Evolution of Muslim

society overall
Q. No. 8. Critically evaluate the evolutions of Muslim Separate
identity in the Subcontinent.

Q Highlight the factors which played significant role in the evolution and

growth of Muslim Society in Sub Continent?

Q2012 Trace the history of the Muslim conquests of present day Pakistan areas

highlighting their contributions in transforming the society and culture

Q.Briefly describe the evolution of Muslim society in the sub-continent.

Q..2001 Briefly describe the evolution of Muslim Society in the Subcontinent

from 1206 onwards and analyze its downfall after the17th century.

Q..2000 Give an account of the evolution of the Muslim society in the subcontinent

from 1206 to 1526 A.D.

Quotes/maps/references/timelines
· "The Muslims had established a powerful empire in India, and in many respects,
they had made it a greater and more prosperous country than it had been before." -
Stanley Lane-Poole

Ayesha Jalal:

 "The evolution of Muslim society in South Asia cannot be understood without

considering the regional diversity and the interplay between local traditions
and Islamic influences. This interaction resulted in a unique blend of cultures
and the development of a rich, syncretic heritage."

Irfan Habib:

 "The coming of Islam and the establishment of Muslim rule in India was not
just a change of political masters. It brought in new systems of administration,
revenue, and culture that significantly altered the socio-economic fabric of
Indian society."

Professor Lanepool

 · "The early Muhammadan conquerors of India brought with them a

civilization more advanced and a culture more refined than that of the Hindus
whom they had subjugated. They introduced new arts and industries, and
gave an impetus to commerce by opening up a vast area to trade with Central
Asia and the West."

Professor Lanepool

"The advent of Islam in India was not merely a political event; it was a cultural
revolution.

Ibn Battuta: a medieval historian

India is the chosen abode of Islam

· Stanley Lane-Poole: "In the history of India, Islam has been a transforming and
dynamic force.

Ziauddin Barani:medieval historian

The Sultanate may fall, but Islam will endure forever in India."

Professor lanepool

The Mughal emperors were not merely conquerors; they were statesmen and
builders who aimed at creating a unified and prosperous state.

The Pakistan came to existence when the first Indian national

embraced Islam,,,,Quaid-e-Azam
Sir Syed

The advent of Islam in India brought enlightenment and progress.

Draw Maps of arab conquest

Gazni, ghori, delhi, mughal empire.
Cultural centre of muslims
· Delhi:

 · As the capital of various Muslim dynasties including the Delhi Sultanate

and later the Mughal Empire, Delhi emerged as a major cultural hub. It
boasted magnificent mosques (like the Jama Masjid), forts (such as the Red
Fort), and vibrant markets. Delhi's historical and cultural importance attracted
scholars, poets, and artisans from across the Islamic world.

· Lucknow:

 · Known for its refined culture, Lucknow under the Nawabs of Awadh
became a center of Urdu literature, poetry (especially Urdu ghazals), music,
and culinary arts. The city's architectural style reflects a blend of Mughal and
Persian influences.
· Hyderabad:

 · The Qutb Shahi and Nizam rulers of Hyderabad patronized arts and
culture extensively. The city became known for its distinctive Deccani Urdu
dialect, Indo-Islamic architecture (like the Charminar), and a rich tradition of
classical music and dance (particularly Kathak).

· Lahore:

 · Lahore, under the Mughal Empire, served as a cultural capital with

notable architectural landmarks such as the Lahore Fort, Badshahi Mosque,
and Shalimar Gardens. It was renowned for its vibrant arts scene, including
miniature painting, calligraphy, and poetic gatherings.

· Dhaka:

 · As part of Bengal, Dhaka (now in Bangladesh) flourished under Muslim

rule. It became a center of Islamic learning with institutions like the Lalbagh
Fort and the numerous mosques and mausoleums that dot the city's skyline.

· Kashmir:

 · The Kashmir Valley, with its blend of Persian and Central Asian influences,
became a center for Sufi mysticism and Persian literature. Srinagar, with its
beautiful gardens and mosques, attracted scholars and poets who enriched
the region's cultural heritage.

Timeline
644: first muslim penetration of subcontient
711: arab conquest of sindh
1001: Mahmud gaznavi first attack
1025: Somnath destroyed
1192: Second Battle of Tarain:defeat of Pritiviraj by Muhammad Ghori
1206: Aibak established delhi sultanate
1206-1526: Delhi sultanate
1526-1857: Mughal Empire

intro
Pakistan emerged on the world map on August 14 1947. It has its roots into the
remote past. When British archaeologist, SIR MORITIMER WHEELER was
commissioned in 1947 by the government of Pakistan, he entitled his work as
“Five Thousand Years of Pakistan”. He writes in “The Indus Civilization” that
Pakistan has a history that can be dated back to the Indus valley civilization.

Background
Pre-islamic Indo-Arabic trade ties
Arab merchants begin to establish trade links with the western coast of
India, particularly in regions like Kerala and Gujarat. The Arab merchants
were primarily involved in the trade of spices, textiles, and other goods.
This period marks the initial phase of peaceful and commercial contact
between Arabs and Indians. The arabs started to settle in Malabar hills.
Arabs used to travel to Yemen via sea from Indian ports, from Yemen to
Syria, arabs traders used land route, and this continue till Egypt, from
Egypt, Arabs again transited on ships to reach Southern Europe. By 630
Arabs had converted to Islam

Early Arab Conquest of India

Under Caliph Umar
Secondly, Arabs also was aware of prosperity and economic importance
of Indian subcontinent due to its fertile land, minerals and species. It was
during the time of Caliph Umar(634-644) that for the first time Governor
of Oman, Sarqafi launched Naval expiditions against Indian city of Thane
and Barouch. Caliph Umar did not support naval strategy to occupy
overseas territories it would be difficult to maintain control over such
terriotories that is why such expiditions were halted.

Uthman ibn Abi al-As al-Thaqafi, the governor of Bahrain and Oman, had
dispatched the naval expeditions against the ports and positions of
the Sasanian Empire, and further east to the borders of India.[10] The
ports in India raided were Thane (near Mumbai), Bharuch (in Gujarat)
and faced success,[11] and Debal (in Sindh).[12] These expeditions were
not sanctioned by Caliph Umar and Uthman escaped punishment only
because there weren't any casualties

643 CE: A small exploratory expedition was sent to Makran, but it did
not result in significant conquests. Umar decided not to pursue
further campaigns into India at this time due to the challenging
terrain and logistical difficulties.

