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 LONG TERM
EVOLUTION
3GPP LTE Radio and
Cellular Technology

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AU7210_C000.indd 1 3/9/09 5:51:33 PM

 INTERNET and COMMUNICATIONS

This new book series presents the latest research and technological developments
in the field of Internet and multimedia systems and applications. We remain
committed to publishing high-quality reference and technical books written by
experts in the field.

If you are interested in writing, editing, or contributing to a volume in

this series, or if you have suggestions for needed books, please contact Dr.
Borko Furht at the following address:

Borko Furht, Ph.D.

Department Chairman and Professor
Computer Science and Engineering
Florida Atlantic University
777 Glades Road
Boca Raton, FL 33431 U.S.A.

E-mail: borko@cse.fau.edu

Volume 1 Handbook of Internet Computing

Volume 2 UNIX Administration: A Comprehensive Sourcebook for Effective
Systems & Network Management
Volume 3 Wireless Sensor Networks: Architectures and Protocols
Volume 4 Multimedia Security Handbook
Volume 5 Handbook of Multimedia Computing
Volume 6 Handbook of Internet and Multimedia Systems and Applications
Volume 7 Wireless Internet Handbook: Technologies, Standards,
and Applications
Volume 8 Handbook of Video Databases: Design and Applications
Volume 9 Handbook of Wireless Local Area Networks: Applications, Technology,
Security, and Standards
Volume 10 Handbook of Mobile Broadcasting: DVB-H, DMB, ISDB-T,
and MediaFLO
Volume 11 Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AU7210_C000.indd 2 3/9/09 5:51:33 PM

 LONG TERM
EVOLUTION
3GPP LTE Radio and
Cellular Technology

Edited by
#PSLP
'VSIU
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4ZFE
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"ITPO

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AU7210_C000.indd 3 3/9/09 5:51:33 PM

 Auerbach Publications
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Auerbach is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-7210-5 (Hardcover)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Long Term Evolution : 3GPP LTE radio and cellular technology / editors, Borko
Furht, Syed A. Ahson.
p. cm. -- (Internet and communications)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-7210-5 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. 2. Mobile communication
systems. 3. Cellular telephone systems. I. Furht, Borko. II. Ahson, Syed.

TK5103.4883.L66 2009
621.3845--dc22 2009004034

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the Auerbach Web site at
http://www.auerbach-publications.com

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AU7210_C000.indd 4 3/9/09 5:51:33 PM

 Contents

Preface............................................................................................................vii
The Editors......................................................................................................ix
Contributors....................................................................................................xi
1. Introduction............................................................................................1
Borko Furht and Syed Ahson

2. Evolution from TD-SCDMA to FuTURE.............................................11

Ping Zhang, Xiaodong Xu, and Lihua Li

3. Radio-Interface Physical Layer.............................................................49

Gerardo Gómez, David Morales-Jiménez, F. Javier López-Martínez,
Juan J. Sánchez, and José Tomás Entrambasaguas

4. Architecture and Protocol Support for Radio Resource

Management (RRM).............................................................................99
Gábor Fodor, András Rácz, Norbert Reider, and András Temesváry

5. MIMO OFDM Schemes for 3GPP LTE..............................................155

Gang Wu and Xun Fan

6. Single-Carrier Transmission for UTRA LTE Uplink..........................181

Basuki E. Priyanto and Troels B. Sorensen

7. Cooperative Transmission Schemes....................................................213

Wolfgang Zirwas, Wolfgang Mennerich, Martin Schubert, Lars Thiele, Volker
Jungnickel, and Egon Schulz

8. Multihop Extensions to Cellular Networks—the Benefit

of Relaying for LTE.............................................................................265
Rainer Schoenen

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 vi ◾ Contents

9. User Plane Protocol Design for LTE System

with Decode-Forward Type of Relay...................................................305
Jijun Luo

10. Radio Access Network VoIP Optimization and Performance on

3GPP HSPA/LTE................................................................................ 319
Markku Kuusela, Tao Chen, Petteri Lundén, Haiming Wang, Tero Henttonen,
Jussi Ojala, and Esa Malkamäki

11. Early Real-Time Experiments and Field Trial Measurements

with 3GPP-LTE Air Interface Implemented on Reconfigurable
Hardware Platform..............................................................................365
A. Forck, Thomas Haustein, Volker Jungnickel, V. Venkatkumar,
S. Wahls, T. Wirth, and Egon Schulz

12. Measuring Performance of 3GPP LTE Terminals and Small

Base Stations in Reverberation Chambers...........................................413
M. Andersson, A. Wolfgang, C. Orlenius, and J. Carlsson

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Preface

This book provides technical information about all aspects of 3GPP LTE. The areas
covered range from basic concepts to research-grade material, including future
directions. The book captures the current state of 3GPP LTE technology and serves
as a source of comprehensive reference material on this subject. It has a total of
12 chapters authored by 50 experts from around the world. The targeted audi-
ence includes professionals who are designers or planners for 3GPP LTE systems,
researchers (faculty members and graduate students), and those who would like to
learn about this field.
The book has the following objectives:

◾◾ to serve as a single comprehensive source of information and as reference

material on 3GPP LTE technology;
◾◾ to deal with an important and timely topic of emerging technology of
today, tomorrow, and beyond;
◾◾ to present accurate, up-to-date information on a broad range of topics
related to 3GPP LTE technology;
◾◾ to present material authored by experts in the field; and
◾◾ to present the information in an organized and well-structured manner.

Although the book is not precisely a textbook, it can certainly be used as a text-
book for graduate courses and research-oriented courses that deal with 3GPP LTE.
Any comments from readers will be highly appreciated.
Many people have contributed to this handbook in their unique ways. The first
and foremost group that deserves immense gratitude is the highly talented and
skilled researchers who have contributed the 12 chapters. All of them have been
extremely cooperative and professional. It has also been a pleasure to work with Rich

vii

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 viii ◾ Preface

O’Hanley, Jessica Vakili, and Judith Simon of CRC Press, and we are extremely
gratified for their support and professionalism. Our families have extended their
unconditional love and strong support throughout this project, and they deserve
very special thanks.

Borko Furht
Boca Raton, Florida
Syed Ahson
Seattle, Washington

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 The Editors

Borko Furht is chairman and professor of computer science and engineering at

Florida Atlantic University (FAU) in Boca Raton, Florida. He is the founder and
director of the Multimedia Laboratory at FAU, funded by the National Science
Foundation. Before joining FAU, he was a vice president of research and a senior
director of development at Modcomp, a computer company in Fort Lauderdale,
Florida, and a professor at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida. He
received his PhD degree in electrical and computer engineering from the University
of Belgrade, Yugoslavia. His research interests include multimedia systems and
applications, video processing, wireless multimedia, multimedia security, video
databases, and Internet engineering. He is currently principal investigator or
coprincipal investigator and leader of several large multiyear projects, including
“One Pass to Production,” funded by Motorola, and “Center for Coastline Security
Technologies,” funded by the U.S. government as a federal earmark project.
Dr. Furht has received research grants from various government agen-
cies, such as NSF and NASA, and from private corporations, including IBM,
Hewlett Packard, Racal Datacom, Xerox, Apple, and others. He has published
more than 25 books and about 250 scientific and technical papers, and he holds
two patents. He is a founder and editor-in-chief of the Journal of Multimedia
Tools and Applications (Kluwer Academic Publishers, now Springer). He is also
consulting editor for two book series on multimedia systems and applications
(Kluwer/Springer) and Internet and communications (CRC Press). He has
received several technical and publishing awards and has consulted for IBM,
Hewlett Packard, Xerox, General Electric, JPL, NASA, Honeywell, and RCA.
He has also served as a consultant to various colleges and universities. He has
given many invited talks, keynote lectures, seminars, and tutorials. He has been
program chair as well as a member of program committees at many national
and international conferences.

