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 Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs
2017, Volume 1, Number 1, pages 56– 66

The Influence of Globalization on Distracting

Traditional Aesthetic Values in Old Town of Erbil
MA. Zhino Hariry
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Design and Fine Arts, Girne American University, KKTC, North Cyprus

A R T I C L E I N F O:
Article history:
Received 1 November 2016
Received in revised form 20
December 2016
Accepted 28 December 2016
Available online 2 January
2017
Keywords:
Aesthetic value;
Globalization;
Architecture;
Old town;
Tradition and Modern
Cultures.
This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution
NonCommercial - NoDerivs 4.0.
"CC-BY-NC-ND"
ABSTRACT
Aesthetics as a discipline was originally part of philosophy and cosmology, primarily
it was used to create a holistic picture of the world. Throughout history, subject and
tasks of aesthetics as a discipline have been changing in different historical, cultural,
religious and artistic discourses, nature and the beauty of objects intentionally
produced by man, but doubts in division of aesthetic experiences in comparison to these
variants of beauty. One of the cities where started to rebuild in North Iraq after the
Saddam Hussein s regime was Erbil. This fact has evidently started to come out as a
problem of urban conservation that results in the loss of architectural and social values
of the historical settings. New building in a historical settlement is an urban
conservation problem that forms out a methodology of analyzing and evaluating the
existing built fabric with a typological study, making an interpretation of it commenting
on the legal regulations and introducing new principles that are based on the synthesis
of the past and today for providing historical continuity and preserving urban identity
despite the continuous change. The study revealed that by using local and traditional
elements in modern architecture there is a possibility to protect historical building.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2017) 1(1), 56-66.
https://doi.org/10.25034/1761.1(1)56-66
-
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2017 Journal Of Contemporary Urban Affairs. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction cultural, technology, media, culture and as well as

In the non- western context, there always has
been a dilemma between "who we are" and "who
we should be". One could say "between tradition
and modernity". (Puja Nanda, 1995).
Various ideas can be given about the concept of
globalization and the term globalization has been
restricted to economic activities but however it is a
multi-faceted concept. Not only is globalization
related to economic activities but also extends to
incorporate other aspects such as political, socio-
biological aspects such climate change. This
therefore has poses both opportunities and
adverse effect to aesthetic values. Though the
nature and magnitude of effects of globalization
on aesthetic values vary whether negative or
*Corresponding Author:
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Design and
Fine Arts, Girne American University, KKTC, North Cyprus.
E-mail address: zhino_hariri@yahoo.com
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
positive, they hinge on the prevalence or extent to
which a nation has been exposed to globalization.
Insights provided by Pohl (n.d) revealed that
globalization is positively associated with
modernization which has a strong potential to
change cultural values. The change in cultural
values is brought about by changes in taste and
preferences as they shift towards international
products. Thus aesthetics values are likely to
change in favor of international products, views
and life styles. Contrasting ideas were however
given by Villaincourt (2007) showed that deeply
rooted cultures such as the Chinese, Arabic and
Islamic and their associated aesthetic values are
not easily affected by globalization. This shows that
there is no consensus about the impact of
globalization on aesthetic values. The idea is how
to explain narratives of each society through their
architecture increase aesthetical value of it. This
study therefore attempts to examine the influence
of globalization on distracting traditional aesthetic
values in relation to Erbil.
The theme of this research deals with the
distinguishing and analyze of traditional and
modern characteristics in some cultures in the
whole globe then focused on the old town of Erbil.
The aesthetic concept and practices of any
cultures yesterday is a kind of critical attitude
toward creating various method of designing in
future. This analysis was to evaluate negative
impacts on the modern architecture in relation to
the local culture, religion and environment. The
case study was selected areas influenced by the
development of modern buildings in Erbil city, as
one of the ancient cities in Middle East. The
research was to know how the modernity has
influence on aesthetic of traditional buildings and
damage their identity in there.
The conceptual framework of this study is based on
the diagram shown in figure 1. It can be noted that
the effects of globalization on aesthetic values
depends on whether globalization is or not
compatible with tradition. Foremost, it can be
noted that globalizations is as a result of events or
activities which can either be spectacular or non-
spectacular. Thus the adoption, implementation or
importation of these spectacular activities or
events results in globalization. The effects of
globalization are categorized on the basis that they
are compatible or not compatible with tradition.
However, irrespective of the level of compatibility,
there is always social understanding and
interpretation that is derived from globalization. It is
the resultant outcome of social understanding and
interpretation of globalization that poses effects on
aesthetic values. Society then perception of the
town is therefore influenced by the effects of
globalization on aesthetic values. Such effects can
either bring positive or negative distractions on
people’s perceptions. The difference between the
left side and the right side of the diagram rests on
the impact of globalization, that is, whether it is
compatible or not compatible with tradition. The
other main problem which globalization is that it
can negatively distract the aesthetic value of
traditional spaces when it is not compatible with
traditions in the eye of spectacular. Then as the
solution it can conserve aesthetic value of
traditional spaces by appropriate globalization in
the same time with the traditions.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of Globalization
Effects on Traditional Aesthetic (Developed by
Author).
The main objective of the study is to examine the
influence of globalization on distracting traditional
aesthetic values in relation to Erbil. Other objectives
of the study are;
1. To analyze the nature and extent to which
globalization is influencing aesthetic values
in Erbil.
Zhino Hariry 57

