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Chapter 2

Atoms and Molecules

Polymers
2.1 Define the terms polymer and monomer in your own words.

A polymer is a large molecule made up of many small repeating units of atoms, called
monomers, bonded together. A monomer is a small, unique group of atoms which can be
bonded together many times to produce a large molecule (polymer) made from a repeating
unit of atoms.

2.2 How do polymers compare to their respective monomers?

Polymers are simply “chains” of their respective monomers.

2.3 Look around you and identify several objects that you think are probably made from
polymers.

Answers will vary. Some possible responses include clothes, carpet fibers, a calculator case,
soda bottles, etc.

2.4 Which one element forms the backbone of nearly all common polymers? What other
elements are also found in conductive polyacetylene?

Carbon tends to form the backbone of all common polymers. Small amounts of iodine and
bromine are added to polyacetylene to make it more conductive. This process is called
doping.

2.5 The fact that a polymer’s physical properties depend on its atomic composition is very
important in making these materials so useful. Why do you think this would be so?
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Different monomers have different physical properties, because they are made with
different combinations of atoms. By making polymers with different monomers, a scientist
can design a polymer for a specific purpose.

2.6 One application of conductive polymers is in photovoltaic solar cells. Such devices have
traditionally been silicon based. What possible advantages might conducting polymers offer?

The conducting polymers offer considerable cost savings for both materials and processing
as opposed to traditional silicon-based photoactive materials.

2.7 Most polymers have densities slightly less than 1 g/cm3. How does this compare to the
densities of metals as shown in Figure 2.11? What does this comparison imply for devices in
which conducting polymers might replace metal wires or other components?

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© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The densities of the metals are much higher. Most of the metals have densities much
greater than 5000 kg/m3, compared to a polymer that would have a density of around 1000
kg/m3. This implies that devices using conducting polymers instead of metal wires would
be considerably lighter.

Atomic Structure and Mass

2.8 In a typical illustration of the atom such as Figure 2.3, which features lead to
misunderstandings about the structure of atoms? Which ones give important insight?

The depiction of the electrons moving around the nucleus in perfect circles does nothing to
address the fact that the electron’s position is described by a wave function. Another large
shortcoming is that there is no information conveyed as to the true geometric shape of the
atomic orbitals. The positioning of the rings does represent the “size” of orbitals increasing
with increasing principal quantum number n. The model does accurately separate the
nucleus and the electrons of the atom.

2.9 Why is the number of protons called the atomic number?

Each different element has a unique number of protons in its nucleus that distinguishes it
from other elements. Therefore, that “atomic” number can identify an atom. The number of
neutrons in the nucleus is not unique nor is the number of electrons, if ions are included.

2.10 Which isotope in each pair contains more neutrons?

(a) chlorine-35 or sulfur-33, (b) fluorine-19 or neon-19,

(c) copper-63 or zinc-65, (d) iodine-126 or tellurium-127

(a) chlorine-35, (b) fluorine-19, (c) zinc-65, (d) tellurium-127

2.11 Define the term isotope.

Isotopes are different atomic forms of an element that have different numbers of neutrons
in the nucleus.

2.12 Write the complete atomic symbol for each of the following isotopes. (a) carbon-13
(b) phosphorus-31 (c) sodium-23 (d) boron-10
13 31 23 10
(a) 6 C , (b) 15 P , (c) 11 Na , (d) 5 B

2.13 How many electrons, protons, and neutrons are there in each of the following atoms?

a. magnesium−24, 24Mg 12 electrons, 12 protons, 24 – 12 = 12 neutrons b.

tin−119, 119Sn 50 electrons, 50 protons, 119 – 50 = 69 neutrons c.
thorium−232, 232Th 90 electrons, 90 protons, 232 – 90 = 142 neutrons d.
carbon−13, 13C 6 electrons, 6 protons, 13 – 6 = 7 neutrons

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e. copper−63, 63Cu 29 electrons, 29 protons, 63 – 29 = 34 neutrons
f. bismuth−205, 205Bi 83 electrons, 83 protons, 205 – 83 = 122 neutrons

The atomic number of the element gives the number of protons. This will equal the number
of electrons in a neutral atom. The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons; so
subtracting the atomic number from the mass number gives the number of neutrons.

2.14 Consider the following nuclear symbols. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does
each element have? What elements do R, T, and X represent?

(a) 30
14 R (b) 89 133
39 T (c) 55 X
30
(a) 14 R has 14 protons, 14 electrons, and 16 neutrons; R represents silicon, Si

89
(b) 39 T has 39 protons, 39 electrons, and 50 neutrons; T represents yttrium, Y
133
(c) 55 X has 55 protons, 55 electrons, and 78 neutrons; X represents cesium, Cs

2.15 Mercury is 16.716 times more massive than 12C. What is the atomic weight of mercury?
Remember to express your answer with the correct number of significant figures.

The mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu). The mass of a mercury atom
is 16.716 × 12 amu = 200.59 amu (rounded to 5 significant digits)

2.16 The element gallium, used in gallium arsenide semiconductors, has an atomic weight of
69.72 amu. There are only two isotopes of gallium, 69Ga with a mass of 68.9257 amu and 71Ga
with a mass of 70.9249 amu. What are the isotopic abundances of gallium?

60.3% 69Ga and 39.7% 71Ga

2.17 The atomic weight of copper is 63.55 amu. There are only two isotopes of copper, 63Cu
with a mass of 62.93 amu and 65Cu with a mass of 64.93 amu. What is the percentage abundance
for each of these two isotopes?

Since there are only two isotopes, the percent abundance must sum to 100, and their
fractions must sum to one. We can let X = the fraction of 63Cu and (1 – X) = the fraction of
65Cu. The given atomic mass of copper is the weighted average of the two isotopes. To

calculate the “weighted” average mass of copper, we convert each percentage into a
fraction, multiply each fraction by the mass of that isotope, and add them together.

X (mass of 63Cu) + (1 – X) (mass of 65Cu) = 63.55 amu (weighted average mass of copper)
X (62.93 amu) + (1 – X) (64.93 amu) = 63.55 amu
62.93 X amu + 64.93 amu – 64.93 X amu = 63.55 amu
1.38 amu
1.38 amu = 2.00 X amu → X= = 0.690
2.00 amu

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Therefore the percentage of 63Cu is 69.0%.
The percentage of 65Cu is 100% – 69.0% = 31.0%

2.18 The following table presents the abundances and masses of the isotopes of zinc. What is
the atomic weight of zinc?

Isotope Abundance Mass

64
Zn 48.6% 63.9291 amu
66
Zn 27.9% 65.9260 amu
67
Zn 4.10% 66.9271 amu
68
Zn 18.8% 67.9249 amu
70
Zn 0.60% 69.9253 amu

65.40 amu

2.19 Naturally occurring uranium consists of two isotopes, whose masses and abundances are
shown below.

Isotope Abundance Mass

235
U 0.720% 235.044 amu
238
U 99.275% 238.051 amu

Only 235U can be used as fuel in a nuclear reactor, so uranium for use in the nuclear industry
must be enriched in this isotope. If a sample of enriched uranium has an average atomic mass of
235.684 amu, what percentage of 235U is present?

