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Solution Manual for Nester’s Microbiology: A
Human Perspective, 10th Edition, Denise
Anderson, Sarah Salm Eugene Nester
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Student name:__________
TRUE/FALSE - Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.
1) Spontaneous generation refers to the idea that organisms came from other organisms.

⊚ true
⊚ false

2) The human body only contains bacteria during illness.

⊚ true
⊚ false

3) Bacteria and eukarya both contain membrane-bound organelles.

⊚ true
⊚ false

Version 1 1
4) The scientific name of an organism indicates its domain.

⊚ true
⊚ false

5) Viroids are naked (lacking a protein shell) pieces of RNA that infect plants.

⊚ true
⊚ false

6) Viruses simultaneously contain DNA, RNA, and protein.

⊚ true
⊚ false

7) Viruses, viroids, and prions are obligate intracellular agents.

⊚ true
⊚ false

8) Viruses and bacteria are both unicellular.

⊚ true
⊚ false

Version 1 2
9) An organism is categorized in a domain according to its cell size.

⊚ true
⊚ false

10) Archaea are very similar to bacteria and have rigid cell walls made of peptidoglycan.

⊚ true
⊚ false

11) Thiomargarita namibiensis cannot be a eukaryote because it is only 1 mm in width.

⊚ true
⊚ false

MULTIPLE CHOICE - Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or
answers the question.
12) The scientist usually credited with seeing the first microorganisms, which he called
"animalcules", was ______.

Version 1 3
 A) Redi
B) van Leeuwenhoek
C) Pasteur
D) Tyndall
E) Lister

13) The word "animalcule" was first used by ______.

A) Pasteur
B) Redi
C) van Leeuwenhoek
D) Tyndall
E) Hooke

14) The idea of spontaneous generation postulated that

A) organisms could evolve into the next generation of organisms.

B) organisms could spontaneously turn into other types of organisms.
C) living organisms could spontaneously arise from non-living material.
D) living organisms could spontaneously arise from other living organisms.
E) living organisms must contain at least ten cells.

15) Which of these scientists were involved in investigating the idea of spontaneous
generation?

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 A) Redi and van Leeuwenhoek
B) Redi and Pasteur
C) van Leeuwenhoek and Pasteur
D) Pasteur and Escherich
E) Escherich and Redi

16) The work of Tyndall and Cohn

A) supported the idea of spontaneous generation rather than the idea of biogenesis.
B) explained why some spontaneous generation investigators got different results from
those of Pasteur.
C) showed that all microbes caused spontaneous disease if they enter the human body.
D) allowed scientists to see microorganisms (called "animalcules") using a simple
microscope.
E) showed that boiling fails to kill vegetative bacteria, leading to biogenesis.

17) The structures present in the hay infusions used in experiments on spontaneous
generation that made them difficult to sterilize are _____.

A) chloroplasts
B) endospores
C) organelles
D) toxins
E) nuclei

18) The contradictory results obtained by different scientists apparently doing the same
experiments in investigating spontaneous generation

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 A) show that doing experiments once should be enough to prove something.
B) show the importance of exactly duplicating experimental conditions.
C) led to further experiments that ultimately proved spontaneous generation.
D) could not be explained by anyone involved in the work.
E) led to the development and production of swan-necked flasks.

19) If Pasteur had done his experiments investigating spontaneous generation in a horse
stable,

A) the results would probably have supported the idea of spontaneous generation.
B) the results would probably not have supported the idea of spontaneous generation.
C) the results would probably been the same as those obtained in a laboratory.
D) the results would probablyhave supported the idea of spontaneous biogenesis.
E) it would probably have taken several years to obtain any results.

20) Cellulose is a major component of plants and is only directly digested by

A) carnivores.
B) termites.
C) herbivores.
D) microorganisms.
E) birds.

21) Plants are dependent on microorganisms for

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 A) providing oxygen in a usable form.
B) providing water and carbon dioxide.
C) changing atmospheric nitrogen to a usable form.
D) providing simplecarbohydrates in a usable form.
E) providing simple and complex proteins.

22) Microorganisms are useful for all of the following EXCEPT

A) causing disease.
B) curing/treating disease.
C) preparing food.
D) cleaning up pollutants.
E) scientific research.

23) Bacteria have been used to help produce or modify all of the following food products
EXCEPT

A) cheeses.
B) beer and wine.
C) pickled products.
D) bread.
E) peanuts.

24) Microorganisms areinvolved in all of the following EXCEPT

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 A) production of medicinal products.
B) food production.
C) pollution cleanup.
D) converting nitrogen to a form useful to plants.
E) There are no exceptions here. There are microorganisms that participate in each of
these activities.

25) Bioremediation refers to

A) rehabilitating wayward pathogenic bacteria.

B) using bacteria to clean up environmental pollutants.
C) development of new vaccines.
D) monitoring newly discovered disease organisms.
E) destroying organisms causing infectious diseases.

26) Which of the following about the Golden Age of Medical Microbiology is FALSE?

A) It started with the development of the first microscopes.

B) It occurred during the late 1800s to the early 1900s.
C) It is a time when the knowledge of bacteria and work with them expanded.
D) It was the time when people realized that diseases could be caused by invisible
agents.
E) It was a time when several major advances were made in microbiology.

27) Which of the following statements about newly emerging or reemerging diseases is
FALSE?

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 A) They may be caused by changing lifestyles.
B) Examples include hepatitis C, Ebola disease and COVID-19.
C) They may result from a breakdown in sanitation and social order.
D) They are all caused by drug-resistant pathogens.
E) They may result when microbes evolve and develop new characteristics.

28) Lyme disease is an example of a disease that is due to

A) increased interaction between humans and tick-carrying animals.

B) failure to effectively vaccinate children.
C) a mutation in the human genome.
D) climate change leading to a significantly greater mosquito population.
E) an increase in the number of people travelling to Asia and Africa.

29) The outbreak of measles within the last few years is due to

A) mutation of the measles virus.

B) change in the environment and climate.
C) a decline in vaccination of children in the previous years.
D) increase in sensitivity of detection techniques.
E) emergence of novel measles viruses.

30) Which of the statements regarding smallpox is TRUE?