2. To identify strategies that can be used to
harness the benefits offered
globalization without compromising the
aesthetic values in Erbil.
3. To analyze the effect of using foreign
elements or another cultural methods on
losing aesthetical value of historical
settlements?
With regards to the above mentioned objectives
the study will therefore strive to answer the following
research questions;
1. What is the influence of globalization on
distracting traditional aesthetic values in
relation to Erbil?
2. What is the nature and extent to which
globalization is influencing aesthetic values
in Erbil?
3. What strategies can be used to harness the
benefits offered by globalization without
compromising the aesthetic values in Erbil?
4. What is the effect of using foreign elements
or another cultural methods on losing
aesthetical value of historical settlements?
In order to the above questions, we can argue that
if various natural environments, cultural principles
and moral foundations are taken
consideration in each culture then a different
aesthetical value will be produced and it will give
identity to each culture. Aesthetic of architecture
loses its value while memory originality and
traditions will not consider. Architecture is the
carrier of culture. Through architecture it's possible
to measure many things about a culture, such as
lifestyle, artistic sensibilities and social structure.
Big explosion in modernity sometime deformed the
aesthetic of architecture in some cultures. To give
the identity of architecture in each culture their
nature and way of life especially before industrial
revolution could be take into account, then
aesthetical value of their architecture will appear.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Traditional Architecture
Traditional architecture can be defined as a
building strategy that utilizes certain cultural
symbols of particular people in a given place (Marc
Antonio, 2015). Traditional architecture can be
decomposed into classical architecture and
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
vernacular architecture. The value of traditional
by architecture lies in the fact that it is recognizable
and has a greater ability to communicate
substantial information especially cultural values.
On the other hand, modern architecture refutes
the idea of traditional architecture communicating
information. Modern architecture is based on the
belief that emotional responses can be stimulated
without using any content and that anything that is
not permanent cannot learned from previous
generations or be utilised in educating future
generations (Marc Antonio, 2015).
Allsopp (1977) in the book (A Modern Theory of
Architecture), defined vernacular architecture as a
branch of traditional architecture that promotes
humble causes of the society. According to
Rapoport (1969) the monument- buildings of the
grand design tradition- are built to impress either
the populace with the power of the patron, or the
peer group of designers and cognoscenti with the
cleverness of the designer and good taste of the
patron. The folk tradition, on the other hand, is the
direct and unself-conscious translation into physical
form of a culture, its needs and values – as well as
the desires, dreams, and passions of a people. It is
into the world view writ small, the “ideal” environment
of a people expressed in buildings and settlements,
with no designer, artist, or architect with an axe to
grind (although to what extent the designer is really
a form giver is a moot point). The folk tradition is
much more closely related to the culture of the
majority and life as it is really lived than is the grand
design tradition, which represents the culture of the
elite. The folk tradition also represents the bulk of
the built environment. (Rapoport, 1969; 2)
Vernacular architecture is a generalized way of
design derived from folk architecture. It may be
seen as the development of the “natural‟
architecture of a region which is definable in terms
of climate, culture and materials. Of its own nature,
however, vernacular architecture is limited to that
which can properly be expressed ‘in the
vernacular’. It can be used for spiritual,
monumental and utility buildings but limits of
propriety are set taste and judgment. Scale is a
crucial factor. Vernacular architecture is congenial
to people and sympathetic to environment.
(Allsopp, 1977; 8)
Zhino Hariry 58
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017

2.1.1 Aesthetic of traditional architecture
The aesthetics of traditional spaces was in their own
places before industrial revolution when the size of
buildings were regular, in human scale and closed
to each other, the buildings were more sustainable.
They constructed to compatible with environment,
the local and natural materials were used. Industrial
revolution distracted the cities when it randomly
distributed inside the big cities it damaged the
identity of those cities which have rich histories and
traditions then affected the aesthetic value of
originality. All those have influence on theorists and
scientists to rethink and redesigning new urban
fabrics by refusing all old spaces and traditional
objects and making new rules to control on
urbanization development process that was known
as modernism. This modernism had no exact
solution even it damaged more the cities.
buildings have been influenced by their old
paintings.
In Islamic art traditions, there is a long running
debate about producing representational art.
Those opposed to the artistic expression of natural
forms argue that, since God created all things
perfectly, human imitation is weak and offensive.
As a result, most works of Islamic art are non-
representational, including mosaics, mosques, and
calligraphy.
In contrast with Islamic, in many western traditions
creating imitations of Gods creations was viewed
as homage and warship. (Paul Ford, 2009)

2.1.2 Traditional Aesthetic Values in Diverse

Cultures
The local architectural identity of any particular
society is an important life container which reflects
among other its cultural values and meanings that
evolve over time. Different aesthetic values are
found in varied cultures around the world that have
been formed by various natural environments, Figure 2. a) Famous Akshardham temple in Delhi, b)
cultural principles and moral foundations, In the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart at Dali. c) Non-
study we are going to define traditional art in representational art in Islamic culture. d) St. Peter's
diverse cultures in the globe. Basilica, Vatican.
In India, art and relationships between the physical
and the spiritual states are manifested in many Overall, the following table reveals Aesthetic
types of expression including painting, sculpture, characteristics of diverse cultures in a traditional
literature, dance, Architecture and music. In India, architecture. It also reveals common indicators of
aesthetic value has evolved through interpretation Islamic, chines and western architecture from
and representation of spiritual and religious aesthetic point of view.
iconography. (Puja Nanda, 1995)
In Chinese history, aesthetics were a more
intellectual continuation with thinkers like Confucius
dedicating himself to the study or art and human
nature. As a result, classical Chinese art occurs
largely independently of the philosophy of
aesthetics and religion. In Western churches, the
aspiration for heaven was often symbolized by a
stretching vertical tower, and since the nearest
Chinese equivalent was the pagoda, the resulting
form of Saint Joseph’s Cathedral would have
appeared as a logical synthesis and many of their