ix

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 x ◾ The Editors

Syed Ahson is a senior software design engineer with Microsoft. As part of the
Mobile Voice and Partner Services Group, he is busy creating new and exciting
end-to-end mobile services and applications. Prior to joining Microsoft, he was a
senior staff software engineer with Motorola, where he played a significant role in
the creation of several iDEN, CDMA, and GSM cellular phones. Ahson has exten-
sive experience with wireless data protocols, wireless data applications, and cellular
telephony protocols. Before he joined Motorola, he was a senior software design
engineer with NetSpeak Corporation (now part of Net2Phone), a pioneer in VoIP
telephony software.
Ahson has published more than 10 books on emerging technologies such
as WiMAX, RFID, mobile broadcasting, and IP multimedia subsystems. His
recent books include IP Multimedia Subsystem Handbook and Handbook of Mobile
Broadcasting: DVB-H, DMB, ISDB-T, and MediaFLO. He has authored several
research articles and teaches computer engineering courses as adjunct faculty at
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, where he introduced a course on
Smartphone technology and applications. Ahson received his MS degree in com-
puter engineering in 1998 from Florida Atlantic University and received his BSc
degree in electrical engineering from Aligarh University, India, in 1995.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Contributors

M. Andersson Gerardo Gómez

Bluetest AB University of Málaga
Gothenburg, Sweden Málaga, Spain

J. Carlsson Thomas Haustein

SP Technical Research Institute Nokia Siemens Networks
of Sweden Munich, Germany
Boras, Sweden
Tero Henttonen
Tao Chen Devices R&D
Devices R&D Nokia
Nokia Helsinki, Finland
Oulu, Finland
Volker Jungnickel
José Tomás Entrambasaguas Fraunhofer Institute for
University of Málaga Telecommunications
Málaga, Spain Heinrich-Hertz-Institut
Berlin, Germany
Xun Fan
Philips Research Asia Markku Kuusela
Shanghai, China Devices R&D
Nokia
Gábor Fodor Helsinki, Finland
Ericsson Research
Lihua Li
Stockholm, Sweden
Beijing University of Posts and
Telecommunications
A. Forck Beijing, China
Fraunhofer Institute for
Telecommunications F. Javier López-Martinez
Heinrich-Hertz-Institut University of Málaga
Berlin, Germany Málaga, Spain

xi

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 xii ◾ Contributors

Petteri Lundén Juan J. Sánchez

Devices R&D University of Málaga
Nokia Málaga, Spain
Helsinki, Finland
Rainer Schoenen
Jijun Luo
Aachen University
Nokia Siemens Networks
North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
Munich, Germany
Esa Malkamäki Martin Schubert
Devices R&D Fraunhofer Institute for
Nokia Telecommunications
Helsinki, Finland Heinrich-Hertz-Institut
Berlin, Germany
Wolfgang Mennerich
Nokia Siemens Networks
Egon Schulz
Munich, Germany
Nokia Siemens Networks GmbH
Munich, Germany
David Morales-Jiménez
University of Málaga Troels B. Sorensen
Málaga, Spain Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Jussi Ojala
Devices R&D
Nokia András Temesváry
Helsinki, Finland Budapest University of Technology
and Economics
C. Orlenius Budapest, Hungary
Bluetest AB
Gothenburg, Sweden Lars Thiele
Fraunhofer Institute for
Basuki E. Priyanto Telecommunications
Aalborg University Heinrich-Hertz-Institut
Aalborg, Denmark Berlin, Germany
V. Venkatkumar
András Rácz Nokia Siemens Networks GmbH
Ericsson Research Munich, Germany
Budapest, Hungary
S. Wahls
Norbert Reider Fraunhofer Institute for
Budapest University of Technology Telecommunications
and Economics Heinrich-Hertz-Institut
Budapest, Hungary Berlin, Germany

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Contributors ◾ xiii

Bernhard Walke Gang Wu

Aachen University Philips Research Asia
North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany Shanghai, China

Haiming Wang Xiaodong Xu

Devices R&D Beijing University of Posts and
Nokia Telecommunications
Beijing, China Beijing, China
T. Wirth Ping Zhang
Fraunhofer Institute for Beijing University of Posts and
Telecommunications Telecommunications
Heinrich-Hertz-Institut Beijing, China
Berlin, Germany
A. Wolfgang Wolfgang Zirwas
Chalmers University of Technology Nokia Siemens Networks
Gothenburg, Sweden Munich, Germany

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

AU7210_C000.indd 13 3/9/09 5:51:34 PM

 Chapter 1

Introduction
Borko Furht and Syed Ahson

Mobile users are demanding higher data rate and higher quality mobile commu-
nication services. The 3rd Generation Mobile Communication System (3G) is an
outstanding success. The conflict of rapidly growing users and limited bandwidth
resources requires that the spectrum efficiency of mobile communication systems
be improved by adopting some advanced technologies. It has been proved, in both
theory and in practice, that some novel key technologies such as MIMO (multiple
input, multiple output) and OFDM (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing)
improve the performance of current mobile communication systems. Many coun-
tries and organizations are researching next-generation mobile communication
systems, such as the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), European
Commission FP (Framework Program), WWRF (Wireless World Research Forum),
Korean NGMC (Next-Generation Mobile Committee), Japanese MITF (Mobile
IT Forum), and China Communication Standardization Association (CCSA).
International standards organizations are working for standardization of the E3G
(Enhanced 3G) and 4G (the 4th Generation Mobile Communication System), such
as the LTE (long term evolution) plan of the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) and the AIE (air interface of evolution)/UMB (ultramobile broadband)
plan of 3GPP2.
The 3GPP LTE release 8 specification defines the basic functionality of a new,
high-performance air interface providing high user data rates in combination with
low latency based on MIMO, OFDMA (orthogonal frequency division multiple
access), and an optimized system architecture evolution (SAE) as main enablers. At
the same time, in the near future increasing numbers of users will request mobile

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 2 ◾ Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology

broadband data access everywhere—for example, for synchronization of e-mails,

Internet access, specific applications, and file downloads to mobile devices like per-
sonal digital assistants (PDAs) or notebooks. In the future, a 100-fold increase in
mobile data traffic is expected, making further improvements beyond LTE release
8 necessary and possibly ending in new LTE releases or in a so-called IMT (inter-
national mobile telecommunications) advanced system. The LTE successor of the
third-generation mobile radio network will delight customers more than ever. The
need for radio coverage will be a primary goal in the rollout phase, whereas a high
capacity all over the radio cell will be the long-term goal. High spectral efficiency is
crucial for supporting the high demand of data traffic rates that future mobile user
terminals will generate, while the available spectrum is still a scarce and limiting
resource at each geographic location.
This book provides technical information about all aspects of 3GPP LTE. The
areas covered range from basic concepts to research-grade material, including future
directions. The book captures the current state of 3GPP LTE technology and serves
as a source of comprehensive reference material on this subject. It has a total of 12
chapters authored by 50 experts from around the world.
Chapter 2 (“Evolution from TD-SCDMA to FuTURE”) describes a project
called Future Technologies for a Universal Radio Environment (FuTURE) that
was launched in China. The goal of the project is to support theoretical research,
applicable evaluation, and 4G trial system development of the proposed technolo-
gies for Chinese beyond 3G/4G mobile communications. The FuTURE plan aims
at the trends and requirements of wireless communication in the next 10 years and
expects to play an active role in the process of 4G standardization.
The FuTURE project is composed of two branches: the FuTURE FDD (fre-
quency division duplex) system and the FuTURE TDD (time division duplex)
system, both of which are investigating and demonstrating advanced techniques
for systems to meet the application requirements around the year 2010. For both
TDD and FDD, the trial platform contains six access points (APs) and 12 dis-
tributed antenna arrays; each AP is equipped with two spaced antenna arrays.
High-definition reactive video services have been performed and demonstrated on
FuTURE trial systems.
In the research and development of the FuTURE TDD system, a series of inno-
vations in basic theory has been proposed, such as the flat wireless access network
structure that has been taken into practice; the group cell, which is a novel gener-
alized cellular network architecture, and the slide handover strategy based on it;
the soft fractional frequency reuse to improve the spectrum efficiency; the reliable
end-to-end QoS (quality of service) mechanism; the antenna array based on the
generalized cellular network architecture to increase the system capacity with the
spectrum efficiency of 7 b/Hz; the modular MIMO to support various environ-
ments; and the scalable modular structure of system, which can support a data rate
up to 330 Mb/s. The FuTURE TDD system provides an overall solution that can
fulfill the requirements of E3G/4G and adopts lots of key technologies in many