644:first arab land attack

Suhail b. Abdi and Hakam al Taghilbi two commanders of Arabs in

Eastern frontier provinces of persia later defeated a Sindhi army in
the Battle of Rasil in 644 beside the Indian Ocean sea coast, then
reached the Indus River.[15] Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab denied them
permission to cross the river or operate in Makran and the Arabs
returned home

Further east from the Indus River laid Sindh, which was the domain of
the Rai Kingdom.[5] Umar, after learning that Sindh was a poor and
relatively barren land, disapproved Suhail's proposal to cross the Indus
River.[6] For the time being, Umar declared the Indus River, a natural
barrier, to be the easternmost frontier of his domain. This campaign
came to an end in mid-644.[7]

Under Caliph Usman

652

Masha Ibn Masood was sent by Caliph Usman to pacify Makran And
South Balochistan

654

Abdulrehman Ibn Samrah was sent by Caliph Usman to pacify Kabul

Gazni and South of Balochistan.

Under Caliph Ali

660-663

The Balochistan and Sindh rebelled against Arab rule during time of
Caliph Ali. Ali sent Haris ibn Marah in 660 to ressert control over
balochistan but in 663 Marah and his army was killed while fighting the
rebels. Makran and Balochistan fell out of Arab control once again

Ummayad conquest

685

Under Caliph Muwaiya once again Arabs gained foothold in the Makran.

699-700
The caliph Malik Ibn Marwan of Ummayad appointed Hajaj Bin Yusuf to
restore control of Eastern frontier of the empire. Hajaj sent General
Qutubah Bin Muslim in 699-700 to led expedition

Conquest of Muhammad Bin Qasim

It was in 710 when pirates of debal seized ships bound for Caliph of
Ummayad Caliphate Caliph Walid I taking ships for Caliph from the King
of Ceylon. Hajjaj the governor of eastern provinces of Caliphate sent his
newphew to punish Dahir and pilots

The Pakistan came to existence when the first Indian national

embraced Islam,,,,Quaid-e-Azam

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (Educator and Social Reformer):

 "The Arab conquest of Sindh introduced Islam to the Indian subcontinent

Although Islam spread rapidly in the world as soon as it

surfaced in the world, but it established its foothold in the Indo-
Pak Sub-continent in the beginning of 8th Century A.D. It was
during the rule of sixth Umayyad caliph, Walid bin Abdul Malak
(705-715 A.D), when an overarching incidence of ship looting
occurred near Debal, a sea port. The ships, carrying widows and
children of deceased Arab soldiers, sent by the king of Ceylon
(present day Sri-Lanka) to the Umayyad Governor, Hajjaj bin
Yousef, of Baghdad were ransacked by a contingent of ferocious
Hindu pirates. Hajjaj sent his emissary to the Rajput king, Raja
Dahir under whose jurisdiction the pirates carried out the loot.
The raja bluntly turned down the Governor’s claim said the
pirates were not under his sway. Hajjaj decided to send the
young Imaduddin Muhammad bin Qasim to teach the raja a
lesson and release the prisoners. Muhammad bin Qasim was
the ruler of Faris when he was called back by the Governor.
Muhammad bin Qasim then led a glorious Muslim army and
invaded Sindh in 712 A.D. During his short stay in Niran he was
reinforced by four thousands Jats who were long subdued by
the self-righteous king. Raja Dahir came with his 40,000 soldiers
along with contingents of elephants. However, the Raja killed in
the battle field and his demoralized army retreated.
Muhammad bin Qasim not only released the prisoners along
with the looted ships but also established Islamic society/rule in
Sindh. Qasim continued to expand the Muslim society beyond
Sindh. He marched up to Multan where he defeated Raja Gor
Singh. During this time several changes occurred that made his
expeditions slow down and finally put a halt. Hajjaj bin Yousef
had been died in 714 A.D and, within months administrative
changes wrought in Damascus. Walid bin Abdul Malak was
replaced by his brother Suleman bin Abdul Malak (715-717
A.D). The new ruler was extravagantly luxury loving and quite
incompetent for the accession to the throne. Suleman called off
the best Generals from around their respective destinations and
through intrigues executed them one by one. These Generals
brought laudable victories to Walid. They included Qutaiba bin
Muslim, the conqueror of Turkistan; Tariq bin Ziad, the
conqueror of Andalus; Musa bin Nasir, the conqueror of North
Africa; and Muhammad bin Qasim, the conqueror of Sindh.
Muhammad bin Qasim was died languishing in the prison at the
age of just 22. He was replaced by Yazid bin Kabashi.

Qasim’s rule, though short, is marked by the historians as

marvelous and magnificent. He gave relieved the local
population scourged by the extra judicious rule of the erstwhile
rajas in general and Raja Dahir in particular. Furthermore, he
espoused interreligious harmony and brought prosperity and
good governance in the areas under his domain. Italian scholar
F. Gabrieli said: “Present day Pakistan, holding the values of
Islam in such a high esteem, should look upon the young Arab
conqueror, Muhammad bin Qasim, almost as a distant Kistes
(founding father), a hero of South Asian Islam”. With the
passage of time rule of Umayyads finally evaporated in 750 A.D.

Abbasid rule of sindh

They were succeeded by the Abbasids. The Abbasid rulers time

after time sent their governors in the Sub-continent. According
to Ibn Haukal, who traveled extensively through the Arab
domains around the middle of the 8th Century, particularly
mentioned the affluence of the people of Sindh. Moreover,
during the rule of Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur (754-775 A.D),
scholars from the Sindh were welcomed at the court of
Baghdad. In the north Islam was making inroads from
Afghanistan into the north-western region of Pakistan. Islamic
missionaries were actively spreading their faith among the
tribes. Due to weak Abbasid ruler, who acceded to the throne
later on, lost sway over the territories of the Sub-continent at
the end of 9th Century.

