PSP MODULE 3 Diffl Gener Trans Bus

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
21EEE161
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
2023-2024
B.N.M. Institute of Technology

CONTENT
Module 1: Introduction to Power System Protection
Module-2: Overcurrent Protection
Distance Protection
Module-3: Differential Protection
Generator Protection
Transformer
Bus zone Protection
Module-4: Circuit Breakers
Module-5: Protection against Over voltages
Module-3:
 Differential Protection
 Generator Protection
 Transformer
 Bus zone Protection
Differential Protection
• In this simple scheme, under normal operating conditions, the current entering into the
piece of equipment under protection is equal (or in the case of a transformer,
proportional) to its exiting current.
• In this example we will assume that the entry and exit currents are equal.
• A circuit breaker either side of the equipment under protection is controlled by an
overcurrent relay.
• Current transformers of identical types and turns ratio are installed on either side of
the equipment.
• These current transformers induce identical secondary currents, because their primary
currents are identical and they have the same turns ratio.
• By simple inspection of the diagram, it is clear to see that under these circumstances no
spill current will flow through the relay, therefore no trip signals will be generated.
• When the fault occurs

• Consider a fault internal to the equipment.
• A large current would flow through the fault, thus the current exiting the equipment would
rapidly reduce resulting in a reduced secondary current in CT B.
• This would cause a current to flow through the relay, which would be of a magnitude
sufficient to trip the circuit breakers.
• Consider an external fault at F as shown in Figure
• The current exiting the equipment, albeit large, is still the same as the current entering it,
therefore the relay will not trip.
• This is because, because faults external to the equipment are in a different protection
zone and are protected within another scheme. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ML6Dz1qHs6w
This system is operating in either of the two following principles:
1. Current balance principle.
2. Voltage balance principle.
Differential protection is applicable to all parts of the power system:

1. Generator.
2. Transformers.
3. Motors.
4. Buses.
5. Lines and feeders.
6. Reactors and capacitors
Current Balance Differential protection
Operation during internal and external fault conditions
• Fig.1, shows the basic current differential protection based on current balance principle
• At normal conditions and for external fault at F, CT1 and CT2 circulate currents at their
secondary’s Is1 and Is2 (Is1 =Is2) and no current flow through the relay (ΔI = Is1 - Is2 = 0),
hence the relay will not operate.

Current Balance Differential protection
Operation during internal and external fault conditions
• If fault occurs at point F within the protected zone (internal fault) as shown in Fig, and the fault
is fed from both sides, then current through C.T2 will be reversed.
• Therefore a current ΔI = Is1 + Is2 will flow in the operating winding of the relay.
• This will cause the relay to trip the circuit breaker connected to the faulty system.
• Hence the relay trips when
Voltage Balanced Differential Protection
• The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the feeders.
• For the protection of the feeders, the voltage balance differential relays are used.
• The voltage differential relay uses two similar current transformer places across the
protective zone with the help of pilot wire.
Voltage Balanced Differential Protection
• The relays are connected in series with the secondary of the current transformer.
• The relays are connected in such a way that no current flows through it in the normal
operating condition.
• The voltage balance differential relay uses the air core CTs in which the voltages induces
regarding current.
• When the fault occurs in the protection zone, the current in the CTs become
unbalance because of which the voltage in the secondary of the CTs disturbs.
• The current starts flowing through the operating coil.
• Thus, the relay starts operating and gives the command to the circuit breaker to operates.
Disadvantages of Simple Differential Relay:
1. There may be a probability of mismatching in cable impedance from CT
secondary to the remote relay panel.
2. These pilot cables’ capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when
large through fault occurs external to the equipment.
3. Accurate matching of characteristics of current transformer cannot be
achieved hence there may be spill current flowing through the relay in normal
operating conditions. This occurs due to constructional error and pilot cable
impedance.
4. Mal-operation of relays due to currents circulating vis path other than the main
pilot loop
Disadvantages of Simple Differential Relay:
5.During large external fault conditions, large primary current flowing through the
CTs causes unequal currents in their secondaries due to inherent difference in the CT
characteristics and unequal dc offset components in the fault currents.
6.If CTs have different saturation levels, their ratio and phase angle errors will be
different, hence difference in magnitude or phase angle of current results in
differential current flowing through the relay.
Characteristics of Simple Differential Relay:
The fault current is maximum under following conditions:
(i) Symmetrical 3 phase fault
(ii) Fault is close to transformer terminals
(iii) Source impedance is minimum
The fault current is minimum under following conditions:

(i) Single line to ground fault
(ii) LG fault very close to grounded level
(iii) Source impedance is maximum
Characteristics of Simple Differential Relay:
Consider I1 is current entering the protected zone, I2 is current leaving the.
The difference current flowing through the relay is (I1s – I2s).
Under normal operating conditions (I1s – I2s) = 0
If internal fault occurs (I1s – I2s) ≠ 0
For external fault : I1s = I2s
The relay operates when the differential current (I1s – I2s) exceeds the pick value I (pickup)
Internal Fault Characteristics:
If I1s = 0 and I2s = 0, then (I1s – I2s) = I1s = I’f
External Fault Characteristics:
Stability and Stability Ratio :
𝐼𝐹𝘍 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥
Stability Ratio = 𝐼𝐹𝘍 𝑚 𝑖
𝑛
Percentage Differential Current Relay
• This relay has an operating winding and two restraining winding connected as shown in
Fig..
• The function of the restraining windings is to prevent undesired relay operation
should a current flow in the operating winding due to CT during external fault.
• The relay operates if the operating torque produced by the operating coil is more than the restraining torque
produced by the restraining coil.
• As the torque is proportional to the ampere-turns (AT), the relay will operate when the ampere-turns of the
operating coil (AT)0, will be greater than ampere-turns of the restraining coil, (AT)r.
Stability and Stability Ratio :