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Introduction ◾ 3

aspects, including cellular network architecture, physical layer, medium access con-
trol (MAC) layer, radio resource management, and hardware design. As a result,
some positive effects have been brought out in the areas of system design, pivotal
algorithm, and trial system development.
The LTE physical layer is targeted to provide improved radio interface capa-
bilities between the base station and user equipment (UE) compared to previous
cellular technologies like universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)
or high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA). According to the initial require-
ments defined by the 3GPP (3GPP 25.913), the LTE physical layer should sup-
port peak data rates of more than 100 Mb/s over the downlink and 50 Mb/s over
the uplink. A flexible transmission bandwidth ranging from 1.25 to 20 MHz will
provide support for users with different capabilities. These requirements will be ful-
filled by employing new technologies for cellular environments, such as OFDM or
multiantenna schemes (3GPP 36.201). Additionally, channel variations in the time/
frequency domain are exploited through link adaptation and frequency-domain
scheduling, giving a substantial increase in spectral efficiency. In order to support
transmission in paired and unpaired spectra, the LTE air interface supports both
FDD and TDD modes.
Chapter 3 (“Radio-Interface Physical Layer”) presents a detailed description of
the LTE radio-interface physical layer. Section 3.1 provides an introduction to the
physical layer, focusing on the physical resources’ structure and the set of procedures
defined within this layer. This section provides a general overview of the different
multiantenna technologies considered in LTE and its related physical layer proce-
dures. Link adaptation techniques, including adaptive modulation, channel coding,
and channel-aware scheduling, are described in Section 3.2. The topic of multiple
antenna schemes for LTE is tackled in Section 3.3, which also provides an overview
of the different multiantenna configurations and multiantenna-related procedures
defined in LTE. Section 3.4 addresses other physical layer procedures like channel
estimation, synchronization, and random access. This section is focused on those
procedures that allow the reception and decoding of the frame under a certain bit
error rate (BER) level: synchronization and channel estimation. Furthermore, this
section also presents the random access (RA) structure and procedure necessary for
initial synchronization in the uplink prior to UE data transmission.
Chapter 4 (“Architecture and Protocol Support for Radio Resource
Management”) discusses the radio resource management (RRM) functions in
LTE. This chapter gives an overview of the LTE RAN (radio access network) archi-
tecture, including an overview of the OFDM-based radio interface. The notion of
radio resource in LTE is defined, and the requirements that the 3GPP has set on the
spectral efficient use of radio resources are presented. Section 4.2 gives an overview
of the multiantenna solutions in general and then discusses the different MIMO
variants in the context of LTE, also addressing the required resource management
functions used for the antenna port configuration control. Section 4.3 discusses
the most important measurements in LTE, grouping them into UE and eNode B

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 4 ◾ Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology

measurements and, when appropriate, draws an analogy with well-known wide-

band code division multiple access (WCDMA) measurements.
Chapter 4 shows that a number of advanced RRM functions are needed in
today’s wireless systems; these are being developed and standardized in particu-
lar for the 3GPP LTE networks, in order to fulfill the ever-increasing capacity
demands by utilizing the radio interface more efficiently. Considering the facts that
the available radio spectrum is a limited resource and the capacity of a single radio
channel between the UE and the network is also limited by the well-known theo-
retical bounds of Shannon, the remaining possibility to increase the capacity is to
increase the number of such “independent” radio channels in addition to trying to
approach the theoretical channel capacity limits on each of these individual chan-
nels. Advanced radio resource management techniques play a key role in achieving
these goals. This chapter presents methods and examples of how advanced RRM
functions are realized in LTE and how these functions together make LTE a high-
performance, competitive system for many years to come.
Multiple input, multiple output techniques have been integrated as one of the
key approaches to provide the peak data rate, average throughput, and system per-
formance in 3GPP LTE. Based on the function of the multiple transmission symbol
streams in MIMO, the operation modes of multiple transmit antennas at the cell
site (denoted as MIMO mode) are spatial division multiplexing (SDM), precoding,
and transmit diversity (TD).
Based on the allocation of the multiple transmission streams in MIMO, the
MIMO mode is denoted as single user (SU)-MIMO if the multiple transmission
symbol streams are solely assigned to a single UE and multiuser (MU)-MIMO
if the spatial division multiplexing of the modulation symbol streams for differ-
ent UEs uses the same time-frequency resource. Because the LTE downlink is an
OFDM system, the MIMO modes proposed in LTE are MIMO-OFDM schemes.
Chapter 5 (“MIMO OFDM Schemes for 3GPP LTE”) introduces the two main
categories of MIMO-OFDM schemes in LTE—SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO—
and the related physical channel procedures. The performance of selected code-
books is provided to show their advantages.
Uplink transmission in the LTE of the UMTS terrestrial radio access system
(UTRA LTE) has numerous physical layer advantages in comparison to UTRA
WCDMA, mainly to achieve two to three times better spectral efficiency. These
include flexible channel bandwidth up to 20 MHz, flexible user resource alloca-
tion in both time and frequency domains, and a shorter time transmission interval
(TTI) of 1 ms. Specifically challenging for the uplink is that these enhancements
are to be achieved, preferably, with reduced power consumption to extend the bat-
tery life and cell coverage. The radio access technique is one of the key issues in
the LTE uplink air interface. In LTE, OFDMA has been selected as the multiple-
access scheme for downlink and single-carrier frequency division multiple access
(SC-FDMA) for uplink. OFDM is an attractive modulation technique in a cellular
environment to combat frequency selective fading channels with a relatively low-

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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 Introduction ◾ 5

complexity receiver. However, OFDM requires an expensive and inherently inef-

ficient power amplifier in the transmitter due to the high peak-to-average power
ratio (PAPR) of the multicarrier signal.
Chapter 6 (“Single-Carrier Transmission for UTRA LTE Uplink”) presents
the key techniques for LTE uplink as well as the baseline performance. Radio
access technology is the key aspect in LTE uplink, and two radio access schemes,
SC-FDMA and OFDMA, are studied. The performance results are obtained from
a detailed UTRA LTE uplink link-level simulator. The simulation results show
that both SC-FDMA and OFDMA can achieve a high spectral efficiency; however,
SC-FDMA benefits in obtaining lower PAPR than OFDMA, especially for low-
order modulation schemes. A 1 × 2 SIMO (single input, multiple output) antenna
configuration highly increases the spectral efficiency of SC-FDMA, making the
performance of SC-FDMA with a minimum mean square error (MMSE) receiver
comparable to OFDMA, especially at high coding rates. The peak spectral effi-
ciency results for SC-FDMA confirm that it meets the requirement to achieve a
spectral efficiency improvement of two or three times that of 3GPP release 6.
LTE uplink numerology is introduced in Section 6.2. The description of both
radio access techniques is given in Section 6.3. The PAPR evaluation for each radio
access scheme is discussed in Section 6.4. Section 6.5 describes the link-level model
used for the evaluations in this work, including the specific parameter settings.
Afterward, the LTE uplink performance with various key techniques is presented,
including link adaptation (Section 6.6), fast H-ARQ (Section 6.7), antenna config-
uration (Section 6.8), flexible frequency allocation (Section 6.9), and typical chan-
nel estimation (Section 6.10). Finally, turbo equalization is presented in Section
6.11 as a performance enhancement technique for SC-FDMA transmission. The
chapter concludes by showing the impact of the nonlinear power amplifier to both
in-band and out-of-band performance.
In the future, mobile network operators (MNOs) will have to provide broad-
band data rates to an increasing number of users with lowest cost per bit and prob-
ably as flat rates as known from fixed network providers. Intercell interference is the
most limiting factor in current cellular radio networks, which means that any type
of practical, feasible interference mitigation will be of highest importance to tackle
the expected 100-fold traffic challenge. As the only means actually known to over-
come interference, cooperation is therefore a very likely candidate for integration
into an enhanced LTE system. In early 2008, a study item was launched at 3GPP
searching for useful enhancements of LTE release 8, which might end in a new
LTE release R9. In parallel, there are strong global activities for the definition of
the successor of IMT2000, so-called IMT Advanced systems, where it is likely that
some form of cooperation will be included. Accordingly, research on cooperative
antenna systems has become one of the hottest topics, and it will form the input of
ongoing standardization activities. In IEEE 802.16j, the relaying task group defines
mobile multihop relay (MMR) solutions for WiMAX systems; meanwhile, coop-
erative relaying has been adopted as one type of relaying.