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 A) Smallpox has been eliminated as a naturally occurring infection in human beings
through vaccination.
B) Smallpox still occasionally occurs in developing countries though failure to
vaccinate everyone.
C) Smallpox outbreaks sometimes occur in chimpanzee populations but seldom kills the
animals.
D) Smallpox outbreaks sometimes occur in chimpanzee populations and kills all the
animals affected.
E) Smallpox continues to be a common, naturally occurring infection in human beings.

31) Smallpox

A) has occurred in a few countries since 1977.

B) has little potential as a weapon of bioterrorism.
C) has not occurredanywhere in the word since 1977.
D) very seldom kills people, but does scar them.
E) is an emerging infectious disease.

32) Ulcers, previously thought to be caused by stress, are in fact often caused by

A) a bacterial infection.
B) an insufficient diet.
C) a genetic mutation.
D) a fungal pathogen.
E) a viral infection.

33) Bacteria are useful to study because

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 A) they produce protein in a simpler manner than more complex organisms.
B) they have the same fundamental metabolic and genetic properties as higher
organisms.
C) they produce energy in a simpler manner than more complex organisms.
D) they both synthesize and are resistant to all known antibiotics.
E) they produce peptidoglycan in a simpler manner than more complex organisms.

34) Which of the following regarding normal microbiota is TRUE?

A) Normal microbiota are only found in the lungs or digestive tract.

B) Normal microbiota protect us from disease by competing with pathogenicbacteria.
C) Normal microbiota are only found on small select parts of the human body.
D) Normal microbiota typically cause disease when growing in or on our bodies.
E) Normal microbiota play little or no role in the general health of humans.

35) Bacteria are present on the body

A) only during disease-causing infections.

B) at all times.
C) only in certain areas.
D) only after intense exercise.
E) only after using public transport.

36) Bacteria are good research models because they

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 A) vary in size from microscopic to macroscopic.
B) share manyproperties with more complex organisms.
C) can be assembled into complex multicellular organisms.
D) have similarly complicated growth requirements.
E) develop the same diseases as humans and animals.

37) Select the FALSE statement regarding bacteria.

A) They are usually rod, sphere, or spiral in shape.

B) They reproduce by binary fission.
C) They contain a peptidoglycan cell wall.
D) They are found as single cells.
E) They are never photosynthetic.

38) Which is usually NOT true of archaea?

A) They move using flagella.

B) They reproduce by mitosis.
C) They contain rigid cell walls.
D) They are found as single cells.
E) They are prokaryotes.

39) All of the statements regarding archaea are true EXCEPT

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 A) they contain peptidoglycan in their cell walls.
B) they reproduce by binary fission.
C) they contain a rigid cell wall.
D) they are found as single cells.
E) they often grow in extreme environments.

40) An extreme environment in which archaea have been found is

A) lakes and oceans.

B) boiling hot springs.
C) marshes and swamps.
D) refrigerators.
E) animal digestive tracts.

41) The cell types that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and have rigid cell walls of
peptidoglycan are

A) eukaryotes.
B) fungi.
C) bacteria.
D) archaea.
E) protozoa.

42) The prokaryotic domain includes

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 A) bacteria AND fungi.
B) archaea AND viruses.
C) fungi AND bacteria.
D) bacteria, archaea, AND fungi.
E) bacteria AND archaea.

43) Select the TRUE statement(s) regardingeukaryotes.

A) Eukaryotes are all multicellular organisms AND have a membrane around the DNA.
B) Eukaryotes have a more complex internal structure than archaea or bacteria.
C) Eukaryotes have a simpler internal structure than archaea or bacteria AND have a
membrane around the DNA.
D) Eukaryotes have a membrane around the DNA.
E) Eukaryotes have a more complex internal structure than archaea or bacteria AND
have a membrane around the DNA.

44) Which group(s) below contain single-celled and multicellular organisms?

A) Algae AND bacteria

B) Fungi AND archaea
C) Protozoa AND bacteria
D) Algae AND fungi
E) Fungi AND protozoa

45) All living organisms

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 A) may be classified in four domains.
B) may be classified in three domains.
C) probably do not have a common ancestor.
D) have never shared genes between domains.
E) are capable of causing disease.

46) The system by which organisms are named is referred to as

A) systematics.
B) naming.
C) nomenclature.
D) binomialism.
E) bioinformatics.

47) The scientific name of an organism includes its

A) family and genus.

B) first name and last name.
C) genus and species.
D) domain and genus.
E) domain and species.

48) Which are the correctly written scientific name?

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 A) Staphylococcus aureus
B) Staphylococcus a.
C) St. aureus
D) Staph

49) Which of these applies to the term strain?

A) E. coli 0157:H7
B) E. coli
C) Minor variation of a species
D) Major variation of a species
E) E. coli 0157:H7 AND minor variation of a species

50) Select the statement that is TRUE regarding viroids.

A) They are naked (lacking a protein shell) pieces of RNA.

B) They are naked (lacking a protein shell) pieces of DNA.
C) They are known to cause neurodegenerative diseases in animals.
D) They are composed of protein encasing a DNA genome.
E) They are composed of both RNA and DNA within a lipid coat.

51) Outside of a host cell, viruses are

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 A) carrying out a few biochemical reactions.
B) synthesizing proteins necessary for entry into the host.
C) inert, and not capable of replication.
D) constructing a membrane known as an envelope.
E) capable of a few replication cycles.

52) Viruses may only be grown

A) in sterile growth media.

B) in living cells.
C) at body temperature.
D) in darkness.
E) in liquid broths.

53) Viruses are in the domain(s)

A) viridae.
B) eukarya.
C) archaeaAND bacteria.
D) bacteria AND viridae.
E) None of the answer choices is correct.

54) Which if the following is TRUE regarding viruses?

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 A) They are obligate intracellular parasites.
B) They are single-celled organisms.
C) They are composed of only proteins.
D) They belong tothe domain Archaea.
E) They containonly of DNA or RNA.

55) What do viruses, viroids, and prions all have in common?

A) They contain only RNA and protein.

B) They are acellular agents of disease.
C) They contain only DNA or protein.
D) They infect only animals.
E) They cause neurodegenerative diseases.

56) Viruses and viroids are

A) capable of independent reproduction.