Settings of Percentage Differential Relay
The percentage differential relay has following two types of settings.
(i) Basic Setting or Sensitivity Setting : Basic setting of the relay is the minimum current in the operating
coil only (zero bias) which will operate the relay. It is expressed as a percentage of rated current. It is defined
as follows:
(ii) Bias Setting : The bias (K ) of the relay is the ratio of the number of turns in the restraining coil (Nr)
to the number of turns in the operating coil (N0). It can also be defined as the ratio of minimum current
through operating coil for causing operation to the restraining current. It can be expressed as
Typical values of bias setting might be 10% for generator and 20 to 40% for transformer (the higher
bias values are used for tap-changing transformers).
Bias Setting of Percentage Differential Relay
•Figure shows the tapping on the restraining coil for adjusting the bias (slope) of the relay.
•The bias (slope) is adjusted by changing the tapping on the restraining coil.
•Both halves of the restraining coil must be symmetrically tapped.
Three-Terminal System-Application of a Percentage-Differential Relay:
• Percentage-differential relay protection can be applied to the system elements having more than
two terminals, as in the three-terminal application shown in Fig..
• Each of the three restraining coils has the same number of turns, and each coil develops a
torque independently of others.
• Their torques is added arithmetically.
• The percent slope characteristic for such a relay will vary with the distribution of currents
between the three restraining coils
• Percentage-differential relays are generally
instantaneous or high speed. Time delay is not required
for selectivity because the percentage-differential
characteristic makes these relays immune to the effects
of transients when the relays are properly applied.
Module-3:
 Transformer
Rotating Machines Protection
Basic Construction Generator
PROTECTION OF GENERATORS
(i) Stator Protection
a) Percentage Differential Protection
b) Protection against Stator Inter Turn fault
c) Stator overheating protection
(ii) Rotor Protection
a) Field ground fault protection (Rotor Earth Fault)
b) Loss of excitation protection
c) Protection against rotor overheating because of unbalanced three phase stator
current
(iii) Miscellaneous
a) Overvoltage protection
b) Over-speed protection
c) Protection against Motoring
d) Protection against vibration
e) Bearing overheating protection
f) Protection against auxiliary failure
g) Protection against voltage regulator failure
b) Protection against Stator Inter Turn fault
c) Stator overheating protection
• Any internal fault inside the stator winding is cleared by mainly differential protection
scheme of the generator or alternator.
• The differential protection is provided in the generator by using longitudinal
differential relay.
• There are two sets of current transformers, one CT is connected to the line side of the
generator and other is connected to the neutral side of the generator in each phase.
• It is needless to say that the characteristics of all current transformers installed against each
phase must be matched.
• If there is any major mismatched in the current transformer’s characteristics of both sides of
the generator, there may be high chance of malfunctioning of differential relay during the
fault external to the stator winding and also may be during normal operating conditions of
the generator.
• To ensure that the relay does not operate for the faults external to the operated zone of the
protection scheme, a stabilizing resistor is fitted in series with the relay operating oil.
• It also ensures that if one set of CT has been saturated, there will be no possibility of
malfunctioning of the differential relay.
• Consider the fault occurs on the R phase of the network because of the insulation
breakdown.
• Because of the fault, the current in the secondary of the transformer becomes unequal.
• The differential currents flow through the relay coil.
• Thus, the relay becomes operative and gives the command to the circuit breaker for
operation.
• If the fault occurs between any two phases, say Y and B then short-circuit current
flows through these phases.
• Due to fault, unbalanced current flows through CTs.
• The differential current flows through the relay operating coil and thus relay trips their
contacts. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9RHWY3IJ--0
Problems Associated with Differential Protection System
• A neutral resistance wire is used in the differential protection system for avoiding the
adverse effect of earth fault currents.
• When an earth fault occurs near the neutral, it will cause a small, short circuit current
to flow through the neutral point because of small emf.
• This current is further reduced by the resistance of the neutral grounding.

• Thus, the small current will flow through the relay.
• This small current will not operate the relay coil, and hence the generator gets
damage.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
• Earth fault is the unintended fault between the live conductor and the earth.
• It also occurs, because of the insulation breakdown.
• When the fault occurs, the short-circuit currents flow through the system, and this
current is returned through the earth or any electrical equipment.
• This fault current damages the equipment of the power system and interrupts the
continuity of the supply.
• The earth fault can be isolated by using the restricted earth fault protection
scheme.
• The earth fault protection scheme consists the earth fault relay, which gives the tripping
command to the circuit breaker and hence restrict the fault current.
• The earth fault relay is placed in the residual part of the current transformers
shown in the figure below
• The connection of earth fault relay with the star or delta winding of the transformer is
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BN03zOYMpQk
• The connection of earth fault relay with the star or delta winding of the transformer is
• The current transformers are placed on both sides of the protective zone.
• The secondary terminal of the current transformer is connected in parallel with the relay.
• The output of the current transformer is equal to the zero sequence current flows in
the line.
• The zero sequence current is absent for the external fault and for the internal fault it
becomes twice the value of fault current.
• Let F1 be the external fault occurs in the network.
• This fault induces the I1 and I2 current which flows in the secondary of the CTs.
• The resultant current of the I1 and I2 becomes zero.
• When the fault occurs inside the protective zone say F2, then only current I2 exist, and I1 is
neglected.
• The current I2 passes through the earth fault relay.
• The earth fault relay operates only for the internal fault of the protective zone.
• The earth fault relay must be very sensitive for sensing the fault.
• The relay is designed for sensing the fault current which is 15% more than that of the
rated winding current
• Such settings protect a restricted portion of the winding.

• Hence the name restricted earth fault protection.
• The stabilising resistor is connected in series with the relay for avoiding the
magnetising inrush current.
Change 1 A to 2 A and calculate
percentage of the generator
winding will be protected
Change 20% to 15% and
calculate the value of the
resistance to be placed in the
neutral to ground connection
Inter Turn Fault Protection of
Stator Winding of Generator
• Inter turn stator winding fault can easily be

detected by stator differential protection or
stator earth fault protection.
• Hence, it is not very essential to provide special
protection scheme for inter turn faults occurred
in stator winding.
• This type of faults is generated if the insulation
between conductors (with different potential)
in the same slot is punctured.
• This type of fault rapidly changes to earth fault.

• The high voltage generator contains a large number of conductors per slot in the stator
winding hence, in these cases the additional inter turn fault protection of the stator winding
may be essential.
• Moreover in modern practice, inter turn protection is becoming essential for all large
generating units
• Several methods can be adopted for providing inter turn protection to the stator winding of
generator.
• Cross differential methods is most common among them.
• In this scheme the winding for each phase is divided into two parallel paths.
• Each of the paths is fitted with identical current transformer.

• The secondary of these current transformers are connected in cross.
• The current transformer secondary’s are cross connected because currents at the primary
of both CTs are entering unlike the case of differential protection of transformer where
current entering from one side and leaving to other side of the transformer.
• The differential relay along with series stabilizing resistor are connected across the CT
secondary loop as shown in the figure.
• If any inter turn fault occurs in any path of the stator winding, there will be an unbalanced in the
CT secondary circuits thereby actuates differential relay (R1).
• Cross differential protection scheme should be applied in each of the phases individually as
shown.
Stator Overheating Protection
• Generally stator overheating is caused by sustained overloads or by cooling system
failure.
• Overheating because of short-circuited laminations is very localized, and it can be
detected before serious damage is caused.
• It is not practicable to provide overload protection by backup stator fault overcurrent
protection as backup overcurrent protection is usually set for sensing fault currents and
should not trip for overloads.
• Electrical overcurrent relays cannot sense the winding temperature accurately because
temperature rise depends on I2Rt and also on cooling.
• Electrical protection cannot detect failure of the cooling system.
• The practice is to embed resistance temperature-detector coils or thermocouples in the slots
below the stator coils of the generators of large capacity (above 1 MVA) for protection
against overheating.
• Large number of such detectors are located at different places in the windings so that an
indication can be obtained of the temperature conditions throughout the stator.
• Several of the detectors that provide the highest temperature indication are selected for use
with temperature indicator or recorder usually having alarm contacts, or the detector
providing the highest indication may be arranged to operate a temperature relay to
sound alarm.
• Supplementary temperature devices may be provided for monitoring the cooling system;
such devices would give the earliest alarm in the event of failure of cooling system.
• But it is usually realized that the stator temperature detectors and alarm devices are sufficient
• The most reliable method of detecting such a condition is by means of temperature
detector coils embedded at various points in the stator winding arranged to provide an
indication of the temperature conditions which exist over the stator winding.
• Temperature detectors may be either thermocouples, thermistors, or resistance