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 6 ◾ Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology

Chapter 7 (“Cooperative Transmission Schemes”) introduces different coop-

erative antenna (COOPA) concepts like intra- and inter-NB cooperation and
distributed antenna systems (DASs) based on remote radio heads (RRHs) or as
self-organizing networks, addressing different aspects of the previously mentioned
issues. This chapter is organized into five sections: The second section provides a
basic analysis of cooperative antenna systems, the third classifies the basic types of
cooperation systems, the fourth is concerned with implementation issues, and the
fifth concludes the chapter. The motivation for cooperation, theoretical analysis,
and simulation results is presented in this chapter, giving a clear view of the high
potential of cooperative antenna systems and promising performance gains on the
order of several hundred percent or even more. Different implementation strate-
gies have been presented and some important issues for the core element of any
cooperation area have been addressed for the example of intersector cooperation.
The newly proposed COOPA HARQ (hybrid automatic repeat request) concept
allows reducing feedback overhead and, at the same time, solves the critical issue
of feedback delay.
In recent years, the interest in multihop-augmented, infrastructure-based net-
works has grown because relaying techniques help improve coverage and capacity
without too much cost for infrastructure. Recently, radio technologies from indus-
try and academia, such as IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX—worldwide interoperability for
microwave access), HiperLAN/2, and the Winner-II system, have included multi-
hop support right from the start.
Chapter 8 (“Multihop Extensions to Cellular Networks—the Benefit of
Relaying for LTE”) describes how relaying can be introduced into the LTE pro-
tocol stack, the basic blocks, and the extensions. Different approaches are covered
for exploiting the benefits of multihop communications, such as solutions for radio
range extension (trading coverage range for capacity) and solutions to combat shad-
owing at high radio frequencies. It is shown that relaying can also enhance capac-
ity (e.g., through the exploitation of antenna gains, spatial diversity, or by suitable
placement against shadowing due to obstructions). Further, multihop is presented
as a means to reduce infrastructure deployment costs. The performance is presented
and studied in several scenarios here.
In the 3GPP WCDMA/HSPA (high-speed packet access) standards, the radio
link control (RLC) sublayer is defined on top of the MAC sublayer and under other,
higher sublayers such as RRC (radio resource control) and PDCP (packet data
convergence protocol). Its main function is to guarantee reliable data transmission
by means of segmentation, ARQ (automatic retransmission request), in-sequence
delivery, etc. The RLC layer has three functional modes: TM (transparent mode),
UM (unacknowledged mode), and AM (acknowledged mode), which enable ser-
vices with different speed and reliability for the upper layer.
Chapter 9 (“User Plane Protocol Design for LTE System with Decode-Forward
Type of Relay”) examines the legacy UMTS RLC protocols and discusses its evo-
lution for the future broadband network. Different operating schemes of RLC for

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 Introduction ◾ 7

the multihop relay-enhanced cell (REC) are investigated. The AM mode of RLC
for the unicast traffic on the downlink user plane is studied in detail. Because the
AM mode incorporates the ARQ functionality, it is by far the most important
operation mode for reliable data transfer. The conclusion is that the two-hop RLC
scheme performs poorly compared to the per-hop RLC scheme due to the asym-
metric capacity on the two hops. This chapter concludes that even with the more
efficient per-hop RLC scheme, a flow control mechanism on the BS (base station)–
relay node (RN) hop has to be developed. However, the topic of flow control, as
well as the impact of the HARQ/ARQ cross-layer interaction, would be left for our
future study.
Recently, there has been an increasing interest in using cellular networks for
real-time (RT) packet-switched (PS) services such as voice over Internet protocol
(VoIP). The reason behind the increased interest in VoIP is to use VoIP in all-IP
networks instead of using circuit-switched (CS) speech. This would result in cost
savings for operators because the CS-related part of the core network would not
be needed anymore. In conventional cellular networks, RT services (e.g., voice)
are carried over dedicated channels because of their delay sensitivity, while non-
real-time (NRT) services (e.g., Web browsing) are typically transported over
time-shared channels because of their burstiness and lower sensitivity to the delay.
However, with careful design of the system, RT services can be efficiently trans-
ported over time-shared channels as well. A potential advantage of transmission
speech on a channel previously designed for data traffic is the improved efficiency
in terms of resource sharing, spectrum usage, provision of multimedia services, and
network architecture. The challenge is to port VoIP services on wireless networks
while retaining the QoS of circuit-switched networks and the inherent flexibility
of IP-based services.
Long term evolution of 3GPP work targeting to release 8 is defining a new
packet-only wideband radio-access technology with flat architecture aiming to
develop a framework toward a high-data-rate, low-latency, and packet-optimized
radio access technology called E-UTRAN (evolved universal terrestrial radio access
network). Its air interface is based on OFDMA for downlink (DL) and SC-FDMA
for uplink (UL). Because E-UTRAN is purely packet-switched radio access tech-
nology, it does not support CS voice at all, stressing the importance of efficient
VoIP traffic support in E-UTRAN. However, supporting VoIP in E-UTRAN faces
the very same challenges as those for any other radio access technology: (1) the
tight delay requirement and intolerable scheduling overhead combined with the
frequent arrival of small VoIP packets and (2) the scarcity of radio resources along
with control channel restriction. Thus, designing effective solutions to meet the
stringent QoS requirements such as packet delay and packet loss rate (PLR) of VoIP
in E-UTRAN is crucial.
Chapter 10 (“Radio Access Network VoIP Optimization and Performance on
3GPP HSPA/LTE”) aims to give an overview of the challenges faced in implement-
ing VoIP service over PS cellular networks, in particular 3GPP HSPA and LTE.