Zhino Hariry 59
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
Table 1. Aesthetic characteristics of diverse cultures
in a traditional architecture (Shokrpour and
Fahherian, 2015; Zhiping, n.d; Dinstict Build, n.d)
2.2 Aesthetic of Modern Architecture
Continuous technical progress in science and
technology and division of work introduced new
dimensions to the social life and a permanent
change to the customs and traditional cultures, in
parallel it is resulting from political tensions and
social conflicts. Hence, the modernity is not the
technological and scientific revolution; it is a game
to include it in the scenery of life and daily social
dimension (Afaya, 1998). Modernization theory
according to Habermas is an analysis and
evaluation of modern forms of social life.
Habermas explains that modernity is more than a
period. It indicates the social, political, cultural and
psychological conditions that arise from certain
historical procedures. Modernity in this sense is
related to, but distinct from, the various aesthetic
works and styles that fall under the label
‘modernism’ (Finlayson, 2005).
On the other hand the historical analysis of
Habermas’s point of view indicated that,
modernization directs to the release of subjects
from traditional roles and values and to their
expanding dependence on communication and
discourse to correlate actions and formulate social
order (Finlayson, 2005). Modernity is an era of
continuous transformation that affects all
characteristics of knowledge. Modernity is not a
concept but rather a statement classification. It’s a
story that specifies historical transformation across
the range of disciplines, periods and locations
(Simon, 2005). After industrial revolution large
number of new countries had been established by
major powers without considering the populations
ethnical and cultural backgrounds. It was one of
the most historical events that had changed the
world’s history and established a new basis for
transforming local architectural heritages for the
earth’s nations. But since the new boarders didn’t
consider the cultural and ethnical boarders of the
people, the new architecture has been created by
the new imposed realities.
Figure 3. a) Modern Architecture, France, Le
Corbusier, Villa, Savoye. b) Avant-garde in Russia,
Nikolai Ladovsky . c) Lever House in New York -
1951.d) Louis Kahn National Assembly Building,
Dhaka. e) Modern Commercial Building in Erbil.
2.2.1 Aesthetic in Modernity
The term ‘modern architecture’ has more than one
meaning. It can be understood to refer to all
buildings of the modern period regardless of their
ideological basis, or it can be understood more
specifically as an architecture conscious of its own
modernity and striving for change. It is in the latter
sense that it has generally been defined in histories
of contemporary architecture, and the present
book follows this tradition. Already in the early
nineteenth century, there was wide dissatisfaction
with eclecticism among architects, historians, and
critics. This well documented attitude justifies a
history of modern architecture concerned primarily
with reformist, ‘avant-garde’ tendencies, rather
than one that attempts to deal with the whole of
architectural production as if it operated within a
Zhino Hariry 60
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
non-ideological, neutral field. It is in the space
between the idealist utopias of the historical avant-
gardes and the resistances, complexities, and
pluralities of capitalist culture. Though not
attempting to be in any way encyclopedic, the
narrative follows an overall chronological
sequence, and tries to be, perhaps, less certain in
its outcome and less triumphalist than those of most
previous histories of modernism. The Modern
Movement was both an act of resistance to social
modernity and an enthusiastic acceptance of an
open technological future. It longed for a world of
territorial and social fixity, while at the same time
embracing, incompatibly, an economy and
technology in changing. It shared this belief in a
mythical ‘third way’ between capitalism and
communism with the Fascist movements of the
1930s, and though it would be completely wrong to
brand it with the crimes of Fascism, it is surely no
accident that the period of its greatest intensity
happened together with the anti-democratic,
totalitarian political movements that were such a
dominant feature of the first half of the twentieth
century. Nowadays postmodern has attempted to
bring back the traditions in old town and conserve
it with modernism.
2.2.2 Modern Aesthetic Value in Diverse Cultures
In west
Modern architecture started after 1920 with using
steel and concrete as material and cubic simple
shapes they rejected traditional neoclassical
architecture especially the ornaments became the
crime in modern architecture.
The diversity of artistic movements that
characterized the pre-revolutionary avant-gardes
in Russia, The first time modern methods of
skyscraper construction were implemented
presenting the historian with a bewildering array of
acronyms. Support for the revolution came from all
artistic factions, including the most conservative,
each faction identifying with its aims. For those
avant-garde artists and architects who joined the
revolution, the Utopian fantasies of the period
before the First World War seemed about to
become a historical reality. The revolution released
an explosion of creative energy, in which the paths
opened up by the pre-war European avant-gardes
were redirected towards the achievement of
socialism.
In America the modern upheaval followed Europe,
the main aesthetic elements were lightness, and
transparency which using glasses were became
common especially in skyscrapers. The first high-rise
office building by SOM was Lever House in New
York (1951). This was one of four American buildings
which were the first to realize Mies van der Rohe’s
and Le Corbusier’s pre-war visions of the glass
skyscraper.
Bangladesh Where secondary spaces are grouped
round a central volume, as in Byzantine and
centralized Renaissance churches. (Alan
Colquhoun, 2002)
The modernity in eastern countries reflects a direct
influence by the Western Architecture. Modernity in
Iraq as particular area in east was founded in 1921
after collapsing the Ottoman Empire. It has applied
central decision making process where all town
plans and development strategies had been
decided by the central authorities in Baghdad. All
these plans had totally ignored the local
architecture of Kurdistan. The result of ignoring
Kurdish architectural heritage in education and
practice is the stagnation of developing a modern
style of local Kurdish architecture that could
support a sustainable development of the city.
The following table reveals aesthetic characteristics
of diverse cultures in modern architecture. It also
tried to find the common indicators of modern
eastern, Russia and western area of the world.
Table 2. Aesthetic characteristics of diverse cultures
in modern architecture (Shokrpour and Fahherian,
2015; Zhiping, n.d; Dinstict Build, n.d)
Zhino Hariry 61
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
3. METHODOLOGY
This study is an explorative study that involves the
comparisons of traditional and modern aesthetic
values. Thus the study will employ an inductive
approach that involves the use of a combination of
previous studies and secondary information such as
figures and pictures to reinforce obtained
arguments. Theoretical and empirical gaps and
findings and the developed model will therefore be
used to provide answers to the research questions.
Based the finding from literature review on the
Modern architecture features, the following model
will be used to analysis the influence of
globalization on aesthetic values. As it is reveaed in
following figure form and elements are the most
important factors on shaping the identity of
architecture.
Figure 4. Modern architecture assessment model
(Developed by Author).
The above features will be used to assess the extent
to which traditional Erbil aesthetics values have
been changed to reflect modern architectural
aesthetic values, designs or architecture. Thus a
close reflection or resemblance of these features
entail that aesthetics values in Erbil have been
significantly influenced by globalization. The
decision criteria is based on the extent to which
prevailing Erbil aesthetics designs are matching the
above 10 features of western aesthetic
characteristics.
4. Aesthetic Values In Case of Erbil
There are numerous assertions about the impacts of
globalization on traditional heritages. Insights
provided by Sumarni (2014) revealed that global
changes have greatly disregarded historical or
heritage and social values. Thus emphasis being
placed on the conservation of cultural heritages is
slowly declining. Meanwhile, globalization is
regarded as a source of both economic growth
and development but it has imposed impacts on
town planning. One of the areas under which
globalization is being critiqued in Kurdistan is that
most Kurdish buildings have greatly assumed
western structures and designs (Bornberg, Tayfor
and Jaimes, n.d). It can be noted that not only
does globalization increase the prevalence of
office buildings, shopping malls or holiday resorts
but the rate and way in which cities have been
evolving. Most building features that are now being
found in modern buildings have significant
contrasting features with cultural values. Despite
such a change in building development, modern
architectural designs and buildings are still on the
verge of increasing world-wide.
Figure 5. Erbil-Tradition & Globalization View
(Andrew L., 2014).
4.1 Cultural Heritage of Erbil City
The city of Erbil is characterized by traditional
courtyard houses known as the Citadel which is
composed of about 350 medium sized houses, 500
courtyard houses and palace like structures
numbering 30 in total (Novacek and Karel, 2008).
The construction of Erbil City was mainly
characterized by the usage of bricks and
dominated by courtyard features. The buildings’
roofs were made using timber joists as shown
below.
Zhino Hariry 62
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
Figure 6. Wooden planked ceilings (Akram and
Franco, 2016).
In addition, the plastering of houses in Erbil was also
done using ‘’juss’’ but beautiful features and colors
were also used to enhance the appearance of the
houses. The most essential element in traditional
aesthetic of Erbil is that floral and bright colors were
dominantly used for decorative purposes. The type
of the roofs of Erbil houses were designed
irrespective of the number of house floors though a
significant number of houses has two floors as
shown below in figure 7.
Figure 7. Traditional Kurdish houses were
characterized by open courtyard (Akram, Ismail
and Franco, 2016).
The layout of the houses was always structured in a
manner that the entrance always lead to the
courtyard (Akram, Ismail and Franco, 2016). On the
other hand, differences were observed in terms of
the distance between upper and lower floors from
the courtyard. Such differences were made so as
to make a space provision for putting windows. A
distance of 1-1.5 separated the courtyard from
both the upper and lower floors (Akram, Ismail and
Franco, 2016) and this is exhibited in figure 8.
Figure 8. Raised terrace as a common feature of
Erbil houses.
Traditional aesthetic values were also observed in
arcaded terraces which were vast in number and
were a common characteristic in most Erbil houses.
The traditional element was further accompanied
by materials supplied from the Mosul such a grey
marble. Moreover, the building designs followed a
certain design pattern. For instance, rectangular or
shaped layouts were mainly used for the layout of
courtyards but the geometrical structure was
based on the structure of the courtyard. Traditional
Erbil houses were also characterized by a lot of
windows. Such windows were important for
ventilation and allowing daylight into the house
and this is shown below in Fig 9.
Figure 9. Several windows for ventilation and
natural daylight.
Spatial planning responsibilities were thus thrusted
into the hands of an ‘Usta’ also known as the
master designer. Major limitations in traditional Erbil
houses was space. This was contributed to the fact
that the shape of the plot on which the houses
were built also played a major role in the design
structure of the building. Regular shaped plots were
not suitable for building structures that had
asymmetrical plans. The most notable feature of
traditional Erbil houses is that they were built with an
Zhino Hariry 63
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
emphasis on privacy. Doors were therefore placed
in a manner that contributes to the privacy of the
house.
4.2 Modern Aesthetics in Erbil City
Modern Kurdish houses have changed
dramatically in terms of styles and designs and are
designed by Kurdish to suit their Arabic Kurds needs,
tastes and preferences. Thus building structures
have greatly changed from simple structured plans
to more diverse facades. Such changes can be
illustrated using Figure 10. From Figure 10 it can be
noted that there is a significant different in modern
architectural designs that are now being
developed in Erbil compared to the traditional
architectural designs. Modern building designs
have grown to encompass different shapes, sizes
and heights. This has also been facilitated by the
type of building materials that are now being used
nowadays. Modern buildings are now using
windows as part of the building designs compared
to traditional architecture were there were used of
ventilation purposes. Floor plans in modern
buildings are very creative and the usage of space
differs with the taste of the person though space
usage is now being limited due to increase in
demand and costs. Bold roof lines are now a
common feature in modern architectural designs
and this era of modern architecture can be known
as the post beam architecture which is focusing
mainly on the use of non-local materials.
Figure 10. Changes from traditional building to
modern building architecture.
5. Discussion
It can be noted that there are significant
differences that can be observed between
traditional and modern architecture in Erbil.
Foremost, it can be noted that traditional
architecture was mainly based on the use of local
materials while modern architecture mainly uses
foreign building materials. Colors and painting
were used to enhance the appearance and
beauty of the building designs in traditional
architecture while building designs and materials
are used enhance the appearance and beauty of
the building designs. Under traditional architecture,
buildings are built with a specific function in mind
such as privacy while modern architecture places
emphasis on beauty and attractiveness. Major
limitations during traditional architecture in Erbil are
space related while in modern architecture they
are cost related. The vertical expansion technique
in traditional architecture was used to save space
while in modern architecture it was used to
enhance the beauty of the building structure.
Table 4. Comparison between traditional and
modern architecture in Erbil (Developed by
Author).
Thus it can be concluded that there is a significant
difference in traditional aesthetic values that has
been caused by globalization in Erbil City.
Traditional aesthetic values have greatly shifted
from traditional heritage to reflect more of the
modern features in terms of both designs and
materials. Further conclusions can be drawn that
modern architectural designs place much
emphasis on beauty while traditional architectural
designs in Erbil City placed much emphasis on
function.
Zhino Hariry 64
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017
It can be noted that buildings in Erbil are not built
to reflect functions as postulated by the modern
aesthetic theory but however buildings are built in
relation to the environment so as to harness the
benefits posed by the environment. The structuring
is however mostly significantly to avoid adverse
impacts posed by weather conditions such as heat
waves in summer.
Building designs in the old town of Erbil are however
simple if form and design. This matches the modern
theory’s view which contends that there must be
simplicity in form and design. Simplicity in building
designs has however been a prevalent case in the
old town of Erbil. This entails that though this feature
resembles that of modern aesthetic views, it is a
strong element of traditional aesthetic designs in
Erbil.
Buildings in Erbil are not developed with any
emphasis to revamp outdoor space. This is because
much emphasis is placed on the interior part of the
building. Windows are not used as part of the
designing process but are there to enhance
aeration into the building. The focus is relatively
high when it comes to building materials. This is
because more foreign building materials are now
being imported from countries such as Spain,
Turkey and Italy such as glass and carbon. The floor
plans in Erbil buildings are not creative as they are
developed to reflect cultural tastes and
preferences. Using this analysis it can therefore be
noted aesthetics values have been greatly
affected by globalization in the area of building
materials but other areas of aesthetic values have
remained unaffected by globalization because of
the deep cultural and religious factors.
6. Conclusions
It can therefore be concluded that globalization
has insignificantly influenced traditional aesthetics
values in old town of Erbil. Also the nature and
extent to which globalization is influencing
aesthetic values in Erbil has grown significantly in
the area of building materials. Huge amounts of
building materials that are now being used in Erbil
are imported and these are negatively affecting
aesthetic values. Moreover, though globalization
has negatively affected aesthetic values in terms of
building materials and insignificantly affected other
aesthetic values, there are numerous strategies
that can be used to harness globalization initiatives
in architectures.
As the expected solution for our problem using the
following way of design could be increase the
aesthetic value of modernity within conservation of
traditional aspects. The modernism could be
survive and in the same time the aesthetic of
traditional architecture could be protected in such
ancient cities by using local and traditional
elements in modern architecture. This type of
designs reflected in many of famous architects for
example Frank Lloyd Wright is the most famous
architect who designed houses strongly influenced
by the traditional architecture, This form appeared
also in some works of Le Corbusier and Jeanneret
in which the pitched roof and the masonry wall,
outlawed in the 1920s. Yet these houses are no
mere return to vernacular models; natural materials
are reinterpreted in terms of Modernist aesthetics.
Vernacular references are less evident in the
Radiant Farm and a Village Coopératif (1934) two
linked (unrealized) projects in which modern
building technologies and Modernist aesthetics
were applied to agriculture (Colquhoun, 2002: 137).
Acknowledgment
This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or non-for-profit sectors.
References:
Adorno, T. W. (2002) Aesthetic Theory. Continuum:
New York.
Be´rube, M. (2004) The Aesthetics of Cultural
Studies. Blackwell: USA.
Bhatt, R. (2000) On the Epistemological Significance
of Aesthetic Values in Architectural Theory.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology: India.
Bornberg, R., Tayfor, M. A. and Jaimes, M. (n.d).
(2006) Traditional Versus a Global International
Style: Aarbil, Iraq. Institute of Comparative
Studies Research in Architecture, Austria, 1-10.
Colquhoun, A. (2002) Modern Architecture. Oxford
History of Art: UK.
Zhino Hariry 65
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 1(1), 56-66 / 2017