Second phase of Invasions 997-1206

Mahmud gazni 997-1030
In the 10th Century Turks invaded the Sub-continent through renowned
Khyber Pass. The most important of them was Mahmud of Ghazni, the
son of Sabuktagin the great General. Mahmud ruled the sub-continent
from 997 A.D. He wanted to expand his rule across India and attacked
seventeen times in this regard. He was a great warrior. He reduced the
influence Hindushahi Kingdom being prevalent in India.
1001:first expedition Battle of Peshawar
Mahmud initiated the first of numerous invasions of North India. On
28 November 1001, his army fought and defeated the army of Raja
Jayapala of the Kabul Shahis at the Battle of Peshawar.He became known
as an Idol Breaker after the destruction of Somnath temple. However, he
died in 1030. Mahmud appointed Khusru Malik as the governor of
Lahore. established a base in Punjab for future incursions. His court was
full of scholars including Ferdosi the poet, Behqi the Historian and Al-
Beruni the versatile scholar. He was called the Idol Breaker.
6. Al-Beruni, real founder of two-nation theory in South Asia: he wrote
Kitab-ul-Hind

1005-1006 CE: Second Expedition - Multan

 Mahmud targets the Ismaili Fatimid rulers of Multan, capturing

the city and securing control over the region. This campaign
strengthens his strategic position in the subcontinent.

1015 CE: Eighth Expedition - Kashmir

 Mahmud attempts to invade Kashmir but faces stiff resistance and

challenging terrain, leading to a less successful campaign.
1023 CE: Twelfth Expedition - Somnath

 One of Mahmud's most famous and controversial campaigns, the

raid on the Somnath temple in Gujarat, results in the destruction
and looting of the temple, which was one of the richest and most
revered shrines in India.

1025 CE: Thirteenth Expedition - Somnath (Second Raid)

 Mahmud conducts another raid on Somnath, further consolidating

his reputation as a fearsome conqueror and looter.

1026 CE: Fourteenth Expedition - Sindh

 Mahmud turns his attention to Sindh, attacking the Arab rulers

there and securing his control over the region.

1030 CE: Death of Mahmud of Ghazni

 Mahmud dies, leaving behind a legacy of conquest and expansion

that significantly impacted the Indian subcontinent. His invasions
paved the way for subsequent Islamic invasions and the
establishment of Muslim rule in parts of India.

 Political Impact: Mahmud's campaigns weakened several regional

kingdoms, paving the way for future Islamic invasions and the
eventual establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.

Sultan Mahmud thought of himself as "the Shadow of the God on

Earth",
Although his raids carried his forces across the Indian subcontinent, only
a portion of the Punjab and of Sindh in modern-day Pakistan came under
his semi-permanent rule; Kashmir, the Doab, Rajasthan,
and Gujarat remained under the control of the local Hindu dynasties.

Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori 1173 to 1206

Ghoris headed by Muhammad Ghori defeated the Gaznavid
empire around 1185. Muizz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam,
known as Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri is among the one
who played a paramount role in the establishment of Muslim
rule, especially in North India. He defeated the fearsome army
of Prithvi Raj Chauhan in 1192 in the second battle of Tarain. He
had has the credit to establish the first Muslim in Delhi. In
1206, Ghori had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. On his way
back to Ghazni, his caravan halted at Damik near Jehlum. He
was killed while offering his evening prayers.

Muhammad appointed Aibak as his administraitor of the Ghurid domains

in North India after the Second Battle of Tarain.His lieutenants - Qutb ud-
Din Aibak, Bahauddin Tughril, Bakhtiyar Khalji and Yildiz before his
assassination, swiftly raided the local kingdoms and expanded his empire
in the Indian Subcontinent up to north-western parts of Bengal in east,
Ajmer and Ranthambore (Rajasthan) in north and till the borders
of Ujjain in south.[67]

Organized Establishment of Muslim Societies.

1206-1857
1206-1526-Delhi Sultanate
From 1206 to 1526 A.D Delhi Sultanate rose to power. It is
believed, however, that the period of Delhi Sultanate was
politically turbulent but the Muslim society under the Sultanate
period flourished at a great length.

The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched
over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526).
Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially:

 the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290),

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

 Foundation: The Delhi Sultanate was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former

slave of Muhammad of Ghor, following the latter's death. Aibak became the
first Sultan of Delhi.
 Consolidation: Under Aibak and his successor, Iltutmish (r. 1211-1236), the
Sultanate consolidated its power, establishing Delhi as the capital and
expanding its territories.
 Administration: Iltutmish introduced important administrative reforms,
including the introduction of the Iqta system (land revenue system), which
became a hallmark of Sultanate governance.

 the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320),

Expansion and Cultural Flourishing (1290-1390)

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

 Alauddin Khilji: Known for his military conquests, including campaigns in the
Deccan, and administrative reforms aimed at centralizing power and
controlling prices.
 Cultural Integration: The period saw increased cultural interactions and the
incorporation of Persian culture and language into the court and
administration.
  the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414),

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

 Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Known for his ambitious but often unsuccessful
projects, including the attempted transfer of the capital from Delhi to
Daulatabad and the introduction of token currency.
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq: His reign was marked by significant public works,
including the construction of canals and cities. He also promoted learning and
established several madrasas (Islamic schools).


 the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and
 the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).

: The Sayyids and lodis struggled to maintain control over the

Sultanate, leading to the rise of regional powers and increased
internal strife.

Impact of delhi sultanate

Conquest over all subcontinent

It covered large swathes of territory in modern-day India, Pakistan, and

Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal

Sufism;s role
Sufism also made it way during this era. He is aptly called as
the founder of Muslim Empire in Indo-Pak Sub-continent. These
sufis emerged as the counter balance of Bhakti Movement in 13
and 14 th century and spread message of Sulh-Kulh. The
prominent names are Bahaduddin Zakaria, Hazrat Fareed-ud-
din Shakar Ganj and Khawaja Moinudddin Chist, Amir Khusro

\1. Administration and Governance

  Iqta System: Introduced under the early Sultans, this system of land revenue
administration became central to governance, involving the assignment of
land to military officers and nobles in exchange for services.
 Centralized Bureaucracy: The Sultans established a centralized administrative
structure with a hierarchy of officials, including the Wazir (prime minister),
Qazi (judge), and Diwan (finance minister).