The percent abundances in the enriched sample are different from above, but they must
still sum to 100% and the isotopic masses are still the same. We can let X = the fraction of
235U and (1 – X) = the fraction of 238U. The given average atomic mass of uranium is the

weighted average of the two isotopes. To calculate a “weighted” average mass of uranium,
we convert each percentage into a fraction, multiply each fraction by the mass of that
isotope, and add them together.

X (mass of 235U) + (1 – X) (mass of 238U) = 235.684 amu (weighted average mass of uranium)
X (235.044 amu) + (1 – X) (238.051 amu) = 235.684 amu

235.044X amu + 238.051 amu – 238.051X amu = 235.684 amu

2.367 amu
2.367 amu = 3.007X amu → X= = 0.7872
3.007 amu
Therefore the percentage of 235U is 78.72%.

Ions
2.20 Define the term ion in your own words.

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An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost one or more electrons,
acquiring a negative or positive electrical charge, respectively.

2.21 What is the difference between cations and anions?

A cation is an atom or group of atoms that have lost one or more electrons, making them
positively charged. Anions are atoms or groups of atoms that have gained one or more
electrons, making them negatively charged.

2.22 Provide the symbol of the following monoatomic ions, given the number of protons and
electrons in each.

(a) 8 protons, 10 electrons ANS O2–

(b) 20 protons, 18 electrons ANS Ca2+
(c) 53 protons, 54 electrons ANS I–
(d) 26 protons, 24 electrons ANS Fe2+

2.23 How many protons and electrons are in each of the following ions?

(a) Na+ Atomic number = 11, 11 protons; 11 – 1 = 10 electrons

(b) Al3+ Atomic number = 13, 13 protons; 13 – 3 = 10 electrons
(c) S2– Atomic number = 16, 16 protons; 16 + 2 = 18 electrons
(d) Br– Atomic number = 35, 35 protons; 35 + 1 = 36 electrons

The atomic number will give the number of protons for the ion. The charge of the ion
indicates how many electrons were gained or lost. A positive charge means electrons
(negative) were lost, a negative charge means electrons were gained. Subtract the charge
number from the atomic number to get the number of electrons in a cation, or add the
charge number to the atomic number to get the number of electrons in an anion.

2.24 Identify each of the following species as an anion, a cation, or a molecule.

(a) CO32– (b) CO2 (c) NH4+ (d) N3– (e) CH3COO–

(a) anion, (b) molecule, (c) cation, (d) anion, (e) anion

2.25 Write the atomic symbol for the element whose ion has a 2− charge, has 20 more neutrons
than electrons, and has a mass number of 126.

We’ll use the symbols p, n, and e for the number of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The mass number, 126 = p + n. The neutrons outnumber the electrons by 20, n = e + 20.
And because of the 2− charge, there are two more electrons than protons, e = p + 2.
Substituting, 126 = (e − 2) + (e + 20), 126 = 2e + 18, e = 54
Thus, p = 54 – 2 = 52
Therefore the atomic number is 52, making this the telluride ion, 12652Te 2- .

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2.26 In what region of the periodic table are you likely to find elements that form more than
one stable ion?

Transition elements tend to have multiple oxidation states.

2.27 Give the symbol, including the correct charge, for each of the following ions.

(a) barium ion, Ba2+, (b) titanium(IV) ion, Ti4+, (c) phosphate ion, PO43– ,
(d) hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3–, (e) sulfide ion, S 2–, (f) perchlorate ion, ClO4–,
2–

(g) cobalt(II) ion, Co2+, (h) sulfate ion, SO4 .

2.28 An engineer is designing a water-softening unit based on ion exchange. Use the web to
learn what ions typically are “exchanged” in such a system. Given that the ion exchanger cannot
build up a large positive charge, what can you conclude about the relative numbers of the various
ions involved?

Use a World Wide Web search engine to find the requested information. One may conclude
that the relative numbers of positive and negative ions are equal.

2.29 Use the web to find a catalyst for a polymerization reaction that uses an ion. What are
the apparent advantages of using this catalyst for creating the polymer?

Answers will vary. One such catalyst used in ionic polymerization is butyl-lithium. This
substance decomposes into a lithium ion (1+ charge) and a butyl ion (1− charge). One
advantage of ionic polymerization is that the polymer formed is easier to process further to
produce desirable properties.

2.30 Using Coulomb’s law, explain how the difference between attractive and repulsive
interactions between ions is expressed mathematically.

Coulomb’s law states that as the magnitude of the charges increases, so does the force
between the two ions. The law also holds that the magnitude of the force is inversely
qq
proportional to the distance between the two charges. F = 1 2 2 , where q represents the
4πε 0r
magnitude of charge and r represents the distance between ions.

Compounds and Chemical Bonds

2.31 How many atoms of each element are represented in the formula, Ba(OH)2?

Subscripts give the numbers of atoms present in the formula. Subscripts outside
parenthesis mean all atoms inside are multiplied by that number.
In one formula unit of Ba(OH)2, there are one Ba atom, two O atoms, and two H atoms.

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2.32 Which of the following formulas contains the most hydrogen atoms? C2H6, (NH4)2CO3,
H2SO4, or Fe(OH)3

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(NH4)2CO3 shows eight hydrogen atoms.

2.33 When talking about the formula for an ionic compound, why do we typically refer to a
formula unit rather than a molecule?

Molecules are discrete groups of neutral atoms bonded together with covalent bonds. An
ionic compound is not made of discrete units but large collections of cations and anions
held together with electrostatic attractive forces (ionic bonds). Because ionic compounds
are not made of molecules, it is incorrect to refer to them with the term “molecule”. The
smallest ratio of these ions that gives a neutral formula is called the “formula unit” of the
compound.

2.34 Which formula below is the correct one for an ionic compound? What is incorrect about
each of the others? (a) AlO3/2 (b) Ca2Br4 (c) Mg(PO4)3/2 (d) BaCO3

(a) Incorrect because the number of atoms in a single molecule or formula unit must be an
integer.
(b) Incorrect because Ca reacts in a one: two ratio with Br atoms to form the ionic
compound CaBr2.
(c) Incorrect because the number of atoms in a single molecule or formula unit must be an
integer.
(d) This is the correct formula for an ionic compound.