B) obligate intracellular parasites.
C) members of the domain Bacteria.
D) larger than most bacteria in size.
E) agents that cause disease in animals.

57) Which is TRUE about prions?

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 A) They are only composed of RNA.
B) They are only composed of DNA.
C) They are only composed of protein.
D) They cause diseases in plants.
E) They are only composed of RNA and DNA.

58) A new organism was found that was unicellular and 1 cm long. The "large" size of this
organism alone would

A) mean that it couldnot be a bacterium.

B) mean that it must be a protozoan.
C) not be useful for identifying it.
D) mean that it belongs in the domain Eukarya.
E) suggest that it is a virus.

59) Although it is said that the twentieth century was the Age of Physics, it is predicted that
the twenty-first century will be the age of

A) chemistry.
B) computers.
C) microbial biodiversity.
D) mathematics.
E) psychology.

60) HIV/AIDS can be categorized as a new or emerging infectious disease. By putting it into
this category, we areindicating that

Version 1 19
 A) this infection hasn't been observed in the human population prior to recent (within
the last 50 years) outbreaks.
B) this disease hasbeen in susceptible populations for centuries, but has only recently
achievedinfection levels that became detectable.
C) the infectiousagent is still evolving and changing, unlike with older,
moreestablisheddiseases such as plague or polio.
D) the disease hasalways been in susceptible populations and causing disease, but we
lacked thetechnology to detect it.
E) this infection hasn't been observed in the human population prior to recent (within
the last 5 years) outbreaks.

61) An illness outbreak occurs in New York City birds in the late 1990s. After an
investigation, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) determine that the agent causing theis the
West Nile virus. Outbreaks of this illness have been observed in several other countries in Asia
and the Middle East across the last 50 years, but not in the United States. With this information,
what would be the best categorization of this infectious agent/disease?

A) This isa reemerging infection. It is been around for a long time, and it is reappearing
in a susceptible population again.
B) This isa nosocomial (hospital-acquired)infection. It is transmitted from animals to
human beings in urban environments.
C) This is an emerging infection. It hasn't been around that long, and it has made a jump
across continents into a new susceptible population.
D) This is an unimportant infection thatnot a concern to human beings because it occurs
in birds, so there is no need to classify it.
E) This is a chronic infection. It has been around for many years, and it has made a jump
across continents into a new susceptible population.

62) Why are we concerned at all with monitoring emerging/reemerging diseases?

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 A) These representgrowing threats to human health that will require new scientific
research andresources to effectively combat.
B) Because globalization leads to more chances for spread of illnesses into new areas
and populations. Monitoring these illnesses will help us to protect people.
C) Because the speed of travel has increased, so it is far more likely that a serious
pathogen can spread rapidly across the globe. Monitoring these illnesses will help us protect
populations.
D) All of the answer choices are correct.
E) None of the answer choices is correct.

63) A microbiologist obtained two pure isolated biological samples: one is a virus, and one is
a viroid. The labels came off the samples during a move from one lab to the next, however. The
scientist felt she could distinguish between the two samples by analyzing for the presence of a
single type of molecule. Whatwould she be looking for to differentiate between the two?

A) DNA
B) Protein
C) Lipid
D) RNA
E) Carbohydrate

64) A scientist has two samples—the first is a prion, while the second is a viroid. However,
the samples are in unlabeled tubes.The scientistwants to run a simple analysis to determine
which tube contains the prionand which one contains the viroid. What type of molecule would
she look for to do this?

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 A) Lipids
B) DNA
C) Protein
D) Polysaccharides
E) Peptidoglycan

65) A scientist discovers a new species near coral reefs in Australia. He finds that this single-
celled species is photosynthetic (using sunlight for energy), has a rigid cell wall structure with no
peptidoglycan, uses a flagellum for motion, and contains a variety of internal structures that are
membrane-bound. Given this information, this new species is most likely a(n) ______ cell in the
______ domain.

A) bacterial; Eukarya
B) fungal; Prokarya
C) viral; Archaea
D) algal; Eukarya
E) protozoan; Bacteria

66) Scientists recently cloned Louis Pasteur and put him to work in a modern lab. He
immediately developed a topical gel (used externally) that breaks down proteins. Since he hasn't
been around for some time, he's unsure what the best application for his invention might be. Help
him out. What pathogenic agent would this gel be most effective and safe at eliminating?

A) Viroids on the surface of agricultural plant tissues.

B) Prions inside the central nervous system of cows.
C) Viruses on the surface of the skin.
D) Bacteria in the intestines of human beings.
E) The fungus that causes infections under people's toenails.

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67) Select the TRUE statement regarding viruses.

A) Most viruses are smaller than bacteria but bigger than mitochondria.
B) Viruses may be unicellular or multicellular.
C) Viruses contain both DNA and RNA.
D) Viruses always cause death of the host cells they infect.
E) Virus are considered living because they contain nucleic acid.

68) You are examining a pea plant that is showing signs of disease—brown leaves and no pea
pods. You isolate an agent from the plant that only contains RNA and protein. This is a(n)
______.

A) viroid
B) virus
C) bacterium
D) fungus
E) protozoan

69) Which terms refer to bacterial morphology?

A) Bacillus AND polyhedral

B) Coccus AND polyhedral
C) Coccus AND Bacillus
D) Polyhedral, coccus, AND Bacillus
E) Coccus AND squarish

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70) What was the significance of the shape of the flasks used by Pasteur in his experiments
proving biogenesis?

A) The flask shape allowed Pasteur to use less broth, so the experiments were cheaper
and could be repeated more often.
B) The swan neck of the flasks allowed “vital force” to enter them but prevented
bacteria from falling into the broth.
C) Swan-necked flasks have an opening too small for entry of microbes, while conical
flasks have a wide neck that allows microbial entry.
D) Pasteur could place gel in the bend of the swan-necked flask, trapping any entering
microbes.
E) There is no significance; Pasteur simply used any flasks available in his laboratory,
in this case swan-necked.

71) A patient’s throat swab yields organisms that appear as long chains of round cells under
light microscope. Given this information, it is possible that the organism is:

A) Streptococcus pyogenes
B) Staphylococcus aureus
C) Bacillus species
D) A virus
E) Streptococcus pyogenes OR Staphylococcus aureus

72) Which statement about normal microbiota is TRUE?