2. Cultural and Religious Influence

 Spread of Islam: Sufi saints played a crucial role in spreading Islam through
their teachings and practices, which emphasized love, compassion, and
mysticism. Prominent Sufi orders included the Chishti, Suhrawardi, and
Qadiri.
 Cultural Synthesis: The period saw significant cultural synthesis, with Persian,
Central Asian, and Indian influences merging in art, architecture, literature,
and music. The introduction of Persian as the court language had a lasting
impact on the region's culture and administration.

3. Economic and Social Developments

 Urbanization: The establishment of new cities and administrative centers

contributed to urbanization and economic growth. Delhi, Agra, and Lahore
emerged as major urban centers.
 Trade and Commerce: The Sultanate's strategic location facilitated trade
between Central Asia, the Middle East, and South Asia. Markets and
caravanserais (roadside inns) supported commerce.
 Agricultural Reforms: Efforts to improve agriculture included the construction
of irrigation canals and the introduction of new crops and farming techniques.

4. Art and Architecture

 Indo-Islamic Architecture: The Delhi Sultanate period saw the development

of a distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style, characterized by the use of
arches, domes, and intricate ornamentation. Notable examples include the
Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, and the Tughlaqabad Fort.
 Literature and Learning: Persian literature and scholarship flourished, with
the establishment of madrasas and libraries. Renowned scholars and poets,
such as Amir Khusro, contributed to the literary heritage.

Administration of Justice:
The medieval historians have shown great appreciation for
Iltutmish's care for rendering justice. Long after his death the
people remembered his justice. Ibn Battuta, who visited India in
the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, records that lltutmish
fixed two statutes of lions on the gate of imperial palace.
Hanging chains were attached with them and on the other end
of the chains a bell was fixed. As soon as an aggrieved person
reached the spot he pulled the chain which made the bell
ringing. This act was sufficient to draw the attention of the
relevant authorities to the person concerned. However, this
practice of pulling the chain was usually confined to night
alone. But during the day time aggrieved person used the
coloured garment for catching the attention of the concerned
authorities. Besides, lltutmish saw to it that amiri-i-dads were
appointed in almost all the important towns of his empire to
dispense justice. At the central level there was the chief Qazi
who passed judgment on the appeals coming from the lower
courts. However, in all important matters relating to justice
Iltutmish could directly intervene and pronounce his
judgement.

New Currency (the Tanka):

Iltutmish was the first Turkish ruler to introduce a purely

Arabic coinage. His silver coin called the tanka weighed 175
grains. It
had an Arabic inscription on it. It was meant to replace the
former
Hindu coins.

"The reign of Iltutmish stands out as a landmark in the

coinage of Delhi......... Iltutmish was a great moneyer. That he
established the silver tanka and the billion jital on a firm
footing was in itself a remarkable achievement."
2.3.10.4 Acquisition of the Letter of Investiture 1229:
In order to justify his calm to the throne of Delhi Iltutmish
secured a letter of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph of
Baghdad, Al Mustansir Billah. Thus, Iltutmish initiated a fully
sovereign and legally
constituted Sultanate of Delhi. He became the first legal
sovereign of
the sultanate and may be described as the real founder of the
Delhi Sultanate Thus, Iltutmish’s legal status as an independent
sovereign was reaffirmed in the eyes of the Muslims.

Establishment of Iqta System

For the purpose of making administration convenient he

established Iqta System. Out of this collected amount military
generals also known as Iqtedar was supposed to deduct his own
salary as well as the expenses of the horses and soldiers
maintained by him. The remaining amount was to be given back
to Sultan treasury. The most important feature of the Iqta
System was that the piece of land allotted to the Iqtedar was
transferable. The smaller category of land under this system
was known as Khalsa Land and all the agricultural produce
generated from this was totally given to the Sultan for the
maintenance of the palace and royal army.

alauddin’s price control was a ‘byword among later

generations.’55 Ibn Battuta, visiting the Sultanate in the 1330s and
early 1340s, heard Allauddin praised in this connection as one of the
best previous sultans, and mentions in particular the price of meat,
woven cloth and grain.56 Hamid Qalandar, writing in 1354, likewise
pays tribute to the sultan’s achievement in reducing the cost of grain
and to the low wages paid in his reign.57
1526-1857-Mughal Empire
Mughals, led by Zaheer-ud-Din Babar entered India in 1526 A.D
and remained in power, though nominally, till 1857. The Mughal
epoch is particularly known as the period of Muslim
architecture, literature and gave a boost to religious reformists
and saints such as Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Walliullah, and
Mian Mir, etc. Islam left profound effects on minds of people of
the Sub-continent. Islam completely changed the living
standard and style of thinking of the people of the Sub-
continent. Specially, Akbar’s religious policy of toleration and
giving equal share to the Rajputs strenghtened Mughal empire
and popularized Islam in the local population.The Muslim
society gave a welcome fillip to the cultural, economic and,
social development in the Sub-continent and boosted inter-
religious harmony as well. Turks introduced Persian language
which intermingled with Arabic and other local languages gave
birth to several new languages including Urdu. Though the
Muslim society experienced ups and downs throughout the
history, yet it yielded positive effects on the minds of people at
large in Indo-Pak Sub-continent.

Mughal Empire (1526-1707)

1. Establishment under Babur (1526-1530)

 Foundation: Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, established the

Mughal Empire with the victory over Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat in
1526.
 Cultural Synthesis: Babur initiated the assimilation of Persian, Central Asian,
and Indian cultures, which became a hallmark of Mughal society.
2. Akbar the Great (1556-1605)

 Religious Policies: Akbar implemented policies of religious tolerance and

cultural synthesis, including the formation of the Din-i Ilahi (Divine Faith) to
foster unity among diverse religious communities.
 Administrative Reforms: Centralization of administration, revenue reforms,
and promotion of trade and commerce under Akbar's reign contributed to
economic prosperity.

3. Jahangir and Shah Jahan (1605-1658)

 Art and Architecture: Shah Jahan's rule saw the construction of iconic
monuments like the Taj Mahal, showcasing the pinnacle of Mughal
architecture.
 Expansion and Stability: The empire reached its territorial zenith under these
rulers, expanding across much of the Indian subcontinent.