2.35 Explain the difference between ionic and metallic bonding.

In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating positive
cations and negative anions. These are attracted to each other with electrostatic forces, and
they form a large array in a particular lattice structure. In metallic bonding, metal atoms
release some of their electrons (outer ones) to form a common pool of electrons, shared by
all the atoms. The positive metal atom cores are attracted to this “mobile sea of electrons”
and are held together in some particular lattice arrangement.

2.36 Explain the difference between a molecular formula and an empirical formula.

An empirical formula is the most simplified ratio of atoms in a molecule. A molecular

formula gives the specific numbers of each type of atom in a molecule.

2.37 Why are empirical formulas preferred for describing polymer molecules?

Polymers are made of a very large number of monomers bonded together: hundreds or
even thousands. Sometimes it is not even possible to tell exactly how many. It is much more
convenient to represent a polymer with its empirical or monomer formula.

2.38 The molecular formula for the ethylene monomer is C2H4. What is its empirical formula?

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© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
C1H2
2.39 Polybutadiene is a synthetic elastomer, or rubber. The corresponding monomer is
butadiene, which has a molecular formula C4H6. What is the empirical formula of butadiene?

The empirical formula is the smallest whole number ratio of atoms present in the
compound. The empirical formula for butadiene, C4H6, is C2H3.

The Periodic Table

2.40 What distinguished the work of Mendeleev that caused scientists to accept his concept of
the periodic table when others before him were not believed?

He left “holes” in the table rather than force known elements into those positions. As the
new elements were discovered and placed into these “holes”, the community recognized the
importance of Mendeleev’s work.

2.41 How does the periodic table help to make the study of chemistry more systematic?

The periodic table organizes elements according to the size and structure of the atom. This
allows us to identify trends in properties of atoms and to make predictions in their
behavior.

2.42 What is a period in the periodic table? From what does it derive its name?

A period is one horizontal row on the periodic table. As we move across a row (or period)
on the table, some of the important properties of the elements tend to vary in a systematic
way.

2.43 Name the group to which each of the following elements belongs:

(a) K Group 1
(b) Mg Group 2
(c) Ar Group 18
(d) Br Group 17

Groups are the columns of the periodic table. Each one is labeled sequentially from left to
right, 1–18.

2.44 What are some of the physical properties that distinguish metals from nonmetals?

Distinguishing properties include sheen, ductility, and malleability.

2.45 Identify the area of the periodic table in which you would expect to find each of the
following types of elements. (a) a metal, (b) a nonmetal, (c) a metalloid

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The metals are located in the middle and left side of the table, with the exception of
hydrogen, a nonmetal. The nonmetals are found on the right side of the periodic table, and
more so the upper right. Metalloids are sandwiched in between the metals and nonmetals
along a stair-step line going down from boron down to astatine.

2.46 Why are nonmetals important even though they account for only a very small fraction of
the elements in periodic table?

Many non-metals are essential components in living systems.

2.47 What is a metalloid?

Metalloids are elements that exhibit some properties of both nonmetals and metals. Since
they cannot be classified as either metals or nonmetals, they have a separate category and
they exist in the region between metals and nonmetals on the periodic table.

2.48 A materials engineer has filed for a patent for a new alloy to be used in golf club heads.
The composition by mass ranges from 25 to 31% manganese, 6.3 to 7.8% aluminum, 0.65 to
0.85% carbon, and 5.5 to 9.0% chromium, with the remainder being iron. What are the
maximum and minimum percentages of iron possible in this alloy? Use Figure 2.12 to make a
prediction about how the density of this alloy would compare with that of iron; justify your
prediction.

The iron concentration is between 51% and 63%. Aluminum and carbon are less dense
than the other metals used in this alloy; therefore the alloy should have a density less than
iron.

2.49 Classify the following elements as metals, metalloids, or nonmetals:

(a) Si Metalloid (b) Zn Metal (c) B Metalloid

(d) N Nonmetal (e) K Metal (f) S Nonmetal

Metals are generally to the left and in the middle on the periodic table, with nonmetals on
the right, and metalloids in between.

2.50 A materials engineer wants to make a new material by taking pure silicon and replacing
some fraction of the silicon atoms with other atoms that have similar chemical properties. Based
on the periodic table, what elements probably should be tried first?

Carbon, germanium, and tin

Inorganic and Organic Chemistry

2.51 The chemistry of the main group elements is generally simpler than that of the transition
metals. Why is this so?

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Most of the transition metals can form more than one cation, sometimes five or more.
Elements in the main groups usually form only one anion or cation.
2.52 Calcium and fluorine combine to produce an ionic calcium fluoride, CaF2. Use the
periodic table to predict at least two other compounds that you would expect to have structures
similar to that of CaF2.

MgF2 and SrF2

2.53 What is meant by the phrase organic chemistry?

Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry primarily concerned with molecules

containing carbon bonded to other carbon atoms. It is sometime referred to as the
chemistry of living things because living organisms are made mostly of organic molecules.

2.54 Based on what you’ve learned in this chapter, would you classify the chemistry of
polymers as organic or inorganic? Why?

Organic, because the monomers are most often organic units AND the bonding of the
monomers to form the polymer involves the creation of C–C bonds in many cases.

2.55 What is a functional group? How does the concept of the functional group help to make
the study of organic chemistry more systematic?

A functional group is a specific group of atoms that is bonded to an organic molecule. This
group has certain properties and causes the molecule to behave in a certain way. Organic
molecules are classified according to which functional groups are present and the name of
the molecule will reflect that functional group.

2.56 The molecule shown below is responsible for the smell of popcorn. Write the correct
molecular formula for this compound.

O
C7H7NO

2.57 Not all polymers are formed by simply linking identical monomers together.
Polyurethane, for example, can be formed by reacting the two compounds shown below with one
another. Write molecular and empirical formulas for each of these two substances.

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© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 O

C
N

N
C
O HO OH

In line structures for organic molecules, each line represents a single bond. The symbols for
carbon atoms are not shown, therefore at the terminus of each line, if a symbol is not
shown, a C atom is assumed. The symbols of hydrogen atoms bonded to C are also not
shown, so if carbon does not have four bonds shown in the structure, we assume the
missing bonds are C – H bonds.

The empirical and molecular formulas for the molecule on the left are C15H10N2O2. The
molecular formula for the molecule on the right is C2H6O2. The empirical formula is CH3O.

2.58 The compound shown below forms an amorphous solid (a glass) at room temperature,
and has been used as a medium for storing information holographically. Write the correct
molecular formula for this molecule.
O

N O

C15H20N2O2

2.59 The accompanying figure shows the structure gamma-aminobutanoic acid, or GABA.
This molecule is a neurotransmitter. Some of the effects of alcohol consumption are due to the
interaction between ethanol and GABA. Write the correct molecular formula for this compound.