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 A) The body carries 10 times as many microbial cells as human cells.
B) Normal microbiota is restricted to the gut and only plays a role in digestion and
vitamin synthesis.
C) The microbiome includes members of a microbial community and the genetic
makeup of that community.
D) The majority of microbes in a microbiome can be identified by culturing them in a
laboratory.
E) Bacterial species associated with gum disease also always cause Alzheimer’s disease.

73) Which of the following bacterial pairs is LEAST related?

A) Escherichia coli K AND Escherichia coli B12

B) Bacillus subtilis AND Bacillus cereus
C) Vibrio cholerae O1 AND Vibrio cholerae O139
D) Escherichia coli O157:H7 AND E. coli O157:H4
E) Streptococcus pneumoniae AND Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Version 1 25
74) Consider the Venn diagram pertaining to the three domains, and select the CORRECT
characterization. Remember that characteristics shared by two or more items are found in the
circle overlaps.

A) Prokaryote AND peptidoglycan - B

B) Eukaryote AND multicellular - G
C) Prokaryote AND multicellular - D
D) Prokaryote AND nucleus - E
E) Prokaryote - F

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75) Consider the Venn diagram pertaining to prokaryotes, eukaryotes and acellular agents,
and select the INCORRECT classification. Remember that in a Venn diagram, common
characterisitcs are found in the circle overlaps.

A) Peptidoglycan, 70S ribosomes and nucleoid - A

B) Cytoplasm, ribosomes and DNA - B
C) DNA or RNA, lipid and protein - G
D) Ribosomes, cytoplasm and nucleic acid - E
E) Mitochondria, Golgi and chloroplasts - C

SECTION BREAK. Answer all the part questions.

76) A scientist isolates a microbe from a contaminated water source. She thinks that the
organism might be a new bacteria that is capable of surviving in the presence of lead, which is a
heavy metal. She makes tubes of nutrient medium (supports microbial growth) containing either
no lead, 0.1 mg lead, 0.25 mg lead, 0.5 mg of lead, or 1 mg of lead. She inoculates each tube
with the 10 x 103 cells of the new organism and then incubates the tubes at 37oC. After 48 hours,
she examines the tubes and finds that there is no growth in any of them. However, she finds that
the organism grew well in medium that did not contain any lead. She decides to repeat the
experiment using lower concentrations of lead than those she used initially.

Version 1 27
 76.1) Select which of the following is the hypothesisbeing tested by the scientist.

A) The newly isolated microbe can grow in the presence of lead.

B) The newly isolated microbe is a bacteria.
C) Lead can be placed into tubes of growth medium.
D) Bacteria must be incubated for 72 hours before they grow.
E) Lead is a good nutrient for all bacterial growth.

76.2) Identify the control step in the scenario described.

A) Inoculating the test microbe into nutrient medium containing a different heavy metal.
B) Isolating the microbe from a contaminated water source.
C) Inoculating the test microbe into nutrient medium lacking lead.
D) Inoculating the test microbe into medium containing lower levels of lead than used
initally.
E) Inoculating the test microbe into contaminated water containing high levels of lead.

76.3) What conclusion can the scientist in this scenario make from her results?

A) The test bacteria take more than 48 hours to grow in the laboratory when incubated
o
at 37 C.
B) All contaminated water contains high levels of lead and other heavy metals.
C) The test organism was killed by the levels of lead tested.
D) All experiments should be repeated three times or more.
E) Lead-contaminated water never contains any living organisms.

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77) Janus is a keen baseball player at the high school where you are employed as a nurse. He
comes to your office and shows you an injury to his knee which he got by sliding into home
base, scoring a game-winning run. His knee has araw patch where the skin has been scraped off,
and the area around the wound is swollen.Janus tells you that he washed his knee with soap and
water to remove any germs, and then put a bandage onit, but it is very painful and red.

77.1) You explain to Janus that he may have an infection in his wound, possibly caused
by the organism Staphylococcus epidermidis. You tell him that the genus name of the
organism indicates that

A) the cells are found in the digestive tract.

B) the cells are round and grow in clusters.
C) the organism is a pathogen.
D) the organism is normal microbiota.
E) the cells have a golden color.

77.2) Janus tells you he knows that yeast cells are also round. He asks how scientists
can tell the difference between yeasts and bacteria. Select the choice that best answers his
question.

A) Bacteria are microscopic.

B) Bacteria are photosynthetic.
C) Bacteria are unicellular.
D) Bacteria contain peptidoglycan.
E) Bacteria can be pathogenic.

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 77.3) Janus asks you if there is something he can use to kill any bacteria in his wound
without affecting any of his own body cells. You tell him that some antibiotics kill bacteria
by targeting _____ , a compound unique to bacteria.

A) protein
B) nuclear membrane
C) flagella
D) peptidoglycan
E) chitin

77.4) Janus' knee infection should be considered an emerging infectious disease, and
you should report it to the Centers of disease Control (CDC).

⊚ true
⊚ false

78) Sandy has been taking an antibiotic for a urinary tract infection (UTI). Although the signs
and symptoms of Sandy's UTIresolved after a few days of taking the medication, she complains
to you that she has been having watery diarrheafor the last two days, and she wonders whether
the antibiotic is affecting her digestive tract. You take the opportunity to give her information
about her normal microbiota.

78.1) You explain to Sandy that her body carries an enormous population of
microorganisms, collectively called the normal microbiota. You tell her that this
population has a vital role in maintaining her health. Select the FALSE statement regarding
the role of the normal microbiota. <!--Markup Copied from Habitat-->