temperature detectors.
• The temperature detector coil forms one arm of the Wheatstone bridge circuit as
shown in Fig
• This type of Overload Protection Relay has a bimetallic strip heated by secondary
current from the stator, the housing of the bimetallic strip is designed to have a heating
and cooling characteristic similar to that of the machine.
• Such a Overload Protection Relay will however provide no protection against
overheating due to the failure of the cooling system.
Rotor Earth Fault Protection of Alternator or Generator
• The rotor of the generator is normally unearthed i.e. remain isolated from the earth and
therefore the single fault due to insulation breakdown will not rise the fault current.
• A single fault will not affect the rotor, but if the fault occurs, continues then it will damage
the field winding of the generator.
• For a large generator, the rotor earth fault protection system is used for the protection of
the field winding.
• When the one earth fault occurs in the rotor then it is not necessary that the system is
completely trip, only the relay indicates that the fault has occurred.
• So that the generator should be taken out of service at leisure.
• The methods of rotor earth fault protection are explained below.
• Rotor Earth Fault Protection By Using High Resistance
• In this method, a high resistance is connected across the field winding of the rotor.
• The midpoint of the resistor is grounded through a sensitive relay.
• When the fault occurs the relay detect the fault and send the tripping command to
the breaker.
• The major disadvantage of such type of system it that it can detect the fault for most
of the rotor circuit except the rotor centre point.
• This difficulty can be overcome by shifting the

tap on the resistor from centre to somewhere else.
• Thus, the relay can detect the midpoint fault of

the rotor.
• AC and DC Injection Methods for Rotor Earth Fault Protection
• In this method, alternating current is injected into the field winding circuit and ground along
with a sensitive overvoltage relay and a current limiting capacitor.
• A single earth fault in the rotor will complete the circuit comprises the alternating current
source, sensitive relay and earth fault.
• Thus, the earth fault is sensed by the relay.
• The major disadvantage of such type of system is the leakage current that flows through the
capacitor.
• This current unbalanced the magnetic field and increase the stress on the magnetic bearing.
• Another disadvantage of alternating current is that the relay cannot pick up the current that
normally flow through the capacitance to the ground.
• Thus, the care must be taken to avoid resonance between the capacitance and the relay
inductance.
• The problem of the AC injection system can be
overcome by using the DC injection method.
• This method is simple and has no problem of leakage
currents.
• The one terminal of the sensitive relay is connected to
the exciter, and the other terminal is connected to the
negative terminal of the DC source.
• The positive terminal of the DC source is grounded.

When the earth fault occurs, the fault current will
complete the circuit path, and the fault is sensed by
the relay.
Loss of Excitation Protection
• Two distinct effects of Loss of Excitation Protection are that the machine starts drawing
magnetizing current of large magnitude from the system, and the slip frequency emfs
induced in the rotor circuit; both of them cause overheating of the rotor.
• Loss of Excitation Protection can be detected by measuring the reactive component of
stator current; an excessive value of VAR import indicates either actual or prospective
loss of synchronism.
• To allow for system transients which may cause a

momentary reversal of VAR component it is
usual to incorporate a fixed time delay of
between one and five seconds in the tripping
sequence of the relay.
• It can also be detected by an undercurrent moving coil relay in the field circuit, but some
large generators operate over a very wide range of field excitation .
• Furthermore, field failure due to exciter failure may not be detected because the
undercurrent relay may be held in by a.c. induced from the stator.
• An undercurrent relay fast enough to drop out on a.c. cannot be used because it would be
affected by a.c. induced during synchronizing and during external faults.
• An alternative solution is to apply an offset impedance or mho measuring relay at the
generator terminals.
• Its operating characteristic is arranged as shown in Fig., so that during conditions of
extremely low excitation or complete loss of excitation the equivalent
generator impedance falls within the tripping zone.
• For larger machines, it is recommended to trip the machine after a certain prescribed delay in
presence of swing condition resulting from loss of field.
• In addition to that there must be subsequent load shedding to maintain stability of the
system.
• In this scheme of protection, an automatic imposition of load shedding to the system is
also inherently required if the field is not restored within the described time delay.
• The scheme comprises an offset mho relay, and an instantaneous under voltage relay.
• It is not always required to isolate the generator immediately in the event of loss of field,
unless there is a significant disturb in system stability.
• System voltage is the main indication of system stability.
• Therefore the offset mho relay is arranged to shut the machine down instantaneously when
operation of generator is accompanied by a system voltage collapse.
• The drop in system voltage is detected by an under voltage relay which is set to
approximately 70 % of normal rated system voltage.
• The offset mho relay is arranged to initiate load shedding to the system up to a safe
value and then to initiate a master tripping relay after a predetermined time.
Protection Against Unbalanced Stator Currents
• Unbalanced Loading Protection of Generator – Irrespective of the cause of unbalance, the
negative phase sequence current will result in heating of the stator.
• In case of high-speed turbo-generators, the continuous current which can be carried is usually
between 10 and 15% of the positive sequence continuous rating.
• The negative sequence heating follows a normal resistance law and hence is proportional to
the square of the current.
• The heating time constant of the machine is largely a function of the cooling system employed.
•This is expressed by a rating equation:
where
I2 – is the negative sequence current expressed on a per unit basis of continuous maximum
rating (CMR),
t – is the current duration in seconds, and
K – is a constant which for turbo type machines will usually have a value between 3 and 20
it is 60 for salient pole hydro generator
• The problem of protecting against this condition lies in obtaining a relay characteristic
which will accurately match this heating characteristic.
• The usual arrangement is an inverse with definite minimum time delay relay connected to a
network which segregates the negative sequence current from the positive and zero sequence
current Fig.
• The relay has a long operating time and has a range of settings to allow its characteristic to
be accurately matched to those of the machine.
• The typical time range is 0.2 sec to 2000 sec
• The Relay consists of special electromagnet, shaded pole construction with a Mu metal
shunt.
• The NPS filter gives an output proportional to I2, that actuates an alarm as well as time
current relay, with very inverse characteristics.
• Timer is adjustable for 8% to 40% of negative sequence component, the delay prevents
unnecessary sounding of alarm on unbalanced loads of short duration
(iii) Miscellaneous
a) Overvoltage protection
b) Over-speed protection
c) Protection against Motoring
d) Protection against vibration
e) Bearing overheating protection
f) Protection against auxiliary failure
g) Protection against voltage regulator failure
REFER TO TEXT BOOK:
BADRI RAM & VISHWAKARMA- Page 359 to 361
(a) Overvoltage Protection
Overvoltage may be caused by a defective voltage regulator or it may occur due to sudden loss of electrical
load on generators. When a load is lost, there is an increase in speed and hence the voltage also increases. In
case of a steam power station, it is possible to bypass the steam before the speed reaches a limit above which
a dangerous overvoltage can be produced. In steam power stations, the automatic voltage regulator controls
the overvoltages which is associated with overspeed. In hydro-stations it is not possible to stop or divert
water flow so quickly and overspeed may occur. Therefore, overvoltage relays are provided with hydro and
gas-turbine sets. But overvoltage relays are not commonly used with turbo-alternators.
(b) Over speed Protection