OH
H2N

The molecular formula for GABA is C4H9NO2.

2.60 The following figure shows the structure of the adrenaline molecule. Write the correct
molecular formula for this substance.

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© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 OH

HO NH

HO

C9H13NO3

Chemical Nomenclature
2.61 Name the following covalent compounds:

(a) N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide

(b) S2Cl2 disulfur dichloride
(c) NBr3 nitrogen tribromide
(d) P4O10 tetraphosphorus decoxide

When naming binary covalent compounds, name the first element, leave a space, then
name the second element. The second element’s name is modified to end in “– ide”. For
multiples of a type of atom, Greek prefixes are used. Two-syllable prefixes that end in a
vowel drop the second vowel when preceding “oxide”.

2.62 Give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) sulfur dichloride, (b)
dinitrogen pentoxide, (c) silicon tetrachloride, (d) diboron trioxide (commonly called boric
oxide)

(a) SCl2, (b) N2O5, (c) SiCl4, (d) B2O3

2.63 Write the molecular formula for each of the following covalent compounds:

(a) sulfur hexafluoride SF6

(b) bromine pentafluoride BrF5
(c) disulfur dichloride S2Cl2
(d) tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4

2.64 Name each of the following ionic compounds. (a) K2S, (b) CoSO4, (c) (NH4)3PO4,
(d) Ca(ClO)2

(a) potassium sulfide, (b) cobalt(II) sulfate, (c) ammonium phosphate, (d) calcium
hypochlorite

2.65 Name each of the following compounds: (a) MgCl2, (b) Fe(NO3)2, (c) Na2SO4,
(d) Ca(OH)2, (e) FeSO4

(a) MgCl2 magnesium chloride

(b) Fe(NO3)2 iron(II) nitrate
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(c) Na2SO4 sodium sulfate
(d) Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
(e) FeSO4 iron(II) sulfate

When naming ionic compounds, first name the cation, leave a space, and then name the
anion. Greek prefixes are never used, even if there is more than one of a type of ion. If a
cation has more than one possible charge, a roman numeral in parenthesis indicating the
charge directly follows the name of the cation with no space.

2.66 Give the formula for each of the following ionic compounds. (a) ammonium carbonate,
(b) calcium iodide, (c) copper(II) bromide, (d) aluminum phosphate, (e) silver (I) acetate

(a) (NH4)2CO3, (b) CaI2, (c) CuBr2, (d) AlPO4, (e) AgC2H3O2

2.67 Name the following compounds:

(a) PCl5 phosphorus pentachloride

(b) Na2SO4 sodium sulfate
(c) Ca3N2 calcium nitride
(d) Fe(NO3)3 iron(III) nitrate
(e) SO2 sulfur dioxide
(f) Br2O5 dibromine pentoxide

When naming ionic compounds with polyatomic ions, the rules are the same. Name the
cation, leave a space, and name the anion.

Polyethylene
2.68 What is a free radical? How are free radicals important in the formation of polyethylene?

A free radical is a highly reactive species with an unpaired electron. Free radicals serve as
the initiator molecules in this polymerization.

2.69 How do molecules of low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene differ?

How do these molecular scale differences explain the differences in the macroscopic properties
of these materials?

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is made of polymer molecules that are highly branched.
Because of this branching, the molecules cannot pack closely together, much like a pile of
twisted branches from a tree. The resulting density is lower because the mass per volume is
decreased. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has polymer molecules that are much
straighter with little branching. These can pack more tightly together, increasing the mass
per volume, or density. LDPE is weaker, softer, and more flexible; HDPE is stronger and
harder.

32
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.70 Why do you think an initiator molecule is needed to induce the polymerization of
ethylene?

Ethylene itself is a stable molecule. The highly reactive initiator is necessary to start the
reaction.

2.71 Use the web to determine the amount of low-density and high-density polyethylene
produced annually in the United States. Which uses predominate in the applications of these two
materials?

According to the American Chemistry Council, 21 billion pounds of LDPE and 18 billion
pounds of HDPE were produced in the United States in 2016. The largest use for HDPE is
consumer product bottles; milk jugs and quart bottles of motor oil are examples. LDPE is
used in plastic liners, garbage and storage bags.

Conceptual Problems
2.72 How can an element have an atomic weight that is not an integer?

If the element has multiple isotopes, the atomic weight is a weighted average of those
isotopes. This will most likely result in a non-integer.

2.73 Explain the concept of a “weighted” average in your own words.

A weighted average is the average of several samples that also accounts for the abundance
of individual samples.

2.74 The accompanying table provides the identity of the two naturally occurring isotopes for
four elements and the atomic weights for those elements. (In each case the two isotopes differ in
mass number by two.) Which element has the mass spectrum shown? Explain your answer.
Isotopes Mass (amu)
121 123
Sb, Sb 121.8
185 187
Re, Re 186.2
191 193
Ir, Ir 192.2
203 205
Tl, Tl 204.4
Signal

Mass (amu)

121Sb, 123Sb;
The isotope 121Sb is present at 60%, and the isotope 123Sb is present at 40%;
which corresponds to the signal shown in the figure of the mass spectrum.

33
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.75 Chlorine has only two isotopes, one with mass 35 and the other with mass 37. One is
present at roughly 75% abundance and the atomic mass of chlorine on a periodic table is 35.45.
Which must be the correct mass spectrum for chlorine?

The correct spectrum is (B), which shows the 35-amu isotope with approximately three
times greater abundance (signal strength) than the 37-amu isotope. This corresponds to the
75% abundance of one isotope, and it has to be the one at 35 amu to yield an atomic mass
of 35.45 amu:

0.75 (35 amu) + 0.25 (37 amu) = 35.5 amu

2.76 What is the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond?

In an ionic bond, one species will give up electrons while another species gains the
electrons. In a covalent bond, there is a genuine sharing of electrons between species to
form the bond.

2.77 In general, how are electrons involved in chemical bonding?

There are 3 major types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic. They all involve
sharing or transfer of electrons in some way. Ionic bonds have electrons transferred from
the cation to the anion. Covalent bonds result from shared pairs of electrons between two
atoms. Metallic bonding has metal atoms transfer some of their electrons to a “common
pool” where they are all shared collectively across the entire mass of metal.

2.78 Conduction of electricity usually involves the movement of electrons. Based on the
concept of metallic bonding, explain why metals are good conductors of electricity.

There is an ample supply of electrons that are free to move about in metallic bonding. This
mobility results in excellent electrical conductance.