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alike have no shadow, and therefore when any beast flees into this
enclosure the hunter cannot follow it up, but remaining outside and
looking at the beast sees no shadow falling from it. As long indeed
as the Sun is in Cancer there is no shadow from trees or living things
at Syene in Ethiopia, but this sacred enclosure on Mount Lycæus is
the same in reference to shadows during every period of the year.
There is on the highest ridge of the mountain a mound of earth, the
altar of Lycæan Zeus, from which most of the Peloponnese is visible:
and in front of this altar there are two pillars facing east, and some
golden eagles upon them of very ancient date. On this altar they
sacrifice to Lycæan Zeus secretly: it would not be agreeable to me to
pry too curiously into the rites, let them be as they are and always
have been.
On the eastern part of the mountain is a temple of Parrhasian Apollo,
also called Pythian Apollo. During the annual festival of the god they
sacrifice in the market-place a boar to Apollo the Helper, and after
the sacrifice they convey the victim to the temple of Parrhasian
Apollo with fluteplaying and solemn procession, and cut off the
thighs and burn them, and consume the flesh of the victim on the
spot. Such is their annual custom.
And on the north side of Mount Lycæus is the district of Thisoa: the
men who live here hold the Nymph Thisoa in highest honour.
Through this district several streams flow that fall into the Alpheus,
as Mylaon and Nus and Achelous and Celadus and Naliphus. There
are two other rivers of the same name but far greater fame than this
Achelous in Arcadia, one that flows through Acarnania and Ætolia till
it reaches the islands of the Echinades, which Homer has called in
the Iliad the king of all rivers,[41] the other the Achelous flowing from
Mount Sipylus, which river and mountain he has associated with the
legend of Niobe.[42] The third Achelous is this one on Mount
Lycæus.
To the right of Lycosura are the hills called Nomia, on which is a
temple of Pan Nomius on a spot called Melpea, so called they say
from the piping of Pan there. The simplest explanation why the hills
were called Nomia is that Pan had his pastures there, but the
Arcadians say they were called after a Nymph of that name.
 CHAPTER XXXIX.

P ast Lycosura in a westerly direction flows the river Plataniston,

which everyone must cross who is going to Phigalia, after which
an ascent of 30 stades or a little more takes you to that town. How
Phigalus was the son of Lycaon, and how he was the original
founder of the town, and how in process of time the name of the
town got changed into Phialia from Phialus the son of Bucolion, and
afterwards got back its old name, all this I have entered into already.
There are other traditions not worthy of credit, as that Phigalus was
an Autochthon and not the son of Lycaon, and some say that
Phigalia was one of the Nymphs called Dryads. When the
Lacedæmonians attacked Arcadia and invaded Phigalia, they
defeated the inhabitants in a battle and laid siege to the town, and as
the town was nearly taken by storm the Phigalians evacuated it, or
the Lacedæmonians allowed them to leave it upon conditions of war.
And the capture of Phigalia and the flight of the Phigalians from it
took place when Miltiades was chief magistrate at Athens, in the 2nd
year of the 30th Olympiad, in which Chionis the Laconian was victor
for the third time. And it seemed good to those Phigalians who had
escaped to go to Delphi, and inquire of the god as to their return.
And the Pythian Priestess told them that if they tried by themselves
to return to Phigalia she foresaw no hope of their return, but if they
took a hundred picked men from Oresthasium, and they were slain in
battle, the Phigalians would get their return through them. And when
the people of Oresthasium heard of the oracular message given to
the Phigalians, they vied with one another in zeal who should be one
of the 100 picked men, and participate in the expedition to Phigalia.
And they engaged with the Lacedæmonian garrison and fulfilled the
oracle completely: for they all died fighting bravely, and drove out the
Spartans, and put it in the power of the Phigalians to recover their
native town. Phigalia lies on a hill which is mostly precipitous, and its
walls are built on the rocks, but as you go up to the town there is a
gentle and easy ascent. And there is a temple of Artemis the
Preserver, and her statue in stone in an erect position. From this
temple they usually conduct the processions. And in the gymnasium
there is a statue of Hermes with a cloak on, which does not cease at
his feet but covers the whole square figure. There is also a temple of
Dionysus called Acratophorus by the people of the place, the lower
parts of the statue are not visible being covered by leaves of laurel
and ivy. And all the statue that can be seen is coloured with vermilion
so as to look very gay. The Iberes find this vermilion with their gold.
[41] Iliad, xxi. 194-197.
[42] Iliad, xxiv. 615-617.
 CHAPTER XL.

T he people of Phigalia have also in their market-place the statue

of Arrhachion the pancratiast, an antique one in all other
respects and not least so in its shape. The feet are not very wide
apart, and the hands are by the side near the buttocks. The statue is
of stone, and they say there was an inscription on it, which time has
obliterated. This Arrhachion had two victories at Olympia in the two
Olympiads before the 54th, through the equity of the umpires and his
own merit. For when he contended for the prize of wild olive with the
only one of his antagonists that remained, his opponent got hold of
him first and with his feet hugged him, and at the same time
grappled his neck tightly with his arms. And Arrhachion broke the
finger of his antagonist, and gave up the ghost being throttled, and
his antagonist also, though he had throttled Arrhachion, fainted away
from the pain his finger gave him. And the people of Elis crowned the
dead body of Arrhachion and proclaimed him victor. I know the
Argives did the same in the case of Creugas the boxer of
Epidamnus, for though he was dead they gave him the crown at
Nemea, because his opponent Damoxenus the Syracusan violated
their mutual agreements. For as they were boxing evening came on,
and they agreed in the hearing of all the audience that they should
strike one another once in turn. Boxers did not at this time wear the
cestus loaded with iron, but they wore leather thongs, (which they
fastened under the hollow of the hand that the fingers might be left
uncovered), made of ox hides and thin and deftly woven together
after an old fashion. Then Creugas delivered the first blow on
Damoxenus’ head, and Damoxenus bade Creugas hold back his
hand, and as he did so struck him under the ribs with his fingers
straight out, and such was the hardness of his nails and the violence
of the blow that his hand pierced his side, seized his bowels and
dragged and tore them out. Creugas immediately expired. And the
Argives drove Damoxenus off the course because he had violated
the conditions, and instead of one blow had given several to his
antagonist. To Creugas though dead they assigned the victory, and
erected to him a statue in Argos, which is now in the temple of
Lycian Apollo.
 CHAPTER XLI.