Distinct Build (n.d). Modern Architecture Defining
Characteristics. Accessed from
http://distinctbuild.ca/modern_architecture_d
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Farah, W. Al-Hashimi, T. and Bandyopadhyay, S.
(2015) The Persistent Element in the Old Urban
Fabric, Erbil Bazar. Journal of Strategic
Innovation and Sustainability, 10(2), 48-57.
Khayat, M. B. and Khaznadar, B. M. (2002) Formal
characteristics of vernacular architecture in
Erbil city and other Iraqi cities. College of
Engineering, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, The
Iraqi Journal of Architecture, 20(1).
Marc A. (2010) Traditional Architecture FAQ.
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http://blog.marcantonioarchitects.com/traditi
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Nanda, P. (1995) The Culture of Building to Craft-A
Regional Contemporary Aesthetic.
(Unpublished Master Thesis) Sushant School of
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Ismail, S., Akram, M., and Franco, D. (2014) The
Cultural Significant of Erbil City: Case of
Traditional Kurdistan Houses. International
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106.
Parker, D. H. (n.d). (1920) The Principles of
Aesthetics. University of Michigan: US.
Pohl, K. (2009) Identity and Hybridity: Chinese
Culture and Aesthetics in the Age of
Globalization in Anton Van den Braembussche
et al., Intercultural Aesthetics: A Worldview
Perspective, 87-104, Rotterdam: Springer.
Shokrpour, M. and Fakherian, P. (2015) Evaluation
of Aesthetics in Architecture from the
Perspective of Quran. Cumhuriyet University,
Faculty of Science, Journal (CSJ), 36(4). 41-58.
Sumarni Ismail. (2014) Monitoring Strategies and
Key Indicators for Sustaining the Heritage
Values of Melaka and George World Heritage
Cities. (Unpublished Ph.D Thesis) at University of
Malaya:Malaysia.
Vaillancourt, D. (2000) Reviewed Work:
International Yearbook of Aesthetics:
Aesthetics and/as Globalization by Aleš
Erjavec. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism, 65(3), 344-346.
Winter, (2007) Aesthetic and Architecture. The
Tower Building: London.
Zangwil, N. (2007) Aesthetic Creation. Oxford New
York: US.
Zhiping Z. (2000) Traditional Buildings of China and
their performance in Earthquakes, in: Proc. of
the International Conference on the Seismic
Performance of Traditional Buildings, Istanbul:
Turkey .
Lawer A. (2014) Erbil Revealed. Accessed from
http://www.archaeology.org/issues/145-
1409/features/2419-kurdistan-erbil-
excavations#art2, May, 2016.
Puja Nanda (1995) THE CULTURE OF BUILDING TO
CRAFT-A REGIONAL
CONTEMPORARY AESTHETIC. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
June 1999.
Ford, F. (1995) What is Aesthetics? Accessed from
http://paulford.com/, May, 2016.
Lever House, (2008) Accessed from
http://som.com/projects/lever_house, May, 2016.
Alan Q. (2002) Modern Architecture, Oxford
University Press 2002. 177, 178.