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 8 ◾ Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology

Generally accepted solutions leading to an efficient overall VoIP concept are out-
lined, and the performance impact of various aspects of the concept is addressed.
In Section 10.3, characteristics of VoIP traffic are given by describing the proper-
ties and functionality of the used voice codec in HSPA/LTE and by presenting the
requirements and the used quality criteria for VoIP traffic. The most important
mechanisms to optimize air interface for VoIP traffic in (E-) UTRAN are presented
in Section 10.4. Section 10.5 provides a description for the most important practi-
cal limitations in radio interface optimization, and existing solutions (if any) to
avoid these limitations are covered in Section 10.6. The chapter concludes with a
system simulation-based performance analysis of VoIP service, including a compar-
ison between HSPA and LTE. Thus, some optimized solutions addressing the VoIP
bottlenecks in the leading cellular systems such as HSPA and LTE were proposed
and studied. The control channel overhead reduction solutions adopted by 3GPP
are especially attractive because they provide very good performance.
Chapter 11 (“Early Real-Time Experiments and Field Trial Measurements with
3GPP-LTE Air Interface Implemented on Reconfigurable Hardware Platform”)
verifies that the 3GPP LTE air interface can be operated indoors as well as outdoors,
achieving very high data rates. Robustness to channel conditions has also been
shown for coverage areas of up to 800 m with mobility. Furthermore, the chapter
demonstrates the benefits of the new 3GPP-LTE air interface with a new cross-layer
MAC architecture of link adaptation, transmit MIMO mode selection, and modu-
lation and coding scheme (MCS) level selection, all of which are frequency depen-
dent. The main focus of this chapter is on discussion of multiple antenna gains in
the downlink for a single-user case and single-cell scenario. Measurement results
with the authors’ MIMO configuration test-bed have shown throughput exceeding
100 Mb/s, a significant increase over the existing single-antenna system.
The reverberation chamber has for about three decades been used for electro-
magnetic compatibility (EMC) testing of radiated emissions and immunity. It is
basically a metal cavity that is sufficiently large to support many resonant modes,
and it is provided with means to stir the modes so that a statistical field variation
appears. It has been shown that the reverberation chamber represents a multipath
environment similar to what we find in urban and indoor environments. Therefore,
during recent years it has been developed as an accurate instrument for measuring
desired radiation properties for small antennas as well as active mobile terminals
designed for use in environments with multipath propagation.
Chapter 12 (“Measuring Performance of 3GPP LTE Terminals and Small
Base Stations in Reverberation Chambers”) uses a hands-on approach, starting by
reviewing basic properties of reverberation chambers and giving an overview of
ongoing research and benchmarking activities. It then describes how to calibrate
reverberation chambers and how they are used to measure antenna efficiency, total
radiated power (TRP), and total isotropic sensitivity (TIS)—important parameters
for all wireless devices with small antennas, including 3GPP LTE terminals and
small base stations. It also describes how diversity gain and MIMO capacity can be

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 Introduction ◾ 9

measured directly in the Rayleigh environment (in about 1 minute, compared to

hours or more using other technologies), using a multiport network analyzer. The
first-ever repeatable system throughput measurements in a reverberation chamber
are described.
In order to evaluate the performance of multiantenna wireless communication
systems, classical measurement techniques known from antenna measurements,
such as anechoic chambers, are no longer sufficient. The measurement setups for
(multi-) antenna measurements presented in the first part of this chapter show how
reverberation chambers can be used as an alternative to current techniques. The
accuracy of the reverberation chamber measurements has been analyzed and com-
pared to classic antenna measurements when this is possible.
The methods developed for single-antenna characterization can be taken a step
further to evaluate the performance of different multiantenna setups and algo-
rithms—for example, diversity combining. These diversity measurements require a
fading environment and are therefore perfectly suited for reverberation chambers. If
base-station simulators are used for measurements, it is even possible to investigate
the performance of different antenna setups—not only in terms of power gains,
but also in terms of BER. Current state-of-the-art measurements in reverberation
chambers even include throughput measurements of wireless systems.
Although link measurements of wireless systems in reverberation chambers are
nowadays well established and even made their way into standardization, there
are still many ongoing research activities that relate, for example, to improving
the accuracy of the chamber further. With the evolution of wireless standards,
the attractiveness of reverberation chambers for link/system evaluation increases.
Possible extensions of existing measurement techniques with focus on LTE and
beyond systems are presented at the end of this chapter. A lot of potential for fur-
ther development lies particularly in manipulating the channel in the reverberation
chamber to a larger extent and to using the chamber for multiple terminal and
multiple base-station setups.
The chapter ends by describing several new ways of measuring 3GPP LTE
parameters and technologies that mainly are simulated in software today as real-
life measurements (e.g., drives tests) are too complicated and time consuming.
However, many of these parameters (e.g., multiuser MIMO, opportunistic sched-
uling, and multiple base-station handovers) should be easy to measure in the rever-
beration chamber.

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 Chapter 2

Evolution from
TD-SCDMA to FuTURE
Ping Zhang, Xiaodong Xu, and Lihua Li

Contents
2.1 FuTURE Project in China..........................................................................12
2.1.1 Background of FuTURE Project.....................................................12
2.1.2 Features of FuTURE System...........................................................13
2.1.3 FDD and TDD Branches of FuTURE Project................................15
2.2 FuTURE TDD System...............................................................................16
2.2.1 Main Features of FuTURE TDD System........................................16
2.2.2 Promising Technologies Implemented
in FuTURE TDD System...............................................................17
2.2.2.1 Network Architecture and Cellular Topology....................17
2.2.2.2 Physical Layer Techniques.................................................22
2.2.2.3 Layer 2 and Layer 3 Techniques.........................................31
2.2.2.4 Intercell Interference Mitigation........................................32
2.2.3 FuTURE TDD Trial System and Trial Network............................ 34
2.2.3.1 Hardware Implementation for FuTURE TDD
Trial System...................................................................... 34
2.2.3.2 Multicell and Multiuser Trial Network..............................35
2.2.3.3 Field Test Results of FuTURE TDD Trial System............37
2.2.4 Achievements and Significance of FuTURE TDD System..............39

11

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 12 ◾ Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology

2.3 TD-SCDMA, LTE, and FuTURE TDD.................................................. 40

2.3.1 Similarities among TD-SCDMA, LTE TDD,
and FuTURE TDD.........................................................................41
2.3.2 Enhancement of FuTURE TDD to TD-SCDMA......................... 42
2.4 Evolution Map from TD-SCDMA to FuTURE........................................ 42
2.4.1 Key Technology Evolution Map..................................................... 42
2.4.1.1 Generalized Distributed Antenna Arrays Combined
with Dynamical Channel Allocation................................ 42
2.4.1.2 Improved Joint Detection..................................................43
2.4.1.3 Higher Spreading Factor and Chip Rate............................43
2.4.1.4 Virtual Antenna Array.......................................................43
2.4.1.5 MIMO OFDMA.............................................................. 44
2.4.2 System Evolution Map.................................................................... 44
Bibliography........................................................................................................ 46

2.1 FuTURE Project in China

2.1.1 Background of FuTURE Project
In recent years, along with the continuous development of network and com-
munication technologies and the global commercialization of the 3G (3rd
Generation Mobile Communication System), the support for the data service
and unsymmetrical service has encountered a greater improvement compared
with the 2G (2nd Generation Mobile Communication System), and also the
diversity of services is better. At the same time, the requirements for higher data
rate and higher quality wireless communication service are brought forward by
users. On the one hand, the conflict of rapidly growing numbers of users and
limited bandwidth resources becomes outstanding, so the spectrum efficiency
of system should be improved by adopting some advanced technologies. On the
other hand, it has been proved in both theory and practice that some novel
key technologies, such as MIMO (multiple input, multiple output) and OFDM
(orthogonal frequency division multiplexing), can improve the performance
of current mobile communications systems. Also, many problems need to be
improved in the current system while providing service with high data rates and
high performance. Therefore, the research of next-generation mobile communi-
cation systems has been put into the calendar.
Many countries and organizations have already carried out the research of
next-generation mobile communication systems, such as ITU (International
Telecommunication Union), European Commission FP (Framework Program),
WWRF (Wireless World Research Forum), Korean NGMC (Next Generation

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 Evolution from TD-SCDMA to FuTURE ◾ 13