A turbo-generator is provided with a mechanical overspeed device. The spseed governor normally controls its
speed. It is designed to prevent any speed rise even with a 100 per cent load rejection. An emergency
centrifugal overspeed device is also incorporated to trip emergency steam valves when the speed exceeds
110 percent. Large turbosets are sometimes provided with overspeed relays. In USA out of step tripping relays
are used which cut off steam when the generator is 180° out of synchronism and has slipped one pole. In UK a
sensitive fast power relay is used to determine whether the power output falls below a certain value or
reversed
Severe electrical faults also cause overspeed and hence HV circuit breakers, field circuit breakers and the
steam turbine valves are tripped simultaneously. As water flow cannot be stopped quickly, hydrosets are
provided with overspeed protection. The setting of overspeed relays for hydrosets is 140%. Overspeed relays
are also provided with gas-turbine sets.
(c) Protection against Motoring
When the steam supply is cut off, the generator runs as a motor. The steam turbine gets overheated
because insufficient steam passes through the turbine to carry away the heat generated by windage l
oss. Therefore, a protective relay is required for the protection of the steam turbine. Generally, the relay
operates when power output falls below 3%. A sensitive reverse power relay is available which has an
operating setting of about 0.5% of the generator’s output. Hydrosets sometimes require protection
against motoring. Cavitation problems arise in water turbines at low water flow. Protection is provided
by reverse power relay having an operating setting of 0.2 to 2% of the rated power. A diesel set and gas
turbine require 25% and 50% setting respectively
(d) Protection against Vibration and Distortion of Rotor
Vibration is caused by overheating of the rotor or some mechanical failure or abnormality. The
overheating of the rotor is caused due to unbalanced stator currents or rotor ground faults.
Overheating of the rotor distorts it, thereby causing eccentricity. Eccentric running produces vibration.
Protection provided for unbalanced stator currents and rotor ground faults minimise vibration. A
vibration measuring device is also used for steam turbine sets. Such a device detects the vibration which
is caused either by electrical or mechanical causes. An alarm is actuated if vibration takes place. The
vibration detector is mounted rigidly on one of the bearing pedestals of a horizontal shaft machine or on
the upper guide-bearing of vertical shaft bearing. For details see Ref. 5.
(e) Bearing Overheating Protection
Temperature of the bearing is detected by inserting a temperature sensing device in a hole in the bearing. For
large machines where lubricating oil is circulated through the bearing, an oil flow device is used to detect the
failure of oil cooling equipment. An alarm is actuated when the bearing is overheated or when the circulation
of the lubricating oil fails.
(f) Protection against Auxiliary Failure

The power plant auxiliaries are very important for the running of the generating sets. High grade protective
equipment is employed for their reliable operation. For large generating sets, protection against loss of vacuum
and loss of boiler pressure are provided. Such failures are due to the failure of the associated auxiliaries. So the
protection provided for the loss of vacuum and loss of boiler pressure provides to some extent protection
against the auxiliary failure. In the case of such failures generating sets are shut down. Protection against the
failure of induced draught fans is also provided.
(g) Protection against Voltage Regulator Failure
Modern quick response automatic voltage regulators are very complex. They are subject to component failures.
Suitable protective devices are provided against their failure. A definite time dc overcurrent relay is provided
which operates when there is overcurrent in the rotor circuit for a period longer than a prescribed limit. In such a
situation, the excitation is switched to a predetermined value for manual control. The supply for the regulator
reference voltage is given from a separate voltage transformer. Protection is also required against the failure of the
regulator reference voltage. An under voltage relay is used for this purpose. A better approach is to use a voltage
balance relay which compares the voltage derived from the instrument transformer with the voltage derived from
the voltage regulator transformer. If there is mal-operation of the voltage regulator due to the failure of the
reference voltage, the relay operates and switches the excitation to a predetermined value for manual control.
(h) Protection against Pole Slipping

In case of system disturbances after the operation of circuit breaker or when heavy load is thrown or switched on,
the generator rotor may oscillate. Consequently, variations in current, voltage and power factor may take place.
Such oscillations may disappear in a few seconds. Therefore, in such a situation, tripping is not desired. In some
cases, angular displacement of the rotor exceeds the stability limit and the rotor slips a pole pitch. If the
disturbance is over, the generator may regain synchronism. If it does not, it should be tripped. An alternative
approach is to trip the field switch and allow the machine to run as an asynchronous machine, thereby removing
the oscillations from the machine. Then the load is reduced to a low value at which the machine can re-
synchronise itself. If the machine does not re-synchronise, the field switch is reclosed at the minimum excitation
setting. This will cause the machine to re-synchronise smoothly
(i) Field Suppression
When a fault occurs in the generator winding, the circuit breaker trips and the generator is isolated from the
system. However, the generator still continues to feed the fault as long as the excitation is maintained, and the
damage increases. Therefore, it is desirable to suppress the field as quickly as possible. The field cannot be
destroyed immediately. The energy asssociated with the flux must be dissipated into an external device. To
achieve this, the field winding is connected to a discharge resistor to absorb the stored energy. The discharge
resistor is connected in parallel with the field winding before opening the field circuit breaker.
(i) Back-up Protection

Overcurrent relays are used as back-up protection. As the synchronous impedance of a turbo-generator is more
than 100%, the fault current, may fall below the normal load current. Therefore, standard time-overcurrent
relays cannot be employed for back-up protection. A voltage controlled overcurrent can be employed for such a
purpose. A better alternative is to use reactance or impedance type distance relays. In addition to overcurrent
relays, the stator protection is generally supplemented by sensitive earth fault relays. Relays having inverse time
characteristic are used. An earth fault relay is connected to a CT placed in the neutral point earthing lead. This is
an unrestricted protection and hence, it is to be graded with the feeder protection.
Module-3:
 Transformer
 Transformer Protection
• The electrical windings and the magnetic core in a transformer are subject to a number of
different forces during operation:
 Expansion and contraction due to thermal cycling
 Vibration
 Local heating due to magnetic flux
 Impact forces due to through-fault current
 Excessive heating due to overloading or inadequate cooling
Other factors
 Cost of repairing damage

 Cost of lost production
 Adverse effects on the balance of the system
 The spread of damage to adjacent equipment
 The period of unavailability of the damaged equipment
Windings – Insulation deterioration from:
 Moisture
 Overheating
 Vibration
 Voltage surges
 Mechanical Stress from through-faults
Load Tap Changing Transformer

 Malfunction of mechanical switching mechanism
 High resistance contacts
 Overheating
 Contamination of insulating oil
External and Internal Faults in Transformer
Internal faults:
 insulation deterioration
 winding failure
 overheating
 contamination of oil
External faults:
 lighting strikes
 system overload
 short circuit
Differential Protection of a Transformer
• The transformer is one of the major equipment in power system.

