa, Mauritius and Ceylon), especially from the tropical table-
lands (Mexico, etc.). Some species, especially those without thorns, as Rhipsalis,
are epiphytes. Opuntia vulgaris, the fruits of which are edible, is naturalized in the
Mediterranean. The cochineal insect (Coccus cacti) lives on this and some closely
allied species (O. coccinellifera, etc.), particularly in Mexico and the Canary
Islands. Several are ornamental plants.

Family 9. Polycarpicæ.
The flowers as a rule are ☿, regular and hypogynous; however in
some orders they are unisexual, e.g. in the Myristicaceæ, or
zygomorphic (in Monkshood and Larkspur in the Ranunculaceæ); in
the Lauraceæ, (Fig. 386) for example, perigynous, and in Nymphæa
(Fig. 383) even partially epigynous flowers are typical.—The flowers
are acyclic in very many of the genera of the two first orders, if not
completely so, at any rate in the numerous stamens and carpels,
thus denoting an old type. It is a remarkable characteristic that in the
majority of the orders the number 3 prevails in the calyx and corolla;
the number 5 also occurs, but the number 2 is seldom met with.
Most orders have a double perianth; chorisis does not occur,
suppression is rare, and the parts of the flower are developed in
acropetal succession. The most characteristic feature in the order is
the free, one-leaved, as a rule numerous carpels (apocarpous