4. Aurangzeb's Rule (1658-1707)

 Religious Policies: Aurangzeb's policies favored orthodox Sunni Islam, leading

to conflicts with non-Muslim communities and the reimposition of the jizya
(tax on non-Muslims).
 Challenges and Decline: Military campaigns and administrative burdens
strained the empire, leading to economic challenges and eventual decline.

Decline and Regional Kingdoms (1707-1857)

1. Decline of the Mughal Empire

 Regional Fragmentation: After Aurangzeb's death, the empire faced internal

strife and external invasions, leading to the fragmentation of Mughal
authority.
 Emergence of Regional Powers: Various regional kingdoms and states, such
as the Nawabs of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, emerged as centers of
power.

2. Cultural and Social Developments

 Sufism and Mysticism: Sufi orders continued to play a significant role in

spiritual and cultural life, promoting syncretic practices and social welfare
activities.
  Literature and Arts: Urdu literature flourished, blending Persian and Indian
influences. Mughal miniature painting and music also thrived during this
period.

3. British East India Company and Colonialism

 East India Company Rule: The British East India Company gradually expanded
its control over Indian territories, exploiting divisions among Indian rulers.
 Impact on Muslim Society: The decline of Mughal authority and the rise of
British dominance led to socio-economic changes, including land reforms and
administrative restructuring.

Socio-Religious Movements

1. Bhakti and Sufi Movements: Continued influence of Bhakti and Sufi saints who
preached religious tolerance and social harmony.

 Shah Waliullah and Reform Movements: Shah Waliullah Dehlawi advocated

for reform within Islamic practices and scholarship, aiming to counter the
decline of Muslim political power.

impact

1. Advantage to the empire: The most important consequence of Akbar’s new

religious policy was that a majority of the Hindus and the Muslims became
the supporters of the Mughal Empire. They gave up the attitude of mutual
hostility and gave their services and co-operation to the Mughal Emperor. The
co-operation of these people helped Akbar in an extension of his empire
achieving conquests and suppressing revolts. The kings of Amber, Marwar,
Bikaner, and Boondi all allied with Akbar.
2. An atmosphere of goodwill in the country:Akbar’s religious policy encouraged the
establishment of peace, cooperation and goodwill in the country which helped the
growth of trade and commerce.

3. Social reforms: Akbar’s religious policy aided social reforms in many ways.
Inhuman practices like Sati prevalent amongst the Hindus were discouraged. Widows
were given the right to remarry. Akbar tried to restrict the sale of liquor. By giving up
eating meat himself, he tried to encourage a vegetarian society. the imposition of the
minimum age-bar, as 18 years for men and 14 years for women, was an attempt to
discourage the child marriage and a fore-runner of the Sharda Act

4. Cultural unity: Akbar’s religious policy encouraged the cultural integration in the
country by bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer. He established a translation
bureau so that Sanskrit, Arabic and Greek works could be translated into Persian. He
encouraged music, sculpture and Hindu architectural styles, and techniques. The
state could become secular because of his religious policy and cultural unity was
encouraged

The Mughal architecture reached its peak during Akbar's reign, with notable
structures like the Fatehpur Sikri complex and the Akbari architecture style,
which blended Islamic, Persian, Hindu, and indigenous Indian elements.

5. End of Din-i-Ilahi:A new religion Din-i-Illahi which saw its inception through him
soon came to an end perished after Akbar’s death in 1605

Limited role of Ulemas: it would be futile to consider Akbar’s difference with the ulemas as
purely religious; instead, they formed a part of his struggle against the nobility, who sought ulemas’
help to thwart the Emperor’s efforts to establish a broad-based state. This is clearly corroborated by
the rebellion in the Eastern provinces, in 1581 A.D. where Maulana Jaunpur and many others, blessed
a Fatwah of heresy against the Emperor, justified the revolt and invited Mirza Hakim to accept the
crown. Resultantly the role of Ulema were subdued in the affairs of the state.

Rebellion by the Ulemas: In 1580 A.D., the ulemas and Qazi of Jaunpur issued a
decree that the rebellion against Akbar as an apostate, was lawful

Mansabs to non Muslims: mansabs were

given to others also on the basis of their competence. Among them was
Tordal Mal, an expert in revenue affairs and_Birhal,_w_ho __
was a personal favourite of the emperor. There were others, such as
Rai Patr Das, entitled as Rai Bikramajit.

Expansion of the Empire:

Aurangzeb is often credited with expanding the Mughal Empire to its greatest
territorial extent. He conquered the Deccan region, including the kingdoms of Bijapur
and Golconda, in a series of military campaigns from 1682 to 1707. This significantly
increased the empire's size and resources.

Non-Muslims were given high mansabs by Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb was trying to reform weak bureaucracy whom Aurangzeb was trying to
purify. Aurangzeb believed that ineffective bureaucracy was the primary cause of
repeated rebellions against his empore. In this process of purification many Hindu
officials were ousted. Aurangzeb’s efforts to make bureaucracy more efficient did not
mean that religion became dominant over the state matters. Under Akbar, Hindus
constituted 22.5% of all Mughal nobles. In the first twenty years of Aurangzeb’s rule
this remained at a steady 21.6%. Between 1679-1707 Aurangzeb increased Hindu
participation at the elite levels of the Mughal state by nearly 50%, with Hindus
occupying 31.6% of the nobility. This ‘Hindu’ section included large number of
Rajputs, Marathas as well as other caste and sectarian groups. Not only were they
appointed within the administration, but they were also given high mansabs. Marathas
like Kanhoji Deccani and Yashwant Rao enjoyed a mansab of 5000 and 4000
respectively. Later when Shivaji’s son Shahu was imprisoned by the Mughals, he was
given a mansab of 7000. The likes of Jaswant Singh of Marwar and Jai Singh of
Amber enjoyed mansabs of 7000 while Raj Singh of Mewar had a rank of 6000.

Religious Piety:

Aurangzeb is known for his devout adherence to Islam. He implemented various

policies that promoted Islamic orthodoxy and sharia law. He banned music and
dance at the Mughal court and reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims. His piety
endeared him to certain segments of the population.

Infrastructure Development:

Despite his conservative religious stance, Aurangzeb also invested in infrastructure

development. He constructed roads, forts, and other public works. His construction
projects included the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore (1671 to 1673), the Bibi Ka
Maqbara in Aurangabad, and the Delhi Gate in the Red Fort.