2.79 Describe how a covalently bonded molecule is different from compounds that are either
ionic or metallic.

In a molecule, electrons are shared in pairs between two atoms, as opposed to transferring
electrons from one atom to another in ionic compounds or transferring electrons to a
common pool in metallic solids. Molecular substances exist as discrete particles, but ionic
and metallic substances exist as large arrays of particles.
34
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.80 Of the following elements, which two would you expect to exhibit the greatest similarity
in physical and chemical properties? Cl, P, S, Se, Ti. Explain your choice.

Sulfur and selenium, because they are members of the same group (or family) of elements.

2.81 How do binary compounds with hydrogen illustrate the concept of periodicity?

It is observed that hydrogen forms a compound with elements in a given group always in
the same ratio. This ratio changes across the periodic table, indicating a change in the
structure of the atom from the left to right side of the periodic table. For example:
Group 17 – HF, HCl, HBr, HI

Group 16 – H2O, H2S, H2Se, H2Te

Group 15 – NH3, PH3, AsH3

2.82 Which binary combinations of elements are most likely to give ionic substances?

Combinations of an alkali metal element and a halogen element are most likely to result in
an ionic substance (a salt).

2.83 Why are there different rules for naming covalent and ionic binary compounds?

In molecules, the atoms combined are neutral and they can bond in many ratios. The only
way to distinguish different formulas with a name is by using Greek prefixes. In ionic
compounds, the bonded species have a charge and there is only one possible ratio that will
give a neutral formula: prefixes are not needed.

2.84 Early attempts to arrange the elements often focused on atomic weight. Mendeleev
considered a number of properties in addition to atomic weight, so he realized that some elements
seemed out of place when ordered by atomic weight. Using the modern periodic table, identify
elements for which Mendeleev must have had to switch the order in order to get the correct sequence of
elements.

In the following atom pairs, the atom with greater atomic number has a lower atomic
weight: Ar and K, Co and Ni, Cu and Zn, Te and I. These would likely have been out of
order on Mendeleev’s periodic table.

2.85 Describe how the saying “opposites attract” corresponds with the mathematical
representation of Coulomb’s law shown in Equation 2.1. Remember that attractive forces have
negative values and repulsive forces have positive values.

In Coulomb’s law, the charges of the particles are multiplied (q1×q2), so if one particle was
positively charged and the other negative, the resulting force would be negative (an attractive
force).
35
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.86 For some uses, the relative abundance of isotopes must be manipulated. For example, a
medical technique called boron neutron capture therapy needs a higher fraction of 10B than occurs
naturally to achieve its best efficiency. What would happen to the atomic weight of a sample of
boron that had been enriched in 10B? Explain your answer in terms of the concept of a weighted
average.

The atomic weight of boron is 10.81 amu. This is the weighted average of all isotopes and
since this number is closer to 11 than 10, it implies that 10B is a lighter, less abundant isotope.
Increasing the fraction of 10B would decrease the atomic weight.

2.87 What is the heaviest element to have an atomic weight that is roughly twice its atomic number?
What does this suggest must be true about the nuclei of atoms with higher atomic numbers?

Calcium has an atomic weight equal to 40.08 amu compared to its atomic number of 20. It
suggests that atoms with a higher atomic number than calcium have more neutrons than
protons and the ratio of neutrons to protons becomes increasingly higher.

Focus on Problem Solving Exercises

2.88 Describe how you can identify the isotope, X, in this puzzle. The nucleus contains one
more neutron than proton, and the mass number is nine times larger than the charge on the ion
X3+.

3  9 = 27 amu. The 3+ charge and relatively light mass rules out the transition elements.
Focusing on the periodic table, Al is an element that readily forms a 3+ charge and has an
average atomic mass around 27. With atomic number = 13, aluminum satisfies the last clue
because it would have 14 (13 + 1) neutrons and have a total mass of 27 amu.

2.89 Many transition metals produce more than one ion. For example, iron has ions with
charges of 2+ and 3+ that are both common. How could you use the compounds of a transition
metal with oxygen to determine the charge of a metal ion? Use iron as your example.

The key is the fact that oxygen almost always forms a 2– charge when it bonds with metals,
especially transition metals like iron. An experiment could be performed where the mass of
metal before and after reacting with oxygen is determined. Then the ratios of moles of
atoms could be calculated (the formula).

In the case of iron the formula of the resulting oxide would be either FeO or Fe2O3,
depending on reaction conditions. Then, assuming that the charge of the oxide ion is 2–, we
can calculate the charge of iron that gives us a neutral compound:
Fe + (O2–) = 0 net charge, Fe = 2+ or Fe2+

2 (Fe) + 3 (O2–) = 0 net charge, Fe = 3+ or Fe3+

36
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.90 Naturally occurring europium has an average atomic mass of 151.964 amu. If the only
isotopes of europium present are 151Eu and 153Eu, describe how you would determine the relative
abundance of the two isotopes. Include in your description any information that would need to be
looked up.

Let x equal the percentage of Eu-151 and (1 – x) equal Eu-153. From there: 151 amu (x) +
153 amu (1 – x) = 151.965 amu. Solve for x.

2.91 Strontium has four stable isotopes. Strontium−84 has a very low natural abundance, but
86
Sr, 87Sr, and 88Sr are all reasonably abundant. Knowing that the atomic mass of strontium is
87.62, which of the more abundant isotopes predominates?

The weighted average mass of Sr is 87.62 amu, which is closest to the mass of strontium-88.
Equal abundance of the three isotopes would yield an average around 87 amu. Therefore
the most abundant isotope must be strontium−88.

2.92 A candy manufacturer makes chocolate-covered cherries. While all of the products look
roughly the same, 3% of them are missing the cherry. The mass of the candy with a cherry is
18.5 g; those missing the cherry weigh only 6.4 g. (a) How would you compute the average mass
of a box of 100 of these chocolate-covered cherries from this manufacturer? (b) How is this
question analogous to the determination of atomic weights?

(a) 97 cherried  18.5 grams + 3 non-cherried  6.4 g = 1813.7 grams

(b) Both rely upon weighted averages.

2.93 Two common oxides of iron are FeO and Fe2O3. Based on this information, tell how you
would predict two common compounds of chlorine and iron.

The oxide anion is always a 2– charge. Therefore we can determine what the two charges
for iron are in FeO and Fe2O3.

Fe + (O2–) = 0 net charge, Fe = 2+ or Fe2+

2 (Fe) +3 (O2–) = 0 net charge, Fe = 3+ or Fe3+

Chloride anions are always 1–, so we can predict the formula of compounds containing iron
and chlorine based on what combination of cation and anion gives us a neutral formula.

(Fe2+) + 2 (Cl–) = 0 net charge: FeCl2 (Fe3+) + 3 (Cl–) = 0 net charge: FeCl3

Cumulative Problems
2.94 Use a molecular level description to distinguish between LDPE and HDPE.
HDPE is referred to as linear polyethylene and contains few hydrocarbon branches. This
tight packing results in a strong, hard material. LDPE contains more hydrocarbon
branches and is not the hard material that HDPE is.