T he Phigalians have also in their market-place a mortuary chapel

to the 100 picked men from Oresthasium, and annually offer
funeral sacrifices to them as to heroes. And the river called Lymax
which falls into the Neda flows by Phigalia. It got its name Lymax
they say from the purifications of Rhea. For when after giving birth to
Zeus the Nymphs purified her after travail, they threw into this river
the afterbirth, which the ancients called Lymata. Homer bears me out
when he says that the Greeks purifying themselves to get rid of the
pestilence threw the purifications into the sea.[43] The Neda rises on
the mountain Cerausius, which is a part of Mount Lycæus. And
where the Neda is nearest to Phigalia, there the lads of the town
shear off their hair to the river. And near the sea it is navigable for
small craft. Of all the rivers that we know of the Mæander is most
winding having most curves and sinuosities. And next for winding
would come the Neda. About 12 stades from Phigalia are hot baths,
and the Lymax flows into the Neda not far from that place. And
where they join their streams is a temple of Eurynome, holy from
remote antiquity, and difficult of access from the roughness of the
ground. Round it grow many cypresses close to one another.
Eurynome the Phigalian people believe to be a title of Artemis, but
their Antiquarians say that Eurynome was the daughter of Oceanus,
and is mentioned by Homer in the Iliad as having joined Thetis in
receiving Hephæstus.[44] And on the same day annually they open
the temple of Eurynome: for at all other times they keep it shut. And
on that day they have both public and private sacrifices to her. I was
not in time for the festival, nor did I see the statue of Eurynome. But I
heard from the Phigalians that the statue has gold chains round it,
and that it is a woman down to the waist and a fish below. To the
daughter of Oceanus who dwelt with Thetis in the depths of the sea
these fish extremities would be suitable: but I do not see any logical
connection between Artemis and a figure of this kind.
Phigalia is surrounded by mountains, on the left by Cotilius, on the
right by the projecting mountain Elaion. Cotilius is about 40 stades
from Phigalia, and on it is a place called Bassæ, and a temple of
Apollo the Helper, the roof of which is of stone. This temple would
stand first of all the temples in the Peloponnese, except that at
Tegea, for the beauty of the stone and neatness of the structure. And
Apollo got his title of Helper in reference to a pestilence, as among
the Athenians he got the title of Averter of Ill because he turned
away from them some pestilence. He helped the Phigalians about
the time of the Peloponnesian war, as both titles of Apollo shew
plainly, and Ictinus the builder of the temple at Phigalia was a
contemporary of Pericles, and the architect of what is called the
Parthenon at Athens. I have already mentioned the statue of Apollo
in the market-place at Megalopolis.
And there is a spring of water on Mount Cotilius, from which
somebody has written that the river Lymax takes its rise, but he can
neither have seen the spring himself, nor had his account from any
one who had seen it. I have done both: and the water of the spring
on Mount Cotilius does not travel very far, but in a short time gets
lost in the ground altogether. Not that it occurred to me to inquire in
what part of Arcadia the river Lymax rises. Above the temple of
Apollo the Helper is a place called Cotilum, where there is a temple
of Aphrodite lacking a roof, as also a statue of the goddess.
[43] Iliad, i. 314.
[44] Iliad, xviii. 398, 399, 405.
 CHAPTER XLII.

T he other mountain, Elaion, is about 30 stades from Phigalia, and

there is a cave there sacred to Black Demeter. All the traditions
that the people of Thelpusa tell about the amour of Poseidon with
Demeter are also believed by the people of Phigalia. But the latter
differ in one point: they say Demeter gave birth not to a foal but to
her that the Arcadians call Despœna. And after this they say, partly
from indignation with Poseidon, partly from sorrow at the rape of
Proserpine, she dressed in black, and went to this cave and nobody
knew of her whereabouts for a long time. But when all the fruits of
the earth were blighted, and mankind was perishing from famine,
and none of the gods knew where Demeter had hidden herself but
Pan, who traversed all Arcadia, hunting in various parts of the
mountains, and had seen Demeter dressed as I have described on
Mount Elaion, then Zeus learning all about this from Pan sent the
Fates to Demeter, and she was persuaded by them to lay aside her
anger, and to wean herself from her grief. And in consequence of her
abode there, the Phigalians say that they considered this cave as
sacred to Demeter, and put in it a wooden statue of the goddess,
fashioned as follows. The goddess is seated on a rock, like a woman
in all respects but her head, which is that of a mare with a mare’s
mane, and figures of dragons and other monsters about her head,
and she has on a tunic which reaches to the bottom of her feet. In
one hand she has a dolphin, in the other a dove. Why they
delineated the goddess thus is clear to everybody not without
understanding who remembers the legend. And they call her Black
Demeter because her dress is black. They do not record who this
statue was by or how it caught fire. But when the old one was burnt
the Phigalians did not offer another to the goddess, but neglected
her festivals and sacrifices, till a dearth came over the land, and
when they went to consult the oracle the Pythian Priestess gave
them the following response:
“Arcadians, acorn-eating Azanes who inhabit Phigalia, go to the
secret cave of the horse-bearing Demeter, and inquire for alleviation
from this bitter famine, you that were twice Nomads living alone,
living alone feeding upon roots. Demeter taught you something else
besides pasture, she introduced among you the cultivation of corn,
though you have deprived her of her ancient honours and
prerogatives. But you shall eat one another and dine off your
children speedily, if you do not propitiate her wrath by public
libations, and pay divine honours to the recess in the cave.”
When the Phigalians heard this oracular response, they honoured
Demeter more than before, and got Onatas of Ægina, the son of
Mico, for a great sum of money to make them a statue of the
goddess. This Onatas made a brazen statue of Apollo for the people
of Pergamus, most wonderful both for its size and artistic merit. And
he having discovered a painting or copy of the ancient statue, but
perhaps chiefly, so the story goes, from a dream he had, made a
brazen statue of Demeter for the people of Phigalia, a generation
after the Persian invasion of Greece. Here is the proof of the
correctness of my date. When Xerxes crossed into Europe Gelon the
son of Dinomenes was ruler of Syracuse and the rest of Sicily, and
after his death the kingdom devolved upon his brother Hiero, and as
Hiero died before he could give to Olympian Zeus the offerings he
had vowed for the victories of his horses, Dinomenes his son gave
them instead. Now Onatas made these, as the inscriptions at
Olympia over the votive offering show.
“Hiero having been formerly victor in your august contests, Olympian
Zeus, once in the fourhorse chariot, and twice with a single horse,
bestows on you these gifts: his son Dinomenes offers them in
memory of his Syracusan father.”
And the other inscription is as follows,
“Onatas the son of Mico made me, a native of Ægina.”
Onatas was therefore a contemporary of the Athenian
Hegias and the Argive Ageladas.
I went to Phigalia chiefly to see this Demeter, and I sacrificed to the
goddess in the way the people of the country do, no victim but the
fruit of the vine and other trees, and honeycombs, and wool in an
unworked state with all its grease still on it, and these they lay on the
altar built in front of the cave, and pour oil over all. This sacrifice is
held every year at Phigalia both publicly and privately. A priestess
conducts the ritual, and with her the youngest of the three citizens
who are called Sacrificing Priests. Round the cave is a grove of oak
trees, and warm water bubbles up from a spring. The statue made
by Onatas was not there in my time, nor did most people at Phigalia
know that it had ever existed, but the oldest of those I met with
informed me that 3 generations before his time some stones from
the roof fell on to it, and that it was crushed by them and altogether
smashed up, and we can see plainly even now traces in the roof
where the stones fell in.
 CHAPTER XLIII.