Centralized Rule and Administrative Strain:

While Aurangzeb attempted to centralize power and maintain control
over the vast empire. Numerically and geographically, his empire
was vast. At the height of his power, Aurangzeb ruled over 150
million people, more than the entire population of Europe at the
time. Including the emperor’s sizeable conquests, the Mughal
kingdom stretched across 3.2 million square kilometres, including
parts of what are now India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and
Bangladesh.

Establishment of Islamic Law

He declared Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, which is a compilation of ethics, laws, and

rules which are completely based on Islam. He was among the very few
Mughal emperors to establish a complete Sharia law and Islamic economics.

The limited role of Ulema

Despite being a staunch Muslim who strictly observed five times prayer daily and
performed other Islamic rites, Aurangzeb did not allow religion to interfere with the
official matters. The ulema and qazis were not allowed to influence the state policy. viii
The king also did not try to persuade any non-Muslim to enter into the fold of Islam
because he thought such an act was against the basic principles of Islam. Aurangzeb’s
relation with the ulema was often shaped by his political requirements. When
Aurangzeb’s vision of state clashed with the ideas of the clerical class, Aurangzeb did
not hesitate in suppressing the interests of the ulema. This is extremely clear from
Aurangzeb’s decision to conquer Golconda and Bijapur [20]. The theological
elements in the emperor’s camp were not impressed by the decision as is evident from
the refusal of the Shaikh-ul-Islam to give a fatwa to the campaign who felt the
decision to wage war against a fellow Muslim ruler is unlawful. However, Aurangzeb
was not swayed, and he carried out his campaign despite the opposition of the ulema.

Love for Music and art(1654)

In the sixth year of his rule 1654, Aurangzeb proceeds to Kashmir. After visiting the
gardens and different lines of tulips in Srinagar, the king ordered that the illumination
should be arranged on the banks of Dal Lake and the boats. Music was also arranged
which added to the beauty of the lake, the love of Aurangzeb for Music negates the
argument that he was orthodox Music who had contempt for art and music.

Singing also continued to be patronized by the

ladies in die haram, and by princes, and individual no~les. It is of
some interest to note, as has been mentioned before, thatthe largest
number of Persian works on classical Indian music were written in
Aurangzeb's reign, and that Aurangzeb himself w·as proficient in
playing the veena. Thus, the jibe of Aurangzeb to the protesting
musicians that they should bury the bier of music they we.i;e carrying
deep under the earth .so 'that no echo of it may rise ag~in' was only an
angry remark.

Flexible Jaziya Tax

In 1679 It is collected from the young people who are not performing any state duties.
The old people, children, weak, poor, and ladies are exempted from paying this tax hence
it can never be said that Aurangzeb was trying to convert non-Muslims into Islam as
weaker section was exempted from tax anyhow. The wealthy non-Muslims are required
to pay this tax to the state. The Hindus, Sikhs and other non-Muslims who were in the
service of the state were not required to pay this tax. The philosophy behind this tax is
that under Islamic principles the state was bound to provide for the security of the non-
Muslims. There are many instances in early Islamic history when the Therefore, it was
bound to collect tax as payment for the services provided in this connection. Aurangzeb
strictly enforced this jazya according to Islam on those wealthy non-Muslims who were
not in the service of the state

Freedom to profess religion to Non-Muslims

Parsis and the Christians enjoyed full religious freedom in the Mughal Empire. However,
the Portuguese, French and British missionaries were warned not to go for forced
conversions. The willing conversion was allowed as allowed under the Islamic law.
Aurangzeb was very particular in observing the Islamic law in the whole of his empire.
Nothing un-Islamic was allowed to continue. In this way Hindus, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis
and persons belonging to other religions were allowed full freedom. On the authority of
Alexander Hamilton who visited India during the later part of Aurangzeb’s rule, it
is reported that Christians were allowed to build churches and propagate their
religion. Quoting the example of the different kinds of people belonging to all the
religions in Surat were allowed full freedom. However, the morals were checked and no
immoral activity was allowed by followers of any religion. Alexander Hamilton also
writes that no immoral activity was allowed

Granted positions to hindu nobles

In particular, he wanted the Marathas and the Rajputs to be with him. He

gave positions in his government to a large number of Marathas. He also did
a lot to promote the Rajput amirs. He gave them important positions in the
empire. Raja Jai Singh and Maharaja Jaswant Singh were among his closest
advisers. Throughout Aurangzeb’s reign the number of Hindu amirs kept
increasing. During Akbar’s time there were in all 22 Hindu amirs, in the time of
Shah Jahan 98, whereas in the time of Aurangzeb there were 182 Hindu
amirs who remained with him despite his religious policies.
Aurangzeb as a piety and merciful ruler

Aurangzeb spent a week in the mausoleum of the famous Sufi saint Gesu Daraz. Even
in his patronage, Aurangzeb was fairly catholic. Aurangzeb renewed the land grants
of several temples at Mathura, Allahabad, Brindavan and elsewhere. In 1687, the
emperor gave land to Ramjivan Gosain to build houses for ‘pious Brahmins and
fakirs’. In 1691, he conferred eight villages and substantial tax-free land to support
the Balaji temple. In 1698, he granted lland to a Brahmin named Rang Bhatt in
Khandesh. Aurangzeb enacted similar policies towards the Jains as well granting land
at Shatrunjaya, Girnar and Mount Abu in the late 1650s. In 1681, he donated land for
a Jain monastery to a Jain monk named Lal Vijay. As late as 1703, he issued orders to
stop people from harassing the Jain religious leader Jina Chandra Suri. He also gave
lavish gifts to the Sikh gurudwara at Dehradun.

Unfounded allegations of demolitions of Hindu temples

History has pointed that Aurangzeb destroyed certain Hindu temples and instead
constructed the mosques for the Muslims especially in Deccan.xxiv This is not true. As a
matter of fact when Aurangzeb reduced the forts of Satara and Parli, he discovered that
the Marthas had destroyed a number of mosques built by the sultans of Bijapur inside the
forts. On his conquest, Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of such temples and built
mosques as before.xxv Actually the policy of the Mughals since the times of Zahiruddin
Babur and Jalaluddin Akbar was not to destroy the old temples, rather they were required
to be maintained and repaired.