Mobile Committee), Japanese MITF (Mobile IT Forum), and China Communica-

tion Standardization Association (CCSA). Some international standards organi-
zations are working for the standards of the E3G (enhanced 3G) and 4G (4th
Generation Mobile Communication System), such as the LTE (long term evolu-
tion) plan of the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) and the AIE (air inter-
face of evolution)/UMB (ultramobile broadband) plan of 3GPP2. The ITU also
made the calendar of the 4G communication system, IMT (International Mobile
Telecommunications) Advanced. WRC’07 (World Radio-Communication Con-
ference 2007), which was held at the end of 2007, has already allocated multiband
spectrum resources for future 4G systems. The 4G is coming.
When research on next-generation mobile communications had just stepped
into its startup period, a project called Future Technologies for a Universal Radio
Environment (FuTURE) was launched in China. The goal of the project is to sup-
port theoretical research, applicable evaluation, and 4G trial system development
of the proposed technologies for the Chinese Beyond 3G (B3G)/4G mobile com-
munications. The FuTURE plan aims at the trends and requirements of wireless
communication in the next 10 years, and it expects to play an active role in the
process of 4G standardization. FuTURE is listed in the 863 Program of China’s
Science and Technology Development Plan in the Tenth Five Years and formally
started in 2002.
The 863 Program is a state-level scientific program. It was proposed in March
1986 and launched in 1987. In April 2001, the China State Council agreed on
further carrying out 863 programs on the tenth-five year period. Information tech-
nology is an important field of 863 programs. The FuTURE project was initially
launched as a part of China’s 863 Program in the wireless communications area.
At the end of October 2006, the FuTURE project was successfully tested and
certified by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) in Shanghai, repre-
senting China’s first Beyond 3G mobile communication trial networks of TDD
(time division duplex) and FDD (frequency division duplex) systems.

2.1.2 Features of FuTURE System

The next-generation communication system faces requirements beyond year 2010,
which will be mainly mobile data service. It should have wider coverage and sup-
ports high mobility. The FuTURE system differs radically from the 3G system
in the key technologies, where the core network may have a continuous evolution
while the air interface should have a revolutionary development. The reason will be
detailed as follows.
The packet data service will be in a dominant position, whose “percent occu-
pied” in the overall traffic will increase from 10–20% currently to 80% in the
future, while the market of voice service will shrink gradually. The traditional

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Then he halted, and all sprang out. A fire was quickly built and the
evening meal got under way.
“Begorra, I reckon we give them varmints a good lesson that
toime!” cried Barney.
“I jes’ fink dey won’t fo’git dat fo’ one while!” cried Pomp.
“It certainly taught them that the Steam Horse was no toy,”
declared Frank with a laugh.
Supper was quickly made and all partook of a hearty meal.
The shadows of night were settling down fast. They did not intend
of course to sleep outside the wagon, and were about to climb into it
when a startled cry went up from Barney.
“Bejabers, phwativer do yez call that?” he cried.
Through the gloom there suddenly appeared a dark object.
The next moment into the circle of firelight burst a horse and rider.
The rider threw himself out of the saddle with a loud guffaw.
“Wall, I swan!” he cried. “If I ain’t caught up with ye arter all.”
It was Beaver Bill, the trapper.
“Ha! glad to see you, Bill!” cried Frank, with pleasure.
“Ther same, cap’en. I rested ther pony up, an’ then cum along
slow like. Bat we’re yit ten miles from the valley.”
“Oh, yes. We’ve just come down from there.”
The old trapper looked astonished.
 CHAPTER VIII.
RECONNOITERING.

“Jest cum from thar!” he cried. “Ye don’t mean it?”

“Yes, I do,” replied Frank. “We have been up there and back.”
“What did you cum back fer?” asked the amazed trapper.
“For the sake of safety.”
“Ah, then ye run afoul of the gang, did ye?”
“We did.”
With this Frank proceeded to give Beaver Bill an account in full of
the incidents in Death Gorge.
The trapper listened with interest.
“Good enough!” he cried. “I’m glad ye gave ’em a lesson. I reckon,
if ye work it right, ye kin capture that rascal of a Mason.”
“Have you any plan to suggest?” asked Frank.
The trapper was thoughtful for a moment. Then he peered into
Frank’s face.
“Be you a good scout?” he asked.
“Do you mean in the bush?”
“Yas!”
“Well, I know a little something about it,” replied Frank.
“All right. I reckon ye’ll do. Ter-night, if ye feel like it, we’ll scout up
that way an’ try an’ git inter Mason’s den. Mebbe we could work a
stratagem to git a hitch on him. See?”
“Good for you!” cried Frank. “I am with you in that game!”
“Then ye’ll risk It?”
“Anything.”
“But what’ll ye do with yer iron hoss hyar?”
“Oh, Barney and Pomp will look after that all right,” replied Frank.
“When shall we start?”
“Not afore midnight, I reckon. P’raps yer hoss kin take us up
quicker’n mine.”
“Of course. Look here, Barney. You’ve heard all this?”
“I have, sor!”
“Well, now, you and Pomp will understand what I expect of you
until I return.”
“To be shure, sor.”
“I want you to keep out of the way of the foe. You know my signal
whistle. When you hear it, answer.”
“Shure I will that, sor!”
So the plan was completed for the incursion into Death Pass by
night.
It was somewhile before midnight, however, and our adventurers
settled down for a quiet time until that hour should come.
Barney brought out his fiddle and Pomp the banjo.
They played lively tunes and sang to the keen enjoyment of the
old trapper, Beaver Bill.
“Wall, by mighty!” roared the old woodsman, “that does jest take
ther pancake. I never heern anythin’ better nor that in me life.”
 “Did yez niver dance a jig?” cried Barney. “Shure, here’s the jig the
Kilkenny piper danced himself to death over.”
With this, the Celt set up a rollicking air on the fiddle which was
more meritorious in jingle than measure.
Beaver Bill could not stand.
“Well, me boys,” he cried, shambling to his feet. “I used ter dance
when I was young, me and Sal Hawkins once took ther prize at a log