P allantium next demands my attention, both to describe what is

worthy of record in it, and to show why the elder Antonine made
it a town instead of a village, and also free and exempt from taxation.
They say that Evander was the best of the Arcadians both in council
and war, and that he was the son of Hermes by a Nymph the
daughter of Lado, and that he was sent with a force of Arcadians
from Pallantium to form a colony, which he founded near the river
Tiber. And part of what is now Rome was inhabited by Evander and
the Arcadians who accompanied him, and was called Pallantium in
remembrance of the town in Arcadia. And in process of time it
changed its name into Palatium. It was for these reasons that
Pallantium received its privileges from the Roman Emperor. This
Antonine, who bestowed such favours on Pallantium, imposed no
war on the Romans willingly, but when the Mauri, (the most
important tribe of independent Libyans, who were Nomads and much
more formidable than the Scythians, as they did not travel in
waggons but they and their wives rode on horseback,) commenced a
war with Rome, he drove them out of all their territory into the most
remote parts, and compelled them to retire from Libya to Mount Atlas
and to the neighbourhood of Mount Atlas. He also took away from
the Brigantes in Britain most of their territory, because they had
attacked the Genunii who were Roman subjects. And when Cos and
Rhodes cities of the Lycians and Carians were destroyed by a violent
earthquake, the Emperor Antonine restored them by large
expenditure of money and by his zeal in re-peopling them. As to the
grants of money which he made to the Greeks and barbarians who
stood in need of them, and his magnificent works in Greece and
Ionia and Carthage and Syria, all this has been minutely described
by others. This Emperor left another token of his liberality. Those
subject nations who had the privilege of being Roman citizens, but
whose sons were reckoned as Greeks, had the option by law of
leaving their money to those who were no relations, or letting it swell
the wealth of the Emperor. But Antonine allowed them to leave their
property to their sons, preferring to exhibit philanthropy rather than to
maintain a law which brought in money to the revenue. This Emperor
the Romans called Pius from the honour he paid to the gods. I think
he might also justly have borne the title of the elder Cyrus, Father of
mankind. He was succeeded by his son Antonine, who fought
against the Germans, the most numerous and warlike barbarians in
Europe, and subdued the Sauromatæ who had commenced an
iniquitous war.
 CHAPTER XLIV.

T o return to our account of Arcadia, there is a road from

Megalopolis to Pallantium and Tegea, leading to what is called
the Mound. On this road is a suburb of Megalopolis, called Ladocea
from Ladocus the son of Echemus. And next comes Hæmoniæ,
which in ancient times was a town founded by Hæmon the son of
Lycaon, and is still called Hæmoniæ. And next it on the right are the
ruins of Oresthasium, and the pillars of a temple to Artemis
surnamed the Priestess. And on the direct road from Hæmoniæ is
the place called Aphrodisium, and next to it Athenæum, on the left of
which is a temple of Athene and stone statue of the goddess. About
20 stades from Athenæum are the ruins of Asea, and the hill which
was formerly the citadel has still remains of walls. And about 5
stades from Asea is the Alpheus a little away from the road, and
near the road is the source of the Eurotas. And near the source of
the Alpheus is a temple of the Mother of the Gods without a roof, and
two lions in stone. And the Eurotas joins the Alpheus, and for about
20 stades they flow together in a united stream, till they are lost in a
cavity and come up again, the Eurotas in Laconia, the Alpheus at
Pegæ in Megalopolis. There is also a road from Asea leading up to
Mount Boreum, on the top of which are traces of a temple. The
tradition is that Odysseus on his return from Ilium built it to Poseidon
and Preserver Athene.
What is called the Mound is the boundary for the districts of
Megalopolis Tegea and Pallantium, and as you turn off from it to the
left is the plain of Pallantium. In Pallantium there is a temple, and a
stone statue of Pallas and another of Evander, and a temple to
Proserpine the daughter of Demeter, and at no great distance a
statue of Polybius. The hill above the town was used of old as the
citadel, and on the top of it are remains even to our day of a temple
of the gods called Pure, oaths by whom are still accounted most
weighty. They do not know the particular names of these gods, or if
they know they will not tell them. But one might conjecture that they
were called Pure, because Pallas did not sacrifice to them in the
same way as his father did to Lycæan Zeus.
And on the right of what is called the Mound is the Manthuric plain
on the borders of Tegea, being indeed only 50 stades from Tegea.
There is a small hill on the right of the road called Cresium, on which
is the temple of Aphneus. For according to the legend of the people
of Tegea Ares had an intrigue with Aerope, the daughter of Cepheus
the son of Aleus, and she died in childbirth, and the baby still clung
to his mother though she was dead, and sucked from her breasts a
plentiful supply of milk, and as Ares had caused this they called the
god Aphneus, and the boy was called they say Aeropus. And on the
road to Tegea is the well called Leuconius, so called from Leucone,
(who they say was a daughter of Aphidas), whose tomb is not far
from Tegea.
 CHAPTER XLV.