Aurangzeb is charged by some historians to have destroyed three temples in Benares. In

their places, it is also charged, three mosques were built.xli This is not true. the Aurangzeb
mosque allegedly to have been built on the ruins of Kirtibasewara temple was shown as
have been built in 1669. But the contemporary records show that this mosque was built
two years earlier. Aurangzeb is also charged with destruction of a number of temples after
when he conquered the forts of Gokunda and Bijapur in Deccan. This charge is also not
true. The fact is that after the capture of Golconda Aurangzeb found that due to weakness
of Abul Hasan, ruler of Golconda, the Hindus destroyed a number of mosquesAurangzeb
appointed Abdul Rahim Khan to see that Muslim sacred places are not harmed by the
Hindu population who had been encouraged because of presence of a number of Hindu
mansabdars in the Mughal army. It was found that even in the city of Hyderabad a
number of temple were constructed by the Hindus by destroying the existing mosques.
Abdul Rahim Khan ordered demolition of such temples and in their places the old
mosques were restored. The same was done in the whole of Golconda and Bijapur. The
old temples were not destroyed.
The temples that however still faced the wrath of the emperor suffered such a fate
primarily because of the close linkages that existed between temples and temporal
authority in pre-modern India. Following the treaty of Purandhar, Jai Singh the Rajput
chieftain from Amer made great efforts to bring about an alliance between
Aurangzeb and Shivaji. The subsequent visit of Shivaji to the emperor’s court and the
resultant conflict between which saw Shivaji imprisoned is by now a very popular tale
that needs to recount. Shivaji’s later escape from prison is an equally well-known
incident. However, Aurangzeb suspected Jai Singh’s complicity in Shivaji’s escape.
Subsequently, the Vishwanath temple built by Jai Singh was destroyed by Aurangzeb
as a punishment for Jai Singh’s alleged complicity in Shivaji’s escape. incidents
demonstrate is that when non-Muslim subjects of the Mughal emperors engaged in
open rebellion, the state resorted to principles of ‘selective’ temple desecration,
targeting particularly those temples that were clearly associated with the rebel
groups or individuals. Therefore, selective temple desecration appears to be a potent
political action that Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb adopted

MUSLIM REFORMIST MOVEMENT

SHEIKH AHMED SIRHANDI, Shah waliullah, syed ahmed

shaheed, sir syed’s aligarh movement.
Note:See notes of sirhandi, shah waliullah, syed ahmed
shaheed and aligarh
Two nation theory;
Note: See tnt notes

Factors for emergence of Muslim society

Patronage of Muslim rulers
The defence of Muslim empire by the Muslim rulers patronized
and protected the Muslim Empires and allowed Islamic identity
and society for sufficient time for evolution and take roots on
indian soil. By 1300, the last bastion of India, the Southerns
parts of India were conquered by Allahuddin Khalji. Southern
Hindu states such as Madurai,
Dwarasamudra Pandya Devagiri in 1313. The expansion of
empire consolidated the Muslim rule and also opened the
gates of Islam on southern most regions of India.

Role of Sufis

Shaikh Ismail Khurasani, one of the earliest Sufi missionaries, arrived in Sindh
(present-day Pakistan) during the 9th century and is credited with establishing early
Sufi orders in the region.he Delhi Sultanate period saw the establishment of
prominent Sufi orders (tariqas) such as the Chishti, Suhrawardi, and Qadiri orders.
These orders emphasized spiritual practices and social service as means of promoting
Islam.

Shaikh Salim Chishti (1478-1572 CE), a revered Sufi saint, lived at Fatehpur Sikri near
Agra during Akbar's reign.

Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325 CE), a prominent Sufi saint of the Chishti order
in Delhi, had disciples who spread Sufism in the Deccan Sultanates, leaving a lasting
impact on the region's cultural and religious landscape.

Even after the decline of Mughal power, Sufi orders continued to emphasize the
principles of love, tolerance, and unity, contributing to social cohesion and cultural
integration in various parts of India, such as Shah waliullah and Syed Ahmed
Shaheed.

Efficient Administration of Muslim rulers

Muslim rulers introduced Islamic legal principles (Sharia) into their administration,
providing a standardized legal framework for governance. This enhanced judicial
integrity and fairness, promoting stability and order within their realms.Efficient
revenue collection systems, such as the land revenue system (Zabt), were
implemented to ensure a steady income for the state.

An Iqta (plural: Iqta'at) was a form of land grant given by the ruler to a military officer
or noble, known as an Iqtadar or Muqti', in return for military or administrative
services. The grant included the right to collect revenue (taxes) from the assigned
territory.Mansab (meaning rank or position) referred to a numerical rank or military
title granted to nobles (Mansabdars) by the Mughal emperor.Mansabdars also held
administrative positions in various parts of the empire, overseeing revenue
collection, justice administration, and other civil functions. During Mughal’s time 24%
of world’s GDP was contributed by India, which was only possible through able
administration of Muslims resulting in the success of empire.

Policy of toleration and kindness towards Non-Muslims

Toleration was shown by the Muslims rulers for instance governors of

Sind to their subjects irrespective of caste and creed. Some of the
temples were no doubt destroyed during the days of war, but that was a
temporary phase, for the destruction was not due to religious bigotry or
fanaticism but to the fact that the temples were the repositories of
India’s aglong accumulated wealth. Once a place was occupied and
peace restored or the people submitted to the ruler and sought peace,
the conqueror adopted a kind and conciliatory policy towards them.
When the people of Brahmanabad, for instance submitted to the
conqueror Muhammad Bin Qasim, they were allowed to rebuild their
temples which were destroyed during the time of war.

Arab travelers refer to the non- Muslims as zimmis and not as kafirs
(infidels). Soon after the conquest of Sind and Multan, the killing of cows
was banned in the area. The reason may have been a simple desire to
preserve the cattle wealth, but regard for Hindu sentiments may also
have been partly responsible for this step.