37
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.95 Engineers who design bicycle frames are familiar with the densities of aluminum (2.699
g/cm3), steel (7.87 g/cm3), and titanium (4.507 g/cm3). How does this information compare with
Figure 2.12 and what would it suggest for changes in this figure if more shades were used for the
density color-coding? (Iron is the principal component of steel.)

The density of iron is about 1.75 times greater than that of titanium, yet their shade color is
the same in Figure 2.12. The color shades should be darker towards the middle of Period 2,
around Groups 7−11, as the density of those metals increases towards the right.

2.96 Use the web to look up the density of different forms of steel, such as stainless steel or
magnetic steel, and discuss whether or not the differences in the densities follow what might be
predicted by looking at the periodic properties of elements.

Please refer to the World Wide Web for this information.

2.97 LDPE has a density range of 0.915–0.935 g/cm3, and HDPE has a density in the range of
0.940–0.965 g/cm3. You receive a small disk, 2.0 cm high with a 6.0 cm diameter from a
manufacturer of polyethylene, but its label is missing. You measure the mass of the disk and find
that it is 53.8 g. Is the material HDPE or LDPE?

We can calculate the volume of the disk and then use the mass to determine the density.

Volume of a cylinder =  × r2 × l; V =  × (6.0 cm ÷ 2)2 × 2.0 cm = 57 cm3

Density = mass/volume; d = 53.8 g ÷ 57 cm3 = 0.95 g/cm3

This density falls in the range of HDPE; therefore the disk is HDPE.

38
© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Another random document with
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 Or fain to the outhouse wouldst fare.

113. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Beware of sleep | on a witch’s bosom,
Nor let her limbs ensnare thee.

114. Such is her might | that thou hast no mind

For the council or meeting of men;
Meat thou hatest, | joy thou hast not,
And sadly to slumber thou farest.

115. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest: [54]
Seek never to win | the wife of another,
Or long for her secret love.

116. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
If o’er mountains or gulfs | thou fain wouldst go,
Look well to thy food for the way.
117. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my
rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
An evil man | thou must not let
Bring aught of ill to thee;
For an evil man | will never make
Reward for a worthy thought.

118. I saw a man | who was wounded sore

By an evil woman’s word;
A lying tongue | his death-blow launched,
And no word of truth there was.

119. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
If a friend thou hast | whom thou fully wilt trust,
Then fare to find him oft;
For brambles grow | and waving grass
On the rarely trodden road.

[55]

120. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
 Great thy gain if thou learnest:
A good man find | to hold in friendship,
And give heed to his healing charms.

121. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Be never the first | to break with thy friend
The bond that holds you both;
Care eats the heart | if thou canst not speak
To another all thy thought.

122. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Exchange of words | with a witless ape
Thou must not ever make.

123. For never thou mayst | from an evil man

A good requital get;
But a good man oft | the greatest love
Through words of praise will win thee.

124. Mingled is love | when a man can speak

To another all his thought; [56]
Nought is so bad | as false to be,
 No friend speaks only fair.

125. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
With a worse man speak not | three words in
dispute,
Ill fares the better oft
When the worse man wields a sword.

126. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
A shoemaker be, | or a maker of shafts,
For only thy single self;
If the shoe is ill made, | or the shaft prove false,
Then evil of thee men think.

127. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
If evil thou knowest, | as evil proclaim it,
And make no friendship with foes.

128. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest, [57]
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
In evil never | joy shalt thou know,
But glad the good shall make thee.

129. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Look not up | when the battle is on,—
(Like madmen the sons | of men become,—)
Lest men bewitch thy wits.

130. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
If thou fain wouldst win | a woman’s love,
And gladness get from her,
Fair be thy promise | and well fulfilled;
None loathes what good he gets.

131. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
I bid thee be wary, | but be not fearful;
(Beware most with ale | or another’s wife,
And third beware | lest a thief outwit thee.)

[58]

132. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Scorn or mocking | ne’er shalt thou make
Of a guest or a journey-goer.

133. Oft scarcely he knows | who sits in the house

What kind is the man who comes;
None so good is found | that faults he has not,
Nor so wicked that nought he is worth.

134. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Scorn not ever | the gray-haired singer,
Oft do the old speak good;
(Oft from shrivelled skin | come skillful counsels,
Though it hang with the hides,
And flap with the pelts,
And is blown with the bellies.)
[59]

135. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
Curse not thy guest, | nor show him thy gate,
Deal well with a man in want.

136. Strong is the beam | that raised must be

To give an entrance to all;
Give it a ring, | or grim will be
The wish it would work on thee.

137. I rede thee, Loddfafnir! | and hear thou my

rede,—
Profit thou hast if thou hearest,
Great thy gain if thou learnest:
When ale thou drinkest, | seek might of earth,
(For earth cures drink, | and fire cures ills,
The oak cures tightness, | the ear cures magic,
Rye cures rupture, | the moon cures rage,
Grass cures the scab, | and runes the sword-cut;)
The field absorbs the flood.

[60]

138. Now are Hor’s words | spoken in the hall,

 Kind for the kindred of men,
Cursed for the kindred of giants:
Hail to the speaker, | and to him who learns!
Profit be his who has them!
Hail to them who hearken

* * * * * *

139. I ween that I hung | on the windy tree,

Hung there for nights full nine;
With the spear I was wounded, | and offered I was
To Othin, myself to myself,
On the tree that none | may ever know
What root beneath it runs.

[61]

140. None made me happy | with loaf or horn,

And there below I looked;
I took up the runes, | shrieking I took them,
And forthwith back I fell.

141. Nine mighty songs | I got from the son

Of Bolthorn, Bestla’s father;
And a drink I got | of the goodly mead
Poured out from Othrörir.

142. Then began I to thrive, | and wisdom to get,

 I grew and well I was;
Each word led me on | to another word,
Each deed to another deed.

143. Runes shalt thou find, | and fateful signs,

That the king of singers colored,
And the mighty gods have made; [62]
Full strong the signs, | full mighty the signs
That the ruler of gods doth write.

144. Othin for the gods, | Dain for the elves,

And Dvalin for the dwarfs,
Alsvith for giants | and all mankind,
And some myself I wrote.

145. Knowest how one shall write, | knowest how

one shall rede?
Knowest how one shall tint, | knowest how one
makes trial?
Knowest how one shall ask, | knowest how one
shall offer?
Knowest how one shall send, | knowest how one
shall sacrifice?

[63]

146. Better no prayer | than too big an offering,

By thy getting measure thy gift;
Better is none | than too big a sacrifice,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
So Thund of old wrote | ere man’s race began,
Where he rose on high | when home he came.