cabin warmin’; hyar goes!”
The old trapper’s lengthy, lank limbs began to flap about in
keeping with the music.
It was a spectacle to have made a dog laugh.
It is needless to say that at the conclusion of the dance there was
not a dry eye in the camp.
Then Barney treated the audience to a genuine Irish jig.
Pomp was not to be outdone, and followed with a plantation
breakdown. It was a feast for the gods!
Thus the hours passed rapidly, until suddenly consulting his watch,
Frank found that it was midnight.
“Enough!” he cried, springing to his feet. “Time is up.”
“Shure, an’ is it?” cried Barney, regretfully.
But business was business, and soon all were busy making ready
for the expedition.
The Steam Horse was finally started for the Death Pass.
It was slow work picking the way along in the gloom.
But at length they arrived at a point within a mile of the spot.
Then Frank caused the Steam Horse to be drawn up in a dark
corner of the mountain side.
 “Now, Barney and Pomp,” he cried, “don’t forget my instructions.”
“Shore, we won’t, sor.”
“We’se jes’ a’ right, Marse Frank.”
“That settles it,” said Frank. “Come on, Mr. Beaver Bill.”
Together they glided away into the intense darkness. They were
off upon their daring errand.
The Rubicon was crossed. Only time would tell the results.
The trapper led the way, gliding through the shadows as noiseless
as a panther.
Gradually they approached the Pass.
They had no doubt that sentries would be found posted in the
vicinity, so it was necessary to proceed with the very greatest of
care.
But as they crept on, to their relief and surprise they did not
encounter anything of the kind.
The way seemed clear and they crept into the Pass like silent
shadows.
Beaver Bill was an adept at this sort of thing.
But he speedily found that it was not foreign to Frank Reade, Jr.
The young inventor was as silent and tactful as the trapper.
This seemed to reassure the latter. Suddenly Bill came to a halt.
He made a funnel of his hands and whispered faintly in Frank’s
ear:
“Thar’s nobody hereabouts, pard. What will ye do?”
Frank answered in the same manner:
“Let us try that path down which the greaser came this afternoon.”
 “Where is it?”
Then Frank remembered that the trapper had not been present at
the time.
“All right,” he returned, “I’ll show you the way.”
“Lead on!”
Frank now skillfully led the way across the pass.
So silently and effectively did he do it, in the intense gloom that it
was clearly demonstrated to Beaver Bill that the young inventor
knew his business well.
The trapper from that moment reposed full confidence in his
companion.
Frank reached the path which led up the cliff.
Here he halted and listened.
It was somewhile before he was satisfied that the coast was clear.
Then he whispered:
“All right, Bill; come on.”
The trapper followed without question.
Like silent phantoms they crept up the winding path. Up and up
they went until they could overlook the Death Valley.
And there a curious spectacle was presented to their view.
In different quarters of the valley myriads of dancing balls of fire,
ghastly in their radiance, seemed to spring from the soil, linger in the
air a few moments, and then vanish.
It looked like a literal display of fireworks.
The two men gazed upon the spot wholly spell-bound. They had
never seen anything like it before.
 It was now easy to understand why wandering tribes of Indians
and ignorant white men shunned the valley.
The sight was one well calculated to appeal to one’s sense of
superstition.
To the untutored savages or the white man unfamiliar with natural
sciences, the exhibition certainly partook of the supernatural.
There were large areas wholly free from this peculiar display.
Bill Swazey the hunter was unable to understand the
phenomenon.
“Great bars!” he gasped, “thar ain’t much doubt about this place
being ther abode of the devil is ther?”
“I think there is a good deal of doubt,” replied Frank.
The trapper was astonished.
“Eh!” he rejoined. “Praps’ ye kin account for thim devilish balls av
fire.”
“Of course I can.”
“What mought they be?”
“It is a peculiar characteristic of that sort of gas, that it is visible to
the eye at night in this form. You have heard of the light of the Jack-
o’-lantern or will-o’-the-wisp?”
“Sartin.”
“Well, this is explained in much the same manner. That is the
outcome of swamp gas and practically harmless, but this gas
undoubtedly has anaesthetic properties and swoons one to death,
just as too much chloroform would.”
The trapper listened respectfully, but the superstitious element
was too deeply imbued in his nature to allow of his accepting Frank’s
explanation at once.
 “That sounds all right, pard,” he declared, “but I’ll be doggoned if
I’d want to go down thar.”
“To the contrary it is quite safe in my belief to go down thar at
night.”
The trapper gasped with amazement.
“Are ye mad, pard?”
“No. I am perfectly sane.”
“Don’t ye know thar’s dozens of dead men out on that plain.”
“I do know it!” replied Frank, “but I’ll venture not one of them
attempted to cross in the night.”
“Eh, what diffrunce mought it make whether day or night?”
“All the difference in the world. You will see that only certain
localities in the valley throw up those balls of fire.”
The trapper was interested.
“Yas!”
“You will see that there are other spaces wholly free from the
display.”
“I reckon so!”
“Well, where you see none of the lights, that space is free from the
gas. It is only where you see the balls of fire that any of the deadly
gas is to be found.”
“Wall,” said Bill, slowly, “what ar ye drivin’ at?”
“I am trying to demonstrate my belief that at night a man can
safely cross that valley by keeping out of the way of those balls of
fire which are a guide to one. Of course, in the daytime, one does
not see the gas, and sooner or later must walk into it and be
overcome.”
 The trapper was now deeply impressed with the logic of Frank’s
remarks.
He scratched his head thoughtfully.
“Wall, I swow!” he grunted. “Mebbe yu’re right. I never cud study
out any of them scientific matters anyway.”
“I will take my oath that I am right,” declared Frank, confidently.
“Indeed I am so sure of it that I am going down there and try the
experiment.”
The trapper placed a hand on Frank’s arm.
“Fer God’s sake, pard, don’t venture inter that hole,” he
remonstrated. “It’s sartin ter be death.”
But Frank only laughed.
“You will see that I am right,” he cried. “I will demonstrate that fact
to you very quickly, my friend.”
 CHAPTER IX.
IN THE COUNTERFEITERS’ DEN.