Similarly Akbar policy of Sulh-I-Kulh also brought Non-Muslims

under influence of Muslims. Moreover, Akbar assimilated Hindu
Rajas into power structure through inter-religious marriage alliance.
For instance he married with daughter of Raja Bharmal Jodha Bai
also Known as Maryam Zamani. These alliances and policy of
assimilation over confrontation popularized Muslim rulers and
helped in consolidation of Muslim Empires.
Islamic teaching

Due to the High moral and character the Muslims attracted the local
population. Moreover the justice system of Islam, the equality of Islam
specially its disregard for the casteism impressed lower caste Hindus to
accept Islam. In a result majority of the population of Sind accepted
Islam. Hindu society was based on immoral and discriminatory caste
system divided in Brahmins, Vaish, Kshatriyas and Shudras. Shudras were
largest in terms of population but were most discriminated and
neglected community creeping under the yokes of Brahmins. Shudras
seeing the high moral castless society of Muslims impressed by the
conduct of Muslims who treated them equally. Shudras converted to
Islam in large number as Islam provided them with equal human status
in society.
Even Some Hindu chiefs showed a sympathetic interest in Islam, for in
886 a Hindu raja commissioned an Arab
linguist from Mansura to translate the Quran into the local language

Arab settlements on the coastal belt spreaded Islam in 630s and 640s

Arab sailors and traders plied their trade along the coast and soon after
the rise of Islam we find colonies of Muslim Arabs at a number of major
ports such as Cambay, Chaul, and Honawar. Muslims had reached
Ceylon.The largest Arab coastal settlements, however, were in Malabar,
where Muslims now form a substantial part of the population. One result
of the Arab settlement was the conversion of a local ruler to Islam, an
event which undoubtedly helped the position of the Muslim community.
These Muslim colonies on the coast are of interest also as they provided
the base from which missionaries, traders, and sailors went to the Far
East and spread Islam in Malaya and Indonesia.
The tribes such as Jats, Chana, Lohana, Sahita, Meds were considered as
low tribes. They were not allowed to cover their head and was instructed
to walk bare feet. They were not allowed to ride a horse.
The wells were also nt permitted to be used by thm.

5) RELIGIOUS ENTHUSIASM OF Muslims:

The Arabs were inspired by a new religion and had become fanatic. They
thought
that they were the forces of God and were engaged in a mission to
destroy the
faiths of the infidel and spared the blessings of Islam. The Arabs had also
a great
sense of patriotic feelings. The Indians on the other hand had no such
religious
enthusiasm or patriotism. Rather they had an indifferent, tolerant and
cosmopolitan attitude towards other faiths and other people.
Undoubtedly this
had resulted, the Arab’s success in Sindh.

V.D. Mahajan, a Hindu historian has rightly said:

“The spirit of adventure and fanaticism also helped them to win. They
were inspired to fight harder as they felt that they were fighting for the
cause of Islam”

6) STRONG ARMY:
The Arab army under the leadership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim was
superior to
that of Sindh of Dahir in strength and technique. They were also well-
equipped.
Dahir’s army only at Rawar was nearly on par in number with that of the
invader.
But they were very poorly equipped as the majority of them were hastily
recruited on the eve of the war and had not sufficient military training.
This had
caused the defeat of Dahir.
The force consisted of 6,000 Syrian horsemen, 6,000 camel troops with
3,000 Bactrian camel to carry supplies, and also five large Manjaniq (catapult)
engines named 'Uroos' (literal name 'The Bride') which required 500 men to operate
them.
Similarly Babur also had modernized Army he was the one who introduced cannon
first time in the warfare of subcontinent.

Muslim Support of Art and Scholars:

· Qutb-ud-din Aibak (reigned 1206-1210): Constructed the Qutb Minar complex in
Delhi, showcasing early Islamic architecture.

Although he was illiterate, but Ala-ud-din gave immense

support to poets and scholars. In words of Barani his durbar had 46 scholars. The most prolific scholar
was Amir Khusro who had wrote Tari-e-Alau. I. The statement of Sir Buljale
"A century starts with the rule of Ala-ud-din which can be called the Imperial age era of the
Sultanate."
· Promoted Persian and Arabic literature, encouraging translations and indigenous
literary developments.

· Architecture: Constructed notable mosques and palaces in Bijapur, Golconda,

and Bidar, blending Persian and Indian architectural styles.

Shah Jahan (reigned 1628-1658):

 Indo-Islamic Architecture: Constructed the Taj Mahal, Red Fort in Delhi,

Muslim patronage of art and culture in the Indian subcontinent

thus evolved over centuries, blending Islamic, Persian, and
indigenous Indian traditions to create a rich tapestry of artistic
achievements that continue to influence the region's cultural
heritage today.

Internal fragmentation among Hindu rulers.

Despite initial Hindu victories, internal divisions among Rajput
kingdoms weakened their coalition. Muhammad Ghori
exploited these divisions and emerged victorious in the
subsequent Battle of Tarain

· Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi:

 · The Chauhan dynasty, particularly centered around Ajmer and Delhi, was
notable for its resistance against the Ghurid and later Delhi Sultanate rulers,
including Prithviraj Chauhan's famous battles against Muhammad Ghori.

· Gehlot Dynasty of Mewar (Mewar Rajputs):

 · The Gehlots of Mewar, with Chittor as their capital, were prominent

Rajputs who resisted Muslim invasions and played a significant role in the
defense of Rajasthan against Delhi Sultanate incursions.

· Sisodias of Chittor (Sisodia Rajputs):

 · The Sisodias ruled from Chittor and were known for their valor and
resistance against foreign invasions, including the Delhi Sultanate and later
the Mughals.

· Gahadavalas of Kannauj:

 · The Gahadavalas were a powerful Rajput dynasty ruling over Kannauj and
parts of central India. They were prominent during the early medieval period
and engaged in conflicts with the Delhi Sultanate.

· Tomaras of Delhi:

 · The Tomara dynasty ruled Delhi before the establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate. They were influential in the region and contested with both Hindu
and Muslim rulers for control of Delhi.

· Paramaras of Malwa:
  · The Paramara dynasty, centered around Malwa in central India, had a
significant presence during the medieval period and often interacted with
both Rajput and Delhi Sultanate powers.

All these rajput kingdoms were fighting among themselves which opened the doors
for Islam in much of the North India. Akbar the Great integrates Rajput
kingdoms through matrimonial alliances and military cooperation,
forming the basis of Mughal-Rajput relations.

Many rajput confederacy eventually accepted to live under patronage of Muslim

empires

Analysis

conclusion