Zhino Hariry 66
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Los nueve libros
de la Historia (1 de 2)
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Los nueve libros de la Historia (1 de 2)

Author: Herodotus

Translator: Bartomeu Pou i Puigserver

Release date: January 19, 2024 [eBook #72753]

Language: Spanish

Original publication: Madrid: Imprenta Central a cargo de Vícto

Saiz, 1878

Credits: Ramón Pajares Box. (This file was produced from images
generously made available by Biblioteca Digita
Floridablanca, Fondo antiguo de la Universidad de
Murcia.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOS NUEVE

LIBROS DE LA HISTORIA (1 DE 2) ***
Índice
Notas

Nota de transcripción

Los errores de imprenta han sido corregidos.

La ortografía del texto original ha sido modernizada de acuerdo con las normas
publicadas en 2010 por la Real Academia Española.
También se han modernizado los nombres propios de personas y lugares, y los
gentilicios.
No se han modernizado, sin embargo, los restantes términos ni la sintaxis utilizada
por el traductor, propia del siglo XVIII.
Los nombres de los dioses no aparecen con la denominación latina, utilizada por el
traductor, sino con la griega, como hizo el autor. Es decir, Venus y Hércules
aparecen como Afrodita y Heracles.
El gentilicio «focense» se ha transcrito como «foceo» para aludir a los habitantes de
la ciudad jonia de Focea; para los de la región continental de la Fócide se utiliza
«focidio».
Se han retirado las rayas intrapárrafos que indican diálogo, manteniéndose las
comillas.
Las notas a pie de página han sido renumeradas y colocadas al final del tomo.
En el libro III, capítulo XCV: Las cifras que aparecen han sido tomadas del original
griego disponible en el sitio web del proyecto Perseus. Las cifras que aparecen
impresas en la traducción son difíciles de cuadrar entre sí.
En el libro IV, capítulo LXXXVI: Todas las distancias que aparecen han sido tomadas
del original griego en Perseus y no reflejan las de la traducción impresa por
inconherentes.
LOS NUEVE LIBROS DE HERÓDOTO.
 BIBLIOTECA CLÁSICA.
Doce reales cada tomo en toda España.