The declaration by Frank Reade, Jr., that he was going to enter

the Death Valley seemed to utterly terrify Beaver Bill.
The trapper said rigidly:
“Ye don’t mean that, pard?”
“Yes, I do.”
“That ye’ll enter the valley?”
“Yes.”
“Don’t ye know thar’s dead men down there for that same trick?”
“I do.”
“Then why tempt fate?”
“I’m going on a sure thing,” replied Frank. “You need not fear at all,
my Christian friend. I am safe.”
“It’s my opinion ye’re crazy!”
Frank laughed merrily.
“I’ll show you!” he said.
He started to go down the trail, but the big trapper stepped in front
of him.
“Hold on, pard!” he said, resolutely. “I’m a bigger man than you.”
“Well, what of that?”
 “I reckon ye don’t know what’s fer yer own good. I’m not goin’ ter
see yer go down thar.”
Beaver Bill was in earnest.
Frank saw this at once.
He understood the old trapper’s motive readily enough. But he
was annoyed at the turn affairs had taken.
“Don’t be foolish, Bill,” he said. “I know what I’m doing.”
“I don’t believe ye do.”
“Stand aside.”
“Not by a jugfull!”
Frank was in a quandary. He did not wish to have any trouble with
the big trapper, yet he wanted to carry his point.
“Now, look here, Bill,” said he, sternly, “listen to reason.”
It was really quite a humorous situation. The big trapper was
conscientious, and thought he was doing right.
On the other hand, Frank was confident that he had the right
theory in regard to the valley, and that he would be incurring no risk.
But happily at this moment a startling incident terminated the affair.
Footsteps were heard upon the trail above them.
“Some one is coming!” whispered Frank.
In an instant both men glided into the deep shadows.
Down the path came the footsteps. Then a light flashed over the
face of the cliff.
The two watchers saw the explanation of this at once.
 A man stood upon the verge of the trail overlooking the valley, and
in his hand he carried a torch.
One moment he stood there in full view.
He was a type of the westerner, with stout frame and heavy
features. That he was one of the band of counterfeiters it was safe to
assume.
Then he suddenly began to move the torch up and down making
signals.
For full five minutes he continued these signals, closely watched
by Frank and the trapper.
Then he turned and went up the trail out of sight and hearing.
Frank drew a deep breath.
“Well, Beaver Bill!” he exclaimed, “what do you think of that?”
“By beavers! I can’t make it out!” replied the perplexed hunter.
“Didn’t it look as if he was signalling to some one over in the
valley?”
“I swar it did!”
Frank laughed quietly.
“And there isn’t any doubt but that was what he was doing,” he
declared. “Ah, do you hear that?”
To the hearing of the two men from the depths of the valley came
the sound of voices.
“Somebody is down thar!” exclaimed the astounded trapper.
“What did I tell you?” said Frank, triumphantly.
“Wall, it beats me. I ain’t anuther word to say. Let’s go down!” The
trapper started down the trail, Frank followed him.
 Once in the canyon they secreted themselves behind huge
bowlders. They had not long to wait.
The voices drew nearer and then several dark forms entered the
canyon coming boldly out of the Death Valley.
Turning from the canyon they went on up the trail.
Trapper Bill gripped Frank’s hand in the dark.
“Yer too deep fer me,” he muttered. “I’d never have believed it.”
“Don’t you see the simplicity of the thing now?” said Frank,
eagerly. “We have discovered the secret of the valley. It would be
easy enough to find our way through it in the daytime if we could
locate those spots where the gas comes up.”
“I believe ye,” replied Beaver Bill. “I hain’t ’nuther word ter say.
Jest ye go ahead and I’ll foller.”
“Well, what had we better do? Go up the trail or take a walk in the
valley?”
“Wall, I reckon we had better foller ther trail fust.”
“All right.”
Frank led the way, and once more they climbed the cliff trail.
They were not far in the rear of the party which had just come out
of the valley.
Their voices and footsteps could be plainly heard, and the two
scouts pushed ahead to overtake them.
But suddenly the trail ceased its upward course, and Frank and
Beaver Bill saw lights ahead.
They had reached the summit of the cliff, and were now upon a
broad, level stretch of plateau.
 Upon the western side the wall of the plateau jutted down
perpendicularly fully a thousand feet into the Death Valley.
From this point a lofty view could be had.
The eastern wall of the plateau jutted down into the Great Basin
with a sheer descent.
Indeed, it seemed as if one could not climb this elevation except
by means of the one cliff path.
This made it a position which could easily be made almost
unassailable.
Yet the counterfeiters did not seem to have taken any precaution
of the kind.
Indeed, they had not even posted a guard at the cliff path.
Frank remarked this curiously.
Evidently they did not anticipate or fear an attack. It was at best an
unusual state of affairs.
The party in advance of the two reconnoiterers had now half
crossed the plateau.
Upon the western side and quite near to the verge a rude structure
of stone and logs had been built.
About it were several smaller cabins of logs and boughs.
In fact, it bore the appearance of quite a respectable settlement.
Frank and Beaver Bill gazed upon the scene with interest and
surprise.
“Goodness!” exclaimed the young inventor, with amazement. “I
had no idea this was such a place. There is quite a den of the
rascals here.”
 “Yer right!” agreed the trapper. “I reckon, though, we’ve got to work
pooty careful in this locality, for we’re close onto the foe.”
“I agree with you,” said Frank. “But I am very curious to see what
is inside that stone house.”
“Wait a bit,” said the trapper, in a cautious manner. “I reckon it’ll be
a better time to try thet arter they’ve made up ther minds ter turn in
fer ther night.”
“All right; we will wait awhile.”
This they proceeded to do.
Time passed slowly, and then matters seemed to have got quiet in
the counterfeiters’ camp.
It seemed as if the majority of them must have turned in, and with
this belief Frank whispered:
“I think we’re safe enough now, Bill.”
“All right!” agreed the trapper.
With this they began to creep into the camp. Slowly and cautiously
in the deep shadows they made their way toward the stone building.
Fortune seemed to favor them.
They met with none of the foe and the coast thus far was clear.
Nearer they crept to the stone house.
There was a window upon the western side and up to this Frank
crept.
A light flashed out into the night and the sound of hammers could
be heard from within.
It was a risky thing to do but Frank crept to the window and peered
in.
The sight which met his gaze was an astonishing one.
 There was a long bench upon one side of the long room revealed
to his gaze and upon it were piles of metal of the spurious kinds.
A furnace yawned at one end of the room and over it Frank saw
huge melting pots.
At the bench six men were working with hammers at the
counterfeit dies and heaps of the bogus silver dollars and gold
eagles lay upon the floor.
It was certainly the bona fide interior of a counterfeiter’s den.
Nothing was lacking to make up the entire personnel and outfit.
The counterfeiters were working with great industry. They seemed
utterly heedless of surroundings.
“Well, that beats anything I ever saw before,” muttered Frank
Reade, Jr. “Just take a peep in there Bill.”
The trapper complied and was for a moment spell-bound.
“Wall, I swan!” he muttered. “I never saw the equal of that.”
“This is the worst den of the kind in America.”
“I should say so!”
For some moments the two spies watched the scene.
Then they cautiously withdrew.
In the shadows near they halted and the trapper whispered:
“What’s ther next move?”
“Well,” said Frank decisively, “it is very evident that unaided we
can never hope to capture these miscreants. They are too many for
us. The U. S. authorities should be notified and the troops from some
fort near here should come to our aid.”
Beaver Bill nodded his head.
 “Kerect, pard!” he affirmed. “And I kin tell ye jest where ter find ther
sogers.”
“Where?” asked Frank, eagerly.
“Thar’s a hull detachment of ’em up here a ways on Blind river.
They’re doing some government surveys, I reckon.”
“Enough!” exclaimed Frank. “Let us back to the Steam Horse. I will
send Barney and Pomp after them immediately.”
“That’s ther talk.”
But Frank’s plan was hardly destined to be carried out.
At that moment a harsh, grating laugh sounded near them.
A sardonic voice said:
“I reckon it will be a good long while before you will succeed in
bringing soldiers here, senors. Hands up, or you die this instant.”
With rapidity and before the two astonished men could act, they
were surrounded by dark forms from the gloom.
They had been discovered, and plainly enough, their game was
up.
 CHAPTER X.
BARNEY AND POMP HAVE LIVELY TIMES.

But what of Barney and Pomp?

Left with the Steam Horse to await the return of Frank Reade, Jr.,
they were not destined to long remain inactive.
In the shadows of the mountain wall it would have seemed that
they were safe.
But events close at hand were to disprove this assumption.
Neither were well pleased at having been left behind by Frank
Reade, Jr.
“Begorra, I can’t see the sinse av Misther Frank’s taking that
omadhoun with him instid av wan av us,” declared Barney, petulantly.
“Dat am a fac’, I’ish,” agreed Pomp, “fo’ instance a cullud gen’man
like myself.”
“Bedad, av yez had gone wid him ye’d hav’ been wuss than the
thrapper,” blustered Barney, offended at what he considered Pomp’s
egotism.
“Golly! if Marse Frank had done tuk yo’ he neber wud hab got back
fo’ suah. You’re no good nohow.”
Left alone, the two faithful servitors were as certain to get to
wrangling and skylarking as could be.
It was natural for them to badger each other.
“Whurro! Don’t yez give me any av yer slang, naygur!” blustered
Barney. “I’ll sphile the face av yez!”
 “Huh! Yo’ bettah jes’ spell able fust, Mister Mick.”
If there was one thing in the world that would make Barney furious,
it was the insinuation that he was Mick.
“Begorra, ye’ll take that back or I’ll have the heart av ye!” he
roared, making a rush at Pomp.
“Hi, hi! Luk out dar, I’ish. I’se a dangerous pusson!”
Then down went Pomp’s head negro fashion.
It caught Barney full in the stomach. The Hibernian went down in a
heap.
For a moment he was wholly unable to find his breath.
Then furiously he scrambled to his feet, but Pomp had taken
advantage of the opportunity, and dodged out of the open door of the
wagon.
Once outside he began to jeer Barney, to make him all the more
furious. In this he succeeded well.
With an imprecation the Celt started in pursuit.
In the excitement of the moment neither thought of the danger of
leaving the Steam Horse alone.
Just what was the cause of it they never knew, but somehow or
other, possibly the jar of Barney’s leap from the wagon, threw the
throttle open and the Steam Horse started away.
At the moment the two skylarkers were a dozen yards away.
The sight sobered them in a moment. It was a serious matter.
Away dashed the Steam Horse, with no controlling hand upon the
rein.
“Golly, fo’ goodness!” yelled Pomp. “We’se done made fools ob
ourselves dis time, fo’ suah.”
 “Begorra, catch him!” roared Barney. “Shure, phwat will be the ind
av this? Misther Frank will have the loife av us.”
Away they fled like frightened deer in pursuit.
But they might as well have tried to catch a cyclone.
Away went the Steam Horse at a mad pace into the darkness and
was out of sight.
It was an appalling moment.
Never in their roguish lives had Barney and Pomp received such a
shock. It was awful to think that it was all owing to careless fooling
upon their part.
“Och hone, it’s ruined we are,” wailed Barney. “Shure Misther
Frank niver will fergive us the day.”
“Golly! don’ I wish I had stayed abo’d de waggin!” wept Pomp.
On they ran in the darkness, stumbling over stones and
obstructions.
But nothing could be seen ahead of the Steam Horse.
A thousand awful reflections came to the two servitors. They saw
the Steam Horse lying at the bottom of a precipice in a million
fragments.
Or it might dash against the wall of a cliff and be shattered.
Again, if by any chance it should be stopped some of the
counterfeiters might get possession of it.
All these fears augmented a thousandfold flitted through the minds
of the excited and despairing pursuers.
“Golly! where ebber can dat Hoss hab gone to anyhow!” cried
Pomp in agony. “We’se done fo’ dis time, I’ish.”
“Bejabers, that’s thrue enough!”