• It is a static device, totally enclosed and usually oil immersed, and therefore the fault occurs on
them are usually rare.
• But the effect of even a rare fault may be very serious for a power transformer.
• Hence the protection of power transformer against possible fault is very important.
• The fault occurs on the transformer is mainly divided into two type external faults and
internal fault.
• External fault is cleared by the relay system outside the transformer within the shortest possible
time in order to avoid any danger to the transformer due to these faults.
• The protection for internal fault in such type of transformer is to be provided by using
differential protection system.
• Differential protection schemes are mainly used for protection against phase-to-phase fault and
phase to earth faults.
• The differential protection used for power transformers is based on Merz-Prize circulating
current principle.
• Such types of protection are generally used for transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA.
• Connection for Differential Protection for Transformer is as shown

• The power transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected on the other side.
• The CTs on the star connected side are delta-connected and those on delta-connected side
are star-connected.
• The neutral of the current transformer star connection and power transformer star
connections are grounded.
• The restraining coil is connected between the secondary winding of the current transformers.
• Restraining coils controls the sensitive activity occurs on the system.
• The operating coil is placed between the tapping point of the restraining coil and the star
point of the current transformer secondary windings.
Working of Differential Protection System:

• Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current are balanced on
both the side of the power transformers.
• When the internal fault occurs in the power transformer windings the balanced is
disturbed and the operating coils of the differential relay carry current corresponding
to the difference of the current among the two sides of the transformers.
• Thus, the relay trip the main circuit breakers on both sides of the power transformers.
Problem Associated with Differential Protection System
• When the transformer is energizing the transient inrush of magnetizing current is flows in the
transformer.
• This current is as large as 10 times full load current and its decay respectively.
• This magnetizing current is flows in the primary winding of the power transformers due to
which it causes a difference in current transformer output and it makes the differential
protection of the transformer to operate falsely.
• To overcome this problem the kick fuse is placed across the relay coil. These fuses are of the
time-limit type with an inverse characteristic and do not operate in short duration of the switch
in the surge. When the fault occurs the fuses blow out and the fault current flows through the
relay coils and operate the protection system. This problem can also be overcome by using a
relay with an inverse and definite minimum type characteristic instead of an
instantaneous type.
Harmonic Restraining in Differential Protection
• The differential relay is used for protection of transformer ,alternator and large rating HT
motor.
• The differential protection scheme is also known as a zone protection.

• The relay must trip in case of the fault in the winding of the transformer.
• If the fault is outside of the zone, the differential relay must remain inoperative.
• The transformer draws a large current at the time of switching on of the transformer at no
load.
• The large current drawn by the transformer is known as inrush current or magnetizing inrush
current
• The magnitude of the inrush current may be 8 to 10 times or even larger than this.
• The magnitude and duration of inrush current depends on the instant of the AC waveform at
which the transformer is switched on.
• The waveform of the transformer inrush current is as given below.
• The secondary current is zero and the primary current is high at
the time of charging of the transformer.
• This difference in current between primary and secondary

may lead to operation of differential protection relay.
• Thus, it is not possible to charge the transformer.
• If the protection relay is bypassed the differential protection of
the transformer will get defeated.
• Bypassing the differential protection relay is not the solution.
• The transformer generates 2nd and 5th order harmonic current at the time of charging
because of non linear B-H characteristics of magnetic flux.
• The magnetic flux in the core is not sinusoidal and transformer generates harmonics.
• The sensing of the harmonics and restraining the differential protection relay operation at
the time of charging of the transformer is one of the solution.
• This requirement is fulfilled by harmonic restraining in differential protection of the
transformer.
• The magnetizing inrush current, according to Fourier series, has 2nd and 5th order
harmonics.
• The 2nd order harmonic is rich when transformer draws magnetizing current
at the time of switching of transformer.
• The frequency of the 2nd order harmonics is 100 Hz.
• The differential relay has a 100 Hz filter circuit which measures the frequency and
the magnitude of the 2nd order harmonic current in the differential current.
• If the relay senses the current of 100 Hz frequency and if the current is more than the
differential current setting of the relay, the relay will observe that the transformer is taking
the inrush magnetizing current and the relay blocks its main tripping mechanism.
• Therefore, the 2nd order harmonic current needs to be blocked in the differential relay
because 2nd order harmonic current will operate under no fault within the transformer.
• Thus, the harmonic current blocking is an important feature of the differential
protection relay.
• In the harmonic restraint differential protection scheme, the harmonic restraint
differential relay has the 2nd,3rd,5th order harmonic blocking circuit and the
differential protection circuits.
• If the inrush current contains predominant 2nd order harmonic current, it is
symptom of transformer energization and differential protection is supposed to be
blocked during normal transformer energization.
• If the ratio of the second harmonic current to the fundamental is greater than
2nd order harmonic current set point, the relay blocks the differential
operation because relay sees this condition as transformer energization.
• The magnitude of 2nd order harmonic current in inrush current depends on
transformer material, construction and remeanace.
• Therefore, the setting of the 2nd order harmonic blocking current can not
be calculated in a straightforward way.
• The relay measures the ratio of 2nd order harmonic current and the fundamental
current and the setting of the 2nd order harmonic blocking current can be done
accordingly.
• The setting of the 2nd order harmonic restraining is generally kept between 20-25
% of the differential relay setting.
• If the current is below the differential relay setting, the relay does not trip
because the relay will observe it as a transformer charging phenomenon.
• If the harmonic restraining current is more than the differential relay setting, the
relay will trip with differential protection fault.
• If the magnitude of the 5th order harmonic current is more than the the setting of the
differential protection relay setting the relay will trip. If the magnitude of the 5th order
harmonic current is less than the setting of the differential protection relay setting the
relay will not trip.
• The setting of the 5th order harmonic restraining is generally kept between 20- 25 %
of the differential relay setting.
• The operation of transformer is not possible without having the harmonic restraint in
differential protection.
• The basic circuit of harmonic restraint relay is as given below.

• The harmonic restraining elements of the relay measure the magnitude of the
harmonic current and tripping of the relay is restrained if the harmonic current is
well below the specified current.
Buchholz Relay
Buchholz Relay Working Principle
•Buchholz relay is used for the protection of transformers from the faults occurring
inside the transformer.
•Short circuit faults such as inter turn faults, incipient winding faults, and core faults may
occur due to the impulse breakdown of the insulating oil or simply the transformer oil.
•Buchholz relay will sense such faults and closes the alarm circuit.
•It is a safety device which is generally used in large
oil immersed transformers (rated more than 500 kVA).

• It is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5dAaeLPzzk
•Buchholz relay relies on the fact that an electrical fault inside the transformer tank is
accompanied by the generation of gas and if the fault is high enough it will be accompanied by a
surge of oil from the tank to the conservator
•Whenever a fault occurs inside the transformer, the oil in the transformer tank gets overheated
and gases are generated. The generation of the gases depends mainly on the intensity of fault
produced.
•The heat generated during the fault will be high enough to decompose the transformer oil and
the gases produced can be used to detect the winding faults.
•This is the basic principle behind the working of the Buchholz relay.
Buchholz Relay
CONSTRUCTION OF A BUCHHOLZ RELAY
• Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber.

• There are two hinged floats, one at the top and
other at the bottom in the chamber.
• Each float is accompanied by a mercury switch.