OBRAS PUBLICADAS.
Tomos
HOMERO.—La Ilíada, traducción directa del griego en verso y con notas de D. José
Gómez Hermosilla 3
CERVANTES.—Novelas ejemplares y viaje del Parnaso 2
HERÓDOTO.—Los nueve libros de la historia, traducción directa del griego, del padre
Bartolomé Pou 2
ALCALÁ GALIANO.—Recuerdos de un anciano 1
VIRGILIO.
— La Eneida, traducción directa del latín, en verso y con notas de D. Miguel
Antonio Caro 2
— Las églogas, traducción en verso, de Hidalgo.—Las geórgicas, traducción
en verso, de Caro; ambas traducciones directas del latín, con un
estudio del Sr. Menéndez Pelayo 1
MACAULAY.
— Estudios literarios 1
— Estudios históricos 1
— Estudios políticos 1
— Estudios biográficos 1
— Estudios críticos 1
Traducción directa del inglés de M. Juderías Bender.
QUINTANA.—Vidas de españoles célebres 2
CICERÓN.—Tratados didácticos de la elocuencia, traducción directa del latín de
D. Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo 2
SALUSTIO.—Conjuración de Catilina.—Guerra de Jugurta, traducción del infante
D. Gabriel.—Fragmentos de la grande historia, traducción del Sr. Menéndez Pelayo,
ambas directas del latín 1
TÁCITO.—Los anales, traducción directa del latín de don Carlos Coloma 2
PLUTARCO.—Las vidas paralelas, traducción directa del griego por D. Antonio Ranz
Romanillos 5
ARISTÓFANES.—Teatro completo, traducción directa del griego por D. Federico
Baráibar 1
POETAS BUCÓLICOS GRIEGOS.—(Teócrito, Bion y Mosco). Traducción directa del
griego, en verso, por el Ilmo. Sr. D. Ignacio Montes de Oca, Obispo de Linares
(Méjico) 1
MANZONI.—Los Novios, traducción de D. Juan Nicasio Gallego 1
 LOS NUEVE LIBROS
DE LA HISTORIA
DE

HERÓDOTO DE HALICARNASO
TRADUCIDA DEL GRIEGO AL CASTELLANO

POR

E L P. B A RTO L O M É P O U
DE LA COMPAÑÍA DE JESÚS

TOMO I

MADRID
Imprenta Central a cargo de Víctor Saiz
Colegiata, núm. 6
1878
 PRÓLOGO DEL TRADUCTOR.