T he people of Tegea say that their district got its name in the days
of Tegeates the son of Lycaon, and that the inhabitants were
distributed into 8 parishes, Gareatæ, Phylaces, Caryatæ, Corythes,
Potachidæ, Œatæ, Manthyres, and Echeuethes, and that in the reign
of Aphidas a ninth parish was formed, called after him Aphidas. The
founder of the town in our day was Aleus. The people of Tegea
besides the public events which they had a share in in common with
all the Arcadians, as the war against Ilium, and the war with the
Persians, and the battle with the Lacedæmonians at Dipæa, had
special renown of their own from the following circumstances.
Ancæus the son of Lycurgus, though wounded, sustained the attack
of the Calydonian boar, and Atalanta shot at it and was the first to hit
it, and for this prowess its head and hide were given her as trophies.
And when the Heraclidæ returned to the Peloponnese, Echemus of
Tegea, the son of Aeropus, had a combat with Hyllus and beat him.
And the people of Tegea were the first Arcadians who beat the
Lacedæmonians who fought against them, and took most of them
captive.
The ancient temple at Tegea of Athene Alea was built by Aleus, but
in after times the people at Tegea built the goddess a great and
magnificent temple. For the former one was entirely consumed by
fire which spread all over it, when Diophantus was Archon at Athens,
in the second year of the 96th Olympiad, in which Eupolemus of Elis
won the prize in the course. The present one far excels all the
temples in the Peloponnese for beauty and size. The architecture of
the first row of pillars is Doric, that of the second row is Corinthian,
and that of the pillars outside the temple is Ionic. The architect I
found on inquiry was Scopas the Parian, who made statues in
various parts of old Greece, and also in Ionia and Caria. On the
gables is represented the hunting of the boar of Calydon, on one
side of the boar, nearly in the centre of the piece, stand Atalanta and
Meleager and Theseus and Telamon and Peleus and Pollux and
Iolaus, the companion of Hercules in most of his Labours, and the
sons of Thestius, Prothous and Cometes, the brothers of Althæa:
and on the other side of the boar Ancæus already wounded and
Epochus supporting him as he drops his weapon, and near him
Castor, and Amphiaraus the son of Œcles, and besides them
Hippothous the son of Cercyon, the son of Agamedes, the son of
Stymphelus, and lastly Pirithous. On the gables behind is a
representation of the single combat between Telephus and Achilles
on the plain of Caicus.
 CHAPTER XLVI.

A nd the ancient statue of Athene Alea, and together with it the

tusks of the Calydonian boar, were carried away by the Emperor
Augustus, after his victory over Antony and his allies, among whom
were all the Arcadians but the Mantineans. Augustus does not seem
to have commenced the practice of carrying off votive offerings and
statues of the gods from conquered nations, but to have merely
followed a long-established custom. For after the capture of Ilium,
when the Greeks divided the spoil, the statue of Household Zeus
was given to Sthenelus the son of Capaneus: and many years
afterwards, when the Dorians had migrated to Sicily, Antiphemus,
the founder of Gela, sacked Omphace a town of the Sicani, and
carried from thence to Gela a statue made by Dædalus. And we
know that Xerxes the son of Darius, the king of the Persians, besides
what he carried off from Athens, took from Brauron a statue of
Brauronian Artemis, and moreover charged the Milesians with
cowardice in the sea-fight against the Athenians at Salamis, and
took from them the brazen Apollo at Branchidæ, which a long time
afterwards Seleucus sent back to the Milesians. And the statues
taken from the Argives at Tiryns are now, one in the temple of Hera,
the other in the temple of Apollo at Elis. And the people of Cyzicus
having forced the people of Proconnesus to settle with them took
from them a statue of the Dindymene Mother. The statue generally
was of gold, but the head instead of ivory was made with the teeth of
Hippopotamuses. So the Emperor Augustus merely followed a long
established custom usual both among Greeks and barbarians. And
you may see the statue of Athene Alea in the Forum at Rome built
by Augustus. It is throughout of ivory and the workmanship of
Endœus. Those who busy themselves about such curiosities say
that one of the tusks of the boar was broken off, and the remaining
one was suspended as a votive offering in Cæsar’s gardens in the
temple of Dionysus. It is about 2½ feet long.
 CHAPTER XLVII.

A nd the statue now at Tegea of Athene, called Hippia by the

Manthurii, because (according to their tradition) in the fight
between the gods and the giants the goddess drove the chariot of
Enceladus, though among the other Greeks and Peloponnesians the
title Alea has prevailed, was taken from the Manthurii. On one side of
the statue of Athene stands Æsculapius, on the other Hygiea in
Pentelican marble, both by the Parian Scopas. And the most notable
votive offerings in the temple are the hide of the Calydonian boar,
which is rotten with lapse of time and nearly devoid of hair, and some
fetters hung up partly destroyed by rust, which the captives of the
Lacedæmonians wore when they dug in the district of Tegea. And
there is the bed of Athene, and an effigy of Auge to imitate a
painting, and the armour of Marpessa, called the Widow, a woman of
Tegea, of whom I shall speak hereafter. She was a priestess of
Athene when a girl, how long I do not know but not after she grew to
womanhood. And the altar they say was made for the goddess by
Melampus the son of Amythaon: and on the altar are representations
of Rhea and the Nymph Œnoe with Zeus still a babe, and on each
side 4 Nymphs, on the one side Glauce and Neda and Thisoa and
Anthracia, and on the other Ida and Hagno and Alcinoe and Phrixa.
There are also statues of the Muses and Mnemosyne.
And not far from the temple is a mound of earth, constituting a race-
course, where they hold games which they call Aleæa from Athene
Alea, and Halotia because they took most of the Lacedæmonians
alive in the battle. And there is a spring towards the north of the
temple, near which they say Auge was violated by Hercules, though
their legend differs from that of Hecatæus about her. And about 3
stades from this spring is the temple of Hermes called Æpytus.
At Tegea there is also a temple to Athene Poliatis, which once every
year the priest enters. They call it the temple of Protection, and say
that it was a boon of Athene to Cepheus, the son of Aleus, that
Tegea should never be captured, and they say that the goddess cut
off one of the locks of Medusa, and gave it him as a protection for
the city. They have also the following legend about Artemis
Hegemone. Aristomelidas the ruler at Orchomenus in Arcadia, being
enamoured of a maiden of Tegea, got her somehow or other into his
power, and committed the charge of her to one Chronius. And she
before being conducted to the tyrant slew herself in modesty and
fear. And Artemis stirred up Chronius in a dream against
Aristomelidas, and he slew him and fled to Tegea and built there a
temple to Artemis.