• The mercury switch on the upper float is
connected to an alarm circuit and that on the Construction
lower float is connected to an external trip
breaker.
• The construction of a buchholz relay is shown

in the figure.
Working of Buchholz Relay
• Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault
currents.
• The produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles are
produced.
• These gas bubbles flow in upward direction and get collected in the Buchholz relay.
• The collected gas displaces the oil in Buchholz relay and the displacement is equivalent
to the volume of gas collected.
• The displacement of oil causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch which
is connected to an alarm circuit.
• Hence, when minor fault occurs, the connected alarm gets activated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_jNqmFvKVro
Working of Buchholz Relay
• The collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred.
• During minor faults the production of gas is not enough to move the lower float.
• Hence, during minor faults, the lower float is unaffected.
• During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a
large amount of gas is produced.
• This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards, but its motion is high enough to
tilt the lower float in the Buchholz relay.
• In this case, the lower float will cause the lower mercury switch which will trip the
transformer from the supply, i.e. transformer is isolated from the supply.
Advantages Of Buchholz Relay
•Buchholz relay indicates the internal faults due to heating and it helps in avoiding the
major faults.
•Severity of the fault can be determined without even dismantling the transformer.
•If a major fault occurs, the transformer can be isolated with the help of Buchholz relay to
prevent accidents.
PRD (Pressure Relief Device)
• PRD (Pressure Relief Device) is a device which is used for avoiding high oil pressure
builds up inside the transformer during fault conditions.
• It is fitted on the top of the main tank.

• The PRD allows rapid release of excessive pressure that may be generated in the event of a
serious fault.
• This device is fitted with an alarm/trip switch.
• The PRD has a spring-loaded diaphragm, which provides rapid amplification of its
actuating force and will reset automatically, as soon as the pressure inside the tank drops
down to the pre-set pressure.
• A bright colour coded mechanical indicator pin in the cover moves with the valve disc
during the operation of the pressure relief device and is held in position by an ‘O’ ring in
the pin bushing.
• This pin is clearly visible from ground level, which gives an indication that the device has
operated.
• The indicator pin may be reset manually by pushing it downward until it rests on the
valve disc.
• The relief device is provided with a shielded weatherproof alarm /Trip and is operated by
the movement of valve disc.
Operation :
• The PRD is essentially a spring loaded valve having a unique means of providing
instantaneous amplification of actuation force, as shown in the Fig.
• The PRD is mounted on transformer by lugs on flange and sealed against gasket. Valve disc
is spring loaded and sealed against gasket rings and by spring.
• Valve operation is effected when the pressure in gasket ring exceeds the opening pressure
established by springs. It operates when the pressure exceeds 10psi but closes
automatically when the pressure falls below the critical value.
• As disc moves upwards slightly from gasket ring , the transformer pressure than quickly
becomes exposed to the disc area of the diameter of gasket ring, resulting in a greatly
increased force, and causing immediate full opening of the valve corresponding to the closed
height of the springs.
Operation :
• The transformer pressure is rapidly reduced to normal value and springs return valve disc
to the closed position.
• The PRD is provided with a shielded weather-proof alarm switch assembly mounted on the
cover.
• The switch assembly includes a single-pole double-throw switch.
• The switch actuated by movement of valve disc the switch is manually reset by arm.
• Such devices are commonly operated for large power transformers of 2 MVA and above,
they can also be used for distribution transformers of 200kVA and above.
Rate of Rise of Pressure Relay
Rate of Rise of Pressure Relay
Many power transformers with an on-tank-type tap changer have a pressure protection for the
separate tap changer oil compartment. This protection detects a sudden rate-of-increase of
pressure inside the tap changer oil enclosure.
When the pressure in front of the piston exceeds the counter force of the spring, the piston will
move operating the switching contacts. The micro switch inside the switching unit is
hermetically sealed and pressurized with nitrogen gas.
Overcurrent relays for Transformers
Overcurrent relays for Transformers
• Overcurrent Relays are used for protection of transformers of rating 100kVA and below
5MVA.
• An earth fault tripping element is also used in addition to the O/c failure.
• Such relays are used as primary protection of transformer which is not provided by
differential protection.
• With the advent of ring main units incorporating SF6 circuit breakers and isolators,
protection of distribution transformers can now be provided by overcurrent trips.
• For example, tripping controlled by time limit fuses connected across the
secondary windings of in-built current transformers) or by relays connected to current
transformers located on the transformer primary side.
• Overcurrent relays are also used on larger transformers provided with standard
circuit breaker control.
• This type of Restricted Earth Fault Protection is provided to detect earth-faults within
the protected zone of the transformer.
• A CT is fitted in each connection to the protected winding, and the CT secondary
windings are connected in parallel to a relay.
• The star connected neutral earthed side is protected by restricted earth fault protection.
• An earth fault F1 beyond the transformer causes the currents I2 and I1 to flow in CT
secondaries.
• If the resultant current in earth fault relay is negligible, the relay does not operate.
• For earth fault within the transformer star connected winding F2 only I2 flows and I1 is
negligible. Hence, the earth fault relay operates.
• When fault occurs very near to neutral point, the voltage available for driving earth
fault relay is very small.
• Hence the practice is to set the relay such that it operates for earth fault current of the
order of 15% of rated current.
• Such setting protects restricted portion of winding, hence the name is restricted earth
fault protection.
• Ideally, the output of the CTs is proportional to the sum of the zero sequence currents
in the line and neutral earth connection if the latter is within the protected zone.
• For internal earth faults this sum is equal to two times the total fault current, but for
external faults zero-sequence currents are either absent or sum to zero in the line and
neutral-earth connection.
• The amount of winding protected against earth-fault is determined by the minimum

primary current at which the earth-fault relay operates.
• When the neutral point of the star winding of a transformer is earthed through a resistor the
amount of winding protected therefore varies according to the rating of the neutral earthing
resistor and the relay setting.
Overcurrent and Earth-Fault (Unrestricted):
• Overcurrent and earth-fault protection using IDMT relays is used mainly to protect the
transformer against the effects of external short circuits and excess overloads.
• This protection however acts as a backup protection for the transformer with settings
properly chosen.
• The current settings must be above the permitted sustained overload allowance and below
the minimum short circuit current.
• Extremely inverse characteristic is the ideal as it closely resembles the thermal curve of
transformer.
• Also the time setting may have to be high in order to grade with other overcurrent relays on
the system.
• The protection is located on the supply side of the transformer and is arranged to trip both
the HV and LV circuit breakers.
Transformer Over Fluxing Protection
• The Flux density of the CRGO Core:
• The cooled rolled grain oriented(CRGO) core is used in the transformer.
• The flux produced in the primary travels through the magnetic core and gets linked to the
secondary.
• The maximum flux density of the CRGO core is 1.9 Tesla and if the core is magnetized
above the rated capacity, the core gets saturated.
• The saturation of the core cause heating in the core and the other parts of the transformer.
• The flux density in the core should not increase above the rated flux density of the core to
avoid over fluxing in the core.
• Therefore the designed flux density of the core is always kept below the maximum rated flux
density of the core.
• The over fluxing relay is used to protect the transformer against over fluxing.
• The over fluxing relay measures the ratio of V/f to calculate the flux in the core.
• The transformer is designed for the flux density of 1.7 Tesla so that 110 % increase in the
flux density can be allowed.
• The maximum over fluxing in transformer shall not exceed 110% of the designed flux
density, and the transformer can be operated continuously at 110 % of the designed flux
density.
• However, the operation of the transformer above 110% and up to 130 % of the flux density
can be allowed for a shorter period of the time.
• If the flux density increases to 140 %, the transformer shall be tripped instantaneously to
avoid the permanent damage.
• The flux density in the core is proportional to the ratio of V/f.
• The flux in the core remains constant for the constant V/f ratio.
• The mathematical expression of the flux density is as given below:
The voltage induced in the primary when the sinusoidal voltage is applied is
E=4.44 ΦfN
Φ=E/4.44f N
The Number of turns in the primary is constant for a given transformer
Φ=K* E/f
The induced voltage is approximately proportional to the applied voltage if the primary
impedance is ignored.
Φ=K*V/f ----------(1)
• The flux density in the core of the core is as given below.