* * * * * *

147. The songs I know | that king’s wives know

not,
Nor men that are sons of men;
The first is called help, | and help it can bring thee
In sorrow and pain and sickness.

148. A second I know, | that men shall need

Who leechcraft long to use;
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[64]

149. A third I know, | if great is my need

Of fetters to hold my foe;
Blunt do I make | mine enemy’s blade,
Nor bites his sword or staff.

150. A fourth I know, | if men shall fasten

Bonds on my bended legs;
So great is the charm | that forth I may go,
 The fetters spring from my feet,
Broken the bonds from my hands.

151. A fifth I know, | if I see from afar

An arrow fly ’gainst the folk;
It flies not so swift | that I stop it not,
If ever my eyes behold it.

152. A sixth I know, | if harm one seeks

With a sapling’s roots to send me;
The hero himself | who wreaks his hate
Shall taste the ill ere I.

153. A seventh I know, | if I see in flames

The hall o’er my comrades’ heads;
It burns not so wide | that I will not quench it,
I know that song to sing.

[65]

154. An eighth I know, | that is to all

Of greatest good to learn;
When hatred grows | among heroes’ sons,
I soon can set it right.

155. A ninth I know, | if need there comes

To shelter my ship on the flood;
The wind I calm | upon the waves,
 And the sea I put to sleep.

156. A tenth I know, | what time I see

House-riders flying on high;
So can I work | that wildly they go,
Showing their true shapes,
Hence to their own homes.

157. An eleventh I know, | if needs I must lead

To the fight my long-loved friends;
I sing in the shields, | and in strength they go
Whole to the field of fight,
Whole from the field of fight,
And whole they come thence home.

158. A twelfth I know, | if high on a tree

I see a hanged man swing; [66]
So do I write | and color the runes
That forth he fares,
And to me talks.

159. A thirteenth I know, | if a thane full young

With water I sprinkle well;
He shall not fall, | though he fares mid the host,
Nor sink beneath the swords.

160. A fourteenth I know, | if fain I would name

To men the mighty gods;
All know I well | of the gods and elves,—
Few be the fools know this.

161. A fifteenth I know, | that before the doors

Of Delling sang Thjothrörir the dwarf;
Might he sang for the gods, | and glory for elves,
And wisdom for Hroptatyr wise.

162. A sixteenth I know, | if I seek delight

To win from a maiden wise;
The mind I turn | of the white-armed maid,
And thus change all her thoughts.

[67]

163. A seventeenth I know, | so that seldom shall

go
A maiden young from me;
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

164. Long these songs | thou shalt, Loddfafnir,

Seek in vain to sing;
Yet good it were | if thou mightest get them,
Well, if thou wouldst them learn,
Help, if thou hadst them.

165. An eighteenth I know, | that ne’er will I tell

 To maiden or wife of man,—
The best is what none | but one’s self doth know,
So comes the end of the songs,—
Save only to her | in whose arms I lie,
Or who else my sister is.

[28]

[Contents]

NOTES
1. This stanza is quoted by Snorri, the second line being omitted in
most of the Prose Edda manuscripts.

2. Probably the first and second lines had originally nothing to do

with the third and fourth, the last two not referring to host or guest,
but to the general danger of backing one’s views with the sword. [30]

6. Lines 5 and 6 appear to have been added to the stanza. [31]

12. Some editors have combined this stanza in various ways with the
last two lines of stanza 11, as in the manuscript the first two lines of
the latter are abbreviated, and, if they belong there at all, are
presumably identical with the first two lines of stanza 10. [32]

13. The heron: the bird of forgetfulness, referred to in line 1.

Gunnloth: the daughter of the giant Suttung, from whom Othin won
the mead of poetry. For this episode see stanzas 104–110.
14. Fjalar: apparently another name for Suttung. This stanza, and
probably 13, seem to have been inserted as illustrative. [34]

25. The first two lines are abbreviated in the manuscript, but are
doubtless identical with the first two lines of stanza 24.

27. The last two lines were probably added as a commentary on

lines 3 and 4. [36]

36. The manuscript has “little” in place of “a hut” in line 1, but this
involves an error in the initial-rhymes, and the emendation has been
generally accepted.

37. Lines 1 and 2 are abbreviated in the manuscript, but are

doubtless identical with the first two lines of stanza 36.

39. In the manuscript this stanza follows stanza 40. [37]

40. The key-word in line 3 is missing in the manuscript, but editors

have agreed in inserting a word meaning “generous.”

41. In line 3 the manuscript adds “givers again” to “gift-givers.” [39]

55–56. The first pairs of lines are abbreviated in the manuscript. [40]

61. The fifth line is probably a spurious addition. [41]

62. This stanza follows stanza 63 in the manuscript, but there are
marks therein indicating the transposition.

65. The manuscript indicates no lacuna (lines 1 and 2). Many editors
have filled out the stanza with two lines from late paper manuscripts,
the passage running:

“A man must be watchful | and wary as well,

And fearful of trusting a friend.”

[42]
70. The manuscript has “and a worthy life” in place of “than to lie a
corpse” in line 1, but Rask suggested the emendation as early as
1818, and most editors have followed him. [43]

73–74. These seven lines are obviously a jumble. The two lines of
stanza 73 not only appear out of place, but the verse-form is unlike
that of the surrounding stanzas. In 74, the second line is clearly
interpolated, and line 1 has little enough connection with lines 3, 4
and 5. It looks as though some compiler (or copyist) had inserted
here various odds and ends for which he could find no better place.

75. The word “gold” in line 2 is more or less conjectural, the

manuscript being obscure. The reading in line 4 is also doubtful. [44]

76. In the manuscript this stanza follows 78, the order being: 77, 78,
76, 80, 79, 81. Fitjung (“the Nourisher”): Earth.

79. This stanza is certainly in bad shape, and probably out of place
here. Its reference to runes as magic signs suggests that it properly
belongs in some list of charms like the Ljothatal (stanzas 147–165).
The stanza-form is so irregular as to show either that something has
been lost or that there have been interpolations. The manuscript
indicates no lacuna; Gering fills out the assumed gap as follows:

“Certain is that | which is sought from runes,

The runes—,” etc.

[45]

81. With this stanza the verse-form, as indicated in the translation,

abruptly changes to Malahattr. What has happened seems to have
been something like this. Stanza 80 introduces the idea of man’s
love for woman. Consequently some reciter or compiler (or possibly
even a copyist) took occasion to insert at this point certain stanzas
concerning the ways of women. Thus stanza 80 would account for
the introduction of stanzas 81 and 82, which, in turn, apparently drew
stanza 83 in with them. Stanza 84 suggests the fickleness of women,
and is immediately followed—again with a change of verse-form—by
a list of things equally untrustworthy (stanzas 85–90). Then, after a
few more stanzas on love in the regular measure of the Hovamol
(stanzas 91–95), is introduced, by way of illustration, Othin’s story of
his [46]adventure with Billing’s daughter (stanzas 96–102). Some
such process of growth, whatever its specific stages may have been,
must be assumed to account for the curious chaos of the whole
passage from stanza 81 to stanza 102.