Nació Heródoto[1] de una familia noble en el año primero de la

Olimpiada 74, o sea en el de 3462 del mundo, en Halicarnaso, colonia
dórica fundada por los argivos en la Caria. Llamábase Lixes su padre
y su madre Drío, y ambos sin duda confiaron su educación a maestros
hábiles, si hemos de juzgar por los efectos. Desde su primera
juventud, abandonando Heródoto su patria por no verla oprimida por e
tirano Lígdamis, pasó a vivir a Samos, donde pensó perfeccionarse en
el dialecto jónico con la mira acaso de publicar en aquel idioma una
historia. A este designio debiole de animar el buen gusto e ilustración
que reinaban en la Grecia asiática o Asia menor, mucho más
adelantada entonces en las artes que la Grecia de Europa, no menos
que el ejemplo de otros historiadores así griegos como bárbaros
Helánico el Milesio y Caronte de Lámpsaco habían publicado ya sus
historias pérsicas, Janto la de Lidia, y Hecateo Milesio la del Asia.
Nuestro Heródoto, primero viajante que historiador, quiso ver po
sus mismos ojos los lugares que habían sido teatro de las acciones
que él pensaba publicar. Recorrió en el Asia la Siria y la Palestina, y
algunas expresiones suyas dan a entender que llegó a Babilonia: en
África atravesó todo el Egipto hasta la misma Cirene, ignorándose s
llegó a Cartago; pero donde más provincias recorrió fue en Europa
viajando por la Grecia, por el Epiro, por la Macedonia, por la Tracia, y
por la Escitia, y finalmente fue a Italia o Magna Grecia, formando parte
de la colonia que entonces enviaron a Turio los atenienses. En esta
nueva población parece que acabó el curso de sus viajes y de sus
días; si bien hay quien cree que murió en Pella de Macedonia y cuá
en Atenas, pues no constan claramente ni el lugar ni el año de su
fallecimiento.
 Acerca del tiempo y lugar en que compuso la historia que publicó
por sí mismo, parece lo más verosímil que después de algunos viajes
restituido a Samos, empezó allí a poner en orden sus noticias, bien
que no las publicó por entonces. De Samos dio la vuelta a su patria
donde contribuyó a que de ella fuese expelido el tirano Lígdamis; pero
viéndola después sumida en la anarquía y entregada al furor de las
facciones, regresó a Grecia. Allí por primera vez, en el concurso
solemne de los juegos olímpicos de la Olimpiada 81, recitó sus
escritos que había traído compuestos de la Caria. La lectura de las
Musas de Heródoto, a que asistía Tucídides, muy mozo todavía, a
lado de su padre Oloro, hizo tanta impresión en aquel joven codicioso
de gloria, que se le saltaron las lágrimas; lo que advirtiendo Heródoto
dijo a Oloro: «El genio de tu hijo, nacido para las letras, exige que en
ellas le instruyas».
Segunda vez leyó su historia en Atenas en presencia de un
numeroso pueblo reunido para las fiestas Panateneas, corriendo ya e
tercer año de la Olimpiada 83. Refiere Dion Crisóstomo que la leyó po
tercera vez en Corinto, que no habiendo obtenido la recompensa que
esperaba de Adimanto y demás corintios, borró de su obra los elogios
que de ellos hacía; mas nada hay que pruebe que esto sea sino un
chisme malicioso.
Sin duda Heródoto limó posteriormente sus escritos, y añadió
nuevas noticias, pues refiere sucesos posteriores a su última retirada a
Turio, cuales son la invasión de los tebanos contra los de Platea, la
embajada de los espartanos vendidos por Sitalces, y la retirada de
Zópiro a Atenas al fin del libro VII. Algunos suponen que esta historia
no ha llegado a nosotros entera, mas ninguna prueba hay que haga
suponer en ella vacío alguno: lo único que se sabe es que escribió a
parecer por separado un libro de los Hechos líbicos y de los Asirios, a
los cuales frecuentemente se refiere, y que existían todavía en tiempo
de Aristóteles, que impugnó en parte estos últimos. Otros le atribuyen
obras que no son suyas, y entre ellas la vida de Homero, engañados
acaso por la semejanza del nombre de los autores, como Herodoro
Herodiano.
Pasando al juicio de esta obra, las prendas, en nuestro concepto
superan en mucho a los defectos, resaltando entre aquellas: 1.º, un
estudio diligente en averiguar los hechos, y esto en un tiempo de
ignorancia, tan escaso en monumentos, sin ninguno de los recursos
que hoy tenemos tan a mano; 2.º, un juicio exacto y filosófico en da
clara y distintamente los motivos de los sucesos que va refiriendo, y
una crítica continua en separar lo que aprueba por verdadero de lo
que refiere solo por haberlo oído, y no pocas veces desecha por falso
3.º, una prudente parsimonia en no amontonar máximas y reflexiones
morales, dejando su curso a los hechos; 4.º, un estilo fluido, claro
vario y ameno, sin afectar las exquisitas figuras con que rizaban ya
sus discursos los oradores, ni lo áspero, pesado y sentencioso de los
filósofos. Los razonamientos que pone en boca de sus personajes son
tan dramáticos, variados y propios de la situación, que nadie a mi ve
se atreverá a tacharlos de difusos.
A tres se reducen los defectos de que es tachado Heródoto: 1.º
alguna sobrada malignidad, de la cual habla de propósito Plutarco, a
veces con razón, a veces incurriendo en el vicio mismo que reprende
2.º, mucha superstición, culpa de que no es posible excusarle sino po
la naturaleza de los tiempos en que vivió, y por el deseo de captarse e
aplauso público halagando las creencias populares, y sin embargo se
muestra en algunos pasajes bastante atrevido para arrostrarlas; 3.º
falta de ritmo y armonía en su estilo, vicio de que le acusa Cicerón
(Orat., c. LV), y de que le vindican Dionisio de Halicarnaso, Quintiliano
y Luciano. Yo por mi parte opino con el primero, y me ofende no poco
aquella recapitulación que nos hace de cada suceso, por más breve
que sea.
Añadiré una reseña de los códices manuscritos de que se han
servido los editores de Heródoto, especialmente Wesseling. — Los
venecianos, de los que se valió Aldo Manucio para la primera edición
griega publicada en Venecia, año 1502. — Los ingleses, uno de
arzobispado de Canterbury, y otro del colegio de Eton. — El de
Médicis. — Tres parisienses de la Biblioteca Real.— Los de la
Biblioteca de Viena, los de Oxford, y el del cardenal Passionei.
Las ediciones de Heródoto llegadas a mi noticia son las siguientes
— La versión latina de Valla en Venecia, año 1474. — La latina de
Pedro Fénix, París 1510. — La latina de Conrado Heresbach en 1537
en la cual se suplió lo que faltaba en la primera de Valla. — La griega
de Manucio, Venecia 1502. — La griega de Hervasio, Basilea 1541, y
otra en 1557. — La greco-latina de Henrique Stefano 1570, y otra de
mismo en 1592 corrigiendo la de Valla. — La greco-latina de
Jungermann, Francfort 1608, reimpresión aumentada de la anterior. —
La greco-latina de Tomás Gale, Londres 1689. — La greco-latina de
Gronovio, Leiden 1715. — La greco-latina de Glascua, 1716, hermosa
en extremo. — La greco-latina de Pedro Wesseling, Ámsterdam 1763
con muchas variantes y notas, por cuyo texto griego me he regido en
esta traducción.
Las versiones en romance de que tengo conocimiento son la
italiana del Boyardo en Venecia en 1553, otra italiana del Becelli en
Verona en 1733, y una francesa de Pedro Du Ryer, todas a deci
verdad de muy corto mérito. Veremos si será más afortunado M
L’Archer en la nueva traducción francesa de Heródoto, que según
noticias está trabajando.
Mi ánimo al principio era dar un Heródoto greco-hispano en la
imprenta de Bodini en Parma, pero la prohibición de introducir en
España libros españoles impresos fuera de ella, y el consejo de D
Nicolás de Azara, agente en Roma por S. M. C., me retrajeron de m
determinación. Mucho sería de desear que algún aficionado a
Heródoto reimprimiera el texto griego, libre de tanto comentario
variantes y notas con que han ido sobrecargándole gramáticos y
expositores, pues lejos de darle nueva belleza y claridad, no producen
sino confusión.
 NOTICIA SOBRE EL TRADUCTOR.