B=Φ/A
• Where A is the cross section area of the core that is also constant.
B=K/A*V/f
B=K1*V/f -----------(2)
B 𝖺 V/f
• Thus the flux density in the core is directly proportional to the ratio of V/f if the
number of turns of the primary is fixed.
• The relay measures the voltage and the frequency of the supply source.
• It calculates the ratio of the Volt/hertz on a real-time basis and compares the measured
value with the set-point.
• The relay is programmed for an inverse definite minimum time (IDMT characteristics).
• The setting of the over fluxing can be done for the 110 to 140 % of the rated flux of
the transformer.
• The protection scheme of the transformer is as given below.
Earthing Transformer Protection
• If the earthing transformer on the Delta Side is outsides the Zone of protection the Earth
Fault(E/F) in the delta system outside Current Transformer (CT) locations would produce
current distributions as shown which circulate within the differential CT secondaries and
is kept out of operating coils.
• Zig-Zag or inter connected star grounding transformer has normal magnetising
impedance of high value but for E/F, currents flow in windings of the same – core in
such a manner that the ampere turn cancel and hence offer lower impedance.
• In cases where the neutral point of three phase system is not accessible like the system
connected to the delta connected side of a electrical power transformer, an artificial
neutral point may be created with help of a zigzag connected earthing transformer.
• This is a core type transformer with three limbs.
• Every phase winding in zigzag connection is divided into two equal halves.
• One half of which is wound on one limb and other half is wound on another limb of the
core of transformer.
• 1st half of Red phase winding is wound on the 1st limb of the core and 2nd half of same
Red phase is wound on 3rd limb.
• 1st half of Yellow phase winding is wound on the 2nd limb of the core and 2nd half of
same Yellow phase is wound on 1st limb.
• 1st half of Blue phase winding is wound on the 3rd limb of the core and 2nd half of
same Blue phase is wound on 2nd limb.
• End point of all three winding ultimately connected together and forms a common
neutral point.
• Now if any fault occurs at any of the phases in delta connected system, the zero
sequence fault current has close path of circulating through earth as shown in the
figure.
• In normal condition of the system, the voltage across the winding of the earthing
transformer is 1/√3 times of rated per phase voltage of the system.
• But when single line to ground fault occurs on any phase of the system, as shown in the
figure, zero sequence component of the earth fault current flows in the earth and returns to
the electrical power system by way of earth star point of the earthing transformer.
• It gets divided equally in all the three phases.
• Hence, as shown in the figure, the currents in the two different halves of two windings in
the same limb of the core flow in opposite directions.
• And therefore the magnetic flux set up by these two currents will oppose and neutralize
each other.
• As there is no increase in flux due to fault current, there is no change of dφ/dt means
no choking effect occurs to impede the flow of fault current.
• So it can be concluded that, the zigzag type earthing or grounding transformer
maintains the rated supply voltage at normal current as well as when a solid single
line to ground fault current flows through it.
• The rated voltage of an earthing or grounding transformer is the line to line

voltage on which it is intended to be used.
• Current rating of this transformer is the maximum neutral current in Amperes that the
transformer is designed to carry in fault condition for a specific time.
• Generally the time interval, for which transformer designed to carry the
maximum fault current through it safely, is taken as 30 second.
Protection of Three Winding Transformer
• The unit protection principle remains valid for a system having more than two connections,
so a transformer with three or more windings can still be protected by the application of
the above principles.
• When the power transformer has only one of its three windings connected to a source of
supply, with the other two windings feeding loads, a relay with only two sets of CT
inputs can be used, connected as shown in Figure.
• The separate load currents are summated in the CT secondary circuits, and will
balance with the infeed current on the supply side.
Differential protection arrangements for three-winding

transformer (one power source)
• When more than one source of fault current infeed exists, there is a danger in the
scheme of Figure(a) of current circulating between the two paralleled sets of
current transformers without producing any bias.
• It is therefore important a relay is used with separate CT inputs for the
two secondaries – Figure (b).

transformer (three power sources)
• When the third winding consists of a delta-connected tertiary with no connections

brought out, the transformer may be regarded as a two winding transformer for
protection purposes and protected as shown in Figure (c).

transformer with unloaded delta tertiary
Differential Protection Generator Transformer Unit
• In a high voltage transmission system, the bus bars are at very high voltages than the
generators.
• The generators are directly connected to step up transformer to which it is connected,
together from a generator transformer unit.
• The protection of such a unit is achieved by differential protection scheme using

circulating current principle.
• While providing protection to such a unit, it is necessary to consider the phase shift and
current transformation in the step up transformer.
• The figure shows a biased differential protection scheme used for generator transformer
unit.
• The zone of such a scheme includes the stator windings, the step up transformer and the
intervening connections.
• The transformer is delta-star hence the current transformers on high voltage side are
delta connected while those on generator side are star connected.
• This cancels the displacement between line currents introduced by the delta connected
primary of the transformer.
• Where there is no fault, the secondary currents of the current transformer connected on
generator side are equal to the currents in the pilot wires from the secondaries of the
delta connected current transformers on the secondary of main transformer.
• When a fault occurs, the pilot wires carry the differential current to operate the
percentage differential relay.
• For the protection against the earth faults, an earth fault relays is put in the secondary
winding of the main step up transformers as shown.
• In such a case, differential protection acts as a backup protection to the restricted earth
fault protection.
• This overall differential protection scheme does not include unit transformer as a
separate differential scheme is provided it.
PHASE FAULT
• Phase-phase faults clear of earth are less common.
• They may occur on the end portion of stator coils or in the slots if the winding
involves two coil sides in the same slot.
• In the later case the fault will involve earth in a very short time.
• Phase fault current is not controlled by the method of earthing the neutral point.
INTERTURN FAULTS
• Interturn faults are also uncommon, but not unknown
• A greatest danger arising from failure to deal with interturn faults quickly is fire. A
large portion of the insulation is inflammable
Example 10.1
A three-phase, 11 kV/132 kV, Delta-Star connected power transformer is protected

by differential protection. The CTs on the LV side have a current ratio of 500/5. What
must be the current ratio of the CTs on the HV side and how should they be
connected.
Connections of CTs on LV and HV sides are shown in Fig
Example 10.2
A three-phase, 11 kV/33 kV, Y-D connected power transformer is protected by
differential protection. The CTs on the LV side have a current ratio of 400/5. What
must be the ratio of CTs on the HV side. How the CTs on both the sides of the
transformer are connected.
Connections of the CTs on both the sides of the transformer are shown in Fig
Busbar Protection
Busbar Protection
• Busbar protection or bus zone protection includes, besides bus itself, the apparatus
such as circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, instruments, transformers etc.
• Though the bus zone faults are rare, experience shows that bus protection is highly
desirable in large and important stations.
• Moreover, the need for bus zone protection is highly felt because, the faults level at
busbar is very high and the faults on bus-bar causes discontinuance of power to a large
portion of the system.
• A bus fault tends to be appreciably more severe, both with respect to the safety of
personnel, system stability and the damage to the equipment's.
Busbar Protection
The desirable features of bus zone protection include the following:

• High speed (less the 3 cycles)
• Stability for external faults
• Discrimination between faults in its own protective zone and faults elsewhere.
• Freedom from unwanted operation
• No operation due to CT saturation or power swing
• Separate control of trip circuit of each circuit breaker
• Inter-lock over current protection to trip generator unit if bus-zone protection
operates.
• Non-autoreclosure, no single pole tripping of circuit breakers for bus fault.

Busbar Protection
Causes of Busbar Faults

The causes of busbar faults can be ;
• Failure of support insulator resulting in earth faults
• Flash over across support insulator, causing flash over due to over-voltage.
• Heavily polluted insulator, causing flash-over due to overvoltage
• Failure of other connected equipments
• Earthquake, mechanical damages
• Foreign objects accidentally falling across fault current
• Errors in the operation and maintenance of switch gear
The clearing of a busbar faults requires the opening of all the circuit branching from
the faulted bus zone or busbar section.
Busbar Protection
Bus Zone Protection by Differential Principle

• A simple differential protection scheme is shown in the figure below.
• It is based in simple circulating current principle that during normal load
conditions or external fault conditions, the sum of currents entering the bus
equals the sum of the currents leaving the busbas, i.e., I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5.
Busbar Protection
Busbar Protection
• Hence no current will flow through the relay and it will not operate.
• If any fault, either a phase to phase fault or phase to earth fault occurs in the systems, the
sum of these currents will not be zero and some current will flow through the relay and
causes the relay to operate and isolate the faulty section.
• That is a current in the relay indicates a fault within the protected zone and initiates
opening of the generator breaker CB1 and CB2 and each of the line breakers CB3, CB4 and
CB5 including the bus breaker CB6.
• In this type, the busbars can be sectionalized to identify the fault in that particular section.
Busbar Protection
• The main drawback with this type of differential protection is the difference in the
magnetic conditions of the iron cored CTs which may result in false operation of the relay
at the time of an external fault. Even with identical CTs having large iron cores to avoid
the saturation with maximum fault currents, the DC transient component presents
difficulty because of its slow decay.
• Biasing of differential relays improves the stability considerably; but is not a complete
solution.
• It can be seen that a high impedance bus differential relay can discriminate between
internal and external faults better than the usual low impedance relay.
• In other words, the ratio of the relay current during an internal fault to relay current during
an external fault is greater if the impedance of the relay is higher.
Frame Leakage Protection Working Principle
• Frame Leakage Protection of Busbar is used to protect the busbar, circuit breaker, isolator
switches instrument transformer from busbar earth faults.
• All Busbar used in a power system is neatly bound with PVC insulation or other high voltage
insulation material. PVC protects the busbar from earth faults.
• The switchgear framework is also insulated from lead cable sheaths.

• In this, the bus bar supporting frame will be earthen through a current transformer.
• When the fault in busbar, the fault current flow through supporting frame’s earthing
arrangement.
• The Current transformer in the earthen frame reads the fault current and if this fault current
higher than the pickup current, then the relay operates.
• At that same time, the transformer neutral is connected to ground through the current
transformer. However, the fault current in the busbar frame reach his source through the
neutral of the transformer as shown in the figure, hence the same current will be read by
the neutral CT.
• This neutral CT operate the tripping contact.

• The contacts of check relay (neutral leakage relay) and frame leakage relay are in series.
\Thus before tripping circuit gets energized both the relays must operate.
• Once both the relays operate due to earth fault, all the breakers will trip connecting the
equipment to the busbar.
• Due to check relay, accidental operation of single relay to trip the circuit gets avoided.
CONTENT
Module 1: Introduction to Power System Protection
Module-2: Overcurrent Protection Syllabus for
Distance Protection Second
Internal
Module-3: Differential Protection Assessment
Rotating Machines Protection
Transformer and
Bus zone Protection
Module-4: Circuit Breakers
Module-5: Protection against Over voltages

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PSP MODULE 3 Diffl Gener Trans Bus

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POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

B.N.M. Institute of Technology

Module-3: Differential Protection

• When the fault occurs

Differential protection is applicable to all parts of the power system:

hence the relay will not operate.

The fault current is minimum under following conditions:

Stability and Stability Ratio :

Stability and Stability Ratio :

• This current is further reduced by the resistance of the neutral grounding.

• Such settings protect a restricted portion of the winding.

• Inter turn stator winding fault can easily be

• This type of fault rapidly changes to earth fault.

• Each of the paths is fitted with identical current transformer.

• Temperature detectors may be either thermocouples, thermistors, or resistance

• This difficulty can be overcome by shifting the

• Thus, the relay can detect the midpoint fault of

• The positive terminal of the DC source is grounded.

• To allow for system transients which may cause a

(b) Over speed Protection

(f) Protection against Auxiliary Failure

(h) Protection against Pole Slipping

(i) Back-up Protection

 Cost of repairing damage

Load Tap Changing Transformer

• The transformer is one of the major equipment in power system.

• Connection for Differential Protection for Transformer is as shown

Working of Differential Protection System:

• The differential protection scheme is also known as a zone protection.

• This difference in current between primary and secondary

• The basic circuit of harmonic restraint relay is as given below.

inside the transformer.

•It is a safety device which is generally used in large

oil immersed transformers (rated more than 500 kVA).

surge of oil from the tank to the conservator

the gases produced can be used to detect the winding faults.

• Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber.

• Each float is accompanied by a mercury switch.

• The construction of a buchholz relay is shown

• It is fitted on the top of the main tank.

• The amount of winding protected against earth-fault is determined by the minimum

• The flux density in the core of the core is as given below.

• The rated voltage of an earthing or grounding transformer is the line to line

Differential protection arrangements for three-winding

Differential protection arrangements for three-winding

• When the third winding consists of a delta-connected tertiary with no connections

Differential protection arrangements for three-winding

• The protection of such a unit is achieved by differential protection scheme using

A three-phase, 11 kV/132 kV, Delta-Star connected power transformer is protected

The desirable features of bus zone protection include the following:

• Non-autoreclosure, no single pole tripping of circuit breakers for bus fault.

Causes of Busbar Faults

Bus Zone Protection by Differential Principle

• The switchgear framework is also insulated from lead cable sheaths.

• This neutral CT operate the tripping contact.

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