84. Lines 3 and 4 are quoted in the Fostbræthrasaga.

85. Stanzas 85–88 and 90 are in Fornyrthislag, and clearly come

from a different source from the rest of the Hovamol.

87. The stanza is doubtless incomplete. Some editors add from a

late paper manuscript two lines running:

“In a light, clear sky | or a laughing throng,

In the howl of a dog | or a harlot’s grief.”

[47]

88. This stanza follows stanza 89 in the manuscript. Many editors

have changed the order, for while stanza 89 is pretty clearly an
interpolation wherever it stands, it seriously interferes with the sense
if it breaks in between 87 and 88. [48]

96. Here begins the passage (stanzas 96–102) illustrating the

falseness of woman by the story of Othin’s unsuccessful love-affair
with Billing’s daughter. Of this person we know nothing beyond what
is here told, but the story needs little comment. [49]

102. Rask adds at the beginning of this stanza two lines from a late
paper manuscript, running:

“Few are so good | that false they are never

To cheat the mind of a man.”
He makes these two lines plus lines 1 and 2 a full stanza, and lines
3, 4, 5, and 6 a second stanza. [50]

103. With this stanza the subject changes abruptly, and apparently
the virtues of fair speech, mentioned in the last three lines, account
for the introduction, from what source cannot be known, of the story
of Othin and the mead of song (stanzas 104–110).

104. The giant Suttung (“the old giant”) possessed the magic mead,
a draught of which conferred the gift of poetry. Othin, desiring to
obtain it, changed himself into a snake, bored his way through a
mountain into Suttung’s home, made love to the giant’s daughter,
Gunnloth, and by her connivance drank up all the mead. Then he
flew away in the form of an eagle, leaving Gunnloth to her fate. While
with Suttung he assumed the name of Bolverk (“the Evil-Doer”).

105. Rati (“the Traveller”): the gimlet with which Othin bored through
the mountain to reach Suttung’s home. [51]

106. Probably either the fourth or the fifth line is a spurious addition.

107. Othrörir: here the name of the magic mead itself, whereas in
stanza 141 it is the name of the vessel containing it. Othin had no
intention of bestowing any of the precious mead upon men, but as
he was flying over the earth, hotly pursued by Suttung, he spilled
some of it out of his mouth, and in this way mankind also won the gift
of poetry.

109. Hor: Othin (“the High One”). The frost-giants, Suttung’s

kinsmen, appear not to have suspected Othin of being [52]identical
with Bolverk, possibly because the oath referred to in stanza 110
was an oath made by Othin to Suttung that there was no such
person as Bolverk among the gods. The giants, of course, fail to get
from Othin the information they seek concerning Bolverk, but Othin is
keenly conscious of having violated the most sacred of oaths, that
sworn on his ring.
111. With this stanza begins the Loddfafnismol (stanzas 111–138).
Loddfafnir is apparently a wandering singer, who, from his “chanter’s
stool,” recites the verses which he claims to have received from
Othin. Wells of Urth: cf. Voluspo, 19 and note. Urth (“the Past”) is
one of the three Norns. This stanza is apparently in corrupt form, and
editors have tried many experiments with it, both in rejecting lines as
spurious and in rearranging the words and punctuation. It looks
rather as though the first four lines formed a complete stanza, and
the last four had [53]crept in later. The phrase translated “the speech
of Hor” is “Hova mol,” later used as the title for the entire poem.

112. Lines 1–3 are the formula, repeated (abbreviated in the

manuscript) in most of the stanzas, with which Othin prefaces his
counsels to Loddfafnir, and throughout this section, except in
stanzas 111 and 138, Loddfafnir represents himself as simply
quoting Othin’s words. The material is closely analogous to that
contained in the first eighty stanzas of the poem. In some cases
(e.g., stanzas 117, 119, 121, 126 and 130) the formula precedes a
full four-line stanza instead of two (or three) lines. [57]

129. Line 5 is apparently interpolated.

131. Lines 5–6 probably were inserted from a different poem. [58]

133. Many editors reject the last two lines of this stanza as spurious,
putting the first two lines at the end of the preceding stanza. Others,
attaching lines 3 and 4 to stanza 132, insert as the first two lines of
stanza 133 two lines from a late paper manuscript, running:

“Evil and good | do men’s sons ever

Mingled bear in their breasts.”

134. Presumably the last four lines have been added to this stanza,
for the parallelism in the last three makes it probable that they
belong together. The wrinkled skin of the old man is [59]compared
with the dried skins and bellies of animals kept for various purposes
hanging in an Icelandic house.
136. This stanza suggests the dangers of too much hospitality. The
beam (bolt) which is ever being raised to admit guests becomes
weak thereby. It needs a ring to help it in keeping the door closed,
and without the ability at times to ward off guests a man becomes
the victim of his own generosity.

137. The list of “household remedies” in this stanza is doubtless

interpolated. Their nature needs no comment here. [60]

138. In the manuscript this stanza comes at the end of the entire
poem, following stanza 165. Most recent editors have followed
Müllenhoff in shifting it to this position, as it appears to conclude the
passage introduced by the somewhat similar stanza III.

139. With this stanza begins the most confusing part of the Hovamol:
the group of eight stanzas leading up to the Ljothatal, or list of
charms. Certain paper manuscripts have before this stanza a title:
“Othin’s Tale of the Runes.” Apparently stanzas 139, 140 and 142
are fragments of an account of how Othin obtained the runes; 141 is
erroneously inserted from some version of the magic mead story (cf.
stanzas 104–110); and stanzas 143, 144, 145, and 146 are from
miscellaneous sources, all, however, dealing with the general subject
of runes. With stanza 147 a clearly continuous passage begins once
more. The windy tree: the ash Yggdrasil (literally “the Horse of
Othin,” so called because of this story), on which Othin, in order to
win the magic runes, hanged himself as an offering to himself, and
wounded himself with his own spear. Lines 5 and 6 have presumably
been borrowed from Svipdagsmol, 30. [61]

141. This stanza, interrupting as it does the account of Othin’s

winning the runes, appears to be an interpolation. The meaning of
the stanza is most obscure. Bolthorn was Othin’s grandfather, and
Bestla his mother. We do not know the name of the uncle here
mentioned, but it has been suggested that this son of Bolthorn was
Mimir (cf. Voluspo, 27 and note, and 47 and note). In any case, the
nine magic songs which he learned from his uncle seem to have