Uno de los hombres más eruditos que España tuvo en el pasado

siglo fue el P. Bartolomé Pou, nacido a 21 de junio de 1727 en Algaida
pueblo de Mallorca, de una familia de labradores acomodados. Fue
dedicado, sin embargo, por sus padres en los primeros años al cultivo
del campo, y en tal estado viole un día D. Antonio Sequí, canónigo de
la catedral de aquella diócesis, gobernando con una mano el arado y
sosteniendo con la otra la gramática latina de Semperio: conoció que
aquel joven había nacido para las letras, y le condujo a Palma, donde
le mantuvo en su casa y cuidó de su primera educación, que fue
encomendada a los jesuitas de Palma, en su colegio titulado de
Monte-Sion. A 25 de junio de 1746, a los 19 años de su edad, vistió
Pou la sotana en el noviciado de Tarragona, donde repitió las
lecciones de retórica y filosofía, y empezó a dedicarse con ardor a las
ciencias sagradas y lenguas sabias. Tenaz en el trabajo y dotado de
gran memoria, poseía profundamente la historia eclesiástica y civil, y
con suma facilidad recitaba trozos de las obras de los Padres de la
Iglesia. En Zaragoza enseñó idiomas, promoviendo, con especialidad
en toda la provincia de Aragón, el estudio de la lengua griega y e
gusto por las bellezas de su literatura, y defendió conclusiones en
extremo aplaudidas por los inteligentes. Su erudición y buen gusto en
las bellas letras movieron a sus superiores a encargarle la reforma de
los estudios de latinidad en los colegios de Aragón; y sucesivamente
enseñó retórica en Tarragona, filosofía en Calatayud, y griego en la
universidad de Cervera. En Calatayud fue donde principalmente se dio
a conocer con sus famosas Theses Bilbilitanæ, en las cuales con
vasta erudición y muy castizo latín vertió las doctrinas de la
antigüedad, y se puso al nivel de cuanto se sabía entonces de más
escogido y profundo en los estudios históricos de filosofía. Sobresalió
particularmente en los idiomas griego y latino, para lo cual basta deci
que descolló entre los hombres más célebres que tuvo la Compañía
en el siglo pasado: su reputación de helenista fue sostenida siempre
en las capitales más cultas de Europa por la rara inteligencia con que
explicaba los pasajes más oscuros de los cómicos y trágicos griegos, y
de la cual es el más sólido y glorioso monumento la importante obra
que damos a luz. Expulsados de España los jesuitas en 1767
continuó Pou durante algún tiempo en el asilo que le dio Italia sus
lecciones de griego y latín para los jóvenes alumnos de la Compañía
y enseñó después la lengua griega con aprobación de la corte de
España en el colegio mayor de San Clemente de Bolonia. Más
adelante, a instancia del cardenal mallorquín D. Antonio Despuig
entonces auditor de la Rota, pasó a Roma, donde por sus
conocimientos en antigüedades era consultado frecuentemente para
descifrar inscripciones y medallas, y donde le honraron con su amistad
y compadecieron su desgracia los sabios nacionales y extranjeros
Cuando en 1797 el Sr. D. Carlos IV dio permiso a los jesuitas
españoles para volver a su patria, Pou regresó a Mallorca, viviendo en
la capital, donde disfrutó desde 1799 de una doble pensión anua
concedida por el rey; hasta que, excitada de nuevo la atención de
Gobierno contra los restos de la Compañía por causas ignoradas, fue
a retirarse en Algaida, pueblo de su nacimiento, y allí murió
cristianamente el Sábado Santo 17 de abril de 1802. D. Antonio Roig
cura párroco de Felanitx, su apasionado amigo y discípulo, le puso
este epitafio:
Heic situs est
Bartholomæus Pou Algaydensis
e S. J. quondam sacerdos
græce latine que doctissimus
Rhetor, Poeta, Criticus, Historicus, Philosophus, Theologus,
ab acerrimo ingenio multiplici eruditione
libris in vulgus editis
fama vel apud exteros magnus
morum integritate, catholicæ doctrinæ vindicandæ ardore,
solidarum virtutum exemplis
longe major.
Vixit an. lxxiv. mens. ix. dies xxv
obiit xv Cal. Maj. An. a C. N. mdcccii
Amici mœrentes posuere.
 Nada de exageración ni de pompa en este elogio: el padre Pou fue
de natural tan candoroso y de tan arregladas costumbres, como de
talento perspicaz y de vastísima instrucción. Dispuesto siempre a
coadyuvar y fomentar los estudios de otros, corrigió, mudó, añadió
ordenó muchísimos escritos, y dio como un nuevo ser a las tareas de
otros escritores antes de publicarlas. No es el menor de sus elogios e
mérito de los numerosos alumnos que para las letras adquirió con sus
lecciones, y los testimonios con que honraron su ciencia algunos
sabios contemporáneos, entre otros el ilustre benedictino D. Fray
Benito Moxó, uno de sus discípulos, y el erudito jurisconsulto
Finestres, en su obra de las Inscripciones Romanas, en la cual le
auxilió no poco nuestro jesuita con nuevos datos e interpretaciones.
Publicó el P. Pou diversas obras, de las cuales unas llevan su
nombre y otras son anónimas o con nombre supuesto. Además de las
citadas Theses Bilbilitanæ, que en 1763 imprimió en latín en Calatayud
con el titulo de Institutionum historiæ philosophicæ libri duodecim, obra
en que por la excelente disposición y por la elegancia del estilo se
puso al nivel de la importancia de la materia, había publicado en
Cervera en 1756 sus Entretenimientos retóricos y poéticos en la
Academia de Cervera, que comprenden tres discursos, dos latinos, e
otro latino y griego, y una tragedia también latina titulada Hispania
capta. Escribió posteriormente a la extinción, la Vida del venerable
Berchmaus, y más tarde en Roma la de su compatricia la beata
Catalina Tomás, modelo de bueno pero difícil latín, de la cual hizo é
mismo una traducción castellana que ha quedado manuscrita. E
restablecimiento de los jesuitas en la Rusia Blanca, hecho por la
emperatriz Catalina y consentido aun después de la extinción por e
Papa Clemente XIV, y la tacha de cismáticos con que algunos los
acriminaban, movieron al P. Pou a escribir en latín, con el nombre de
Ignacio Filareto, cuatro libros apologéticos de la Compañía de Jesús
conservada en la Rusia Blanca, que suena impresa en Ámsterdam
aunque no haya podido averiguarse el verdadero lugar de la
impresión. Publicó también en latín y griego dos libros a la memoria de
Laura Bassia, de la Academia de filosofía de Bolonia. Todas las
citadas obras fueron impresas: manuscritas, a más de la presente que
damos a luz, quedaron a causa de su modestia la traducción española
de Demetrio Faléreo; y la del retórico Longino, de la que no tenemos
otra noticia que la que él mismo nos da en una nota al libro II de
Heródoto. Quedaron también manuscritos el Specimen latino de las
interpretaciones españolas sacadas de autores griegos y latinos
sagrados y profanos; la oración latina en el nacimiento de los dos
gemelos hijos de Carlos IV, oración elegantísima, cuya recitación
impidió con artificio un enemigo de la Compañía, y por último dos
opúsculos en castellano, Alivio de Párrocos, y un Compendio de
Lógica, que si no son enteramente suyos, fueron por él al menos
corregidos; sin contar la numerosa correspondencia en diversos
idiomas que fieles amigos o curiosos eruditos religiosamente
conservan.
 LOS NUEVE LIBROS
DE LA HISTORIA DE

HERÓDOTO DE HALICARNASO.

LIBRO PRIMERO.

CLÍO.[2]

Rapto de Ío, Europa, Medea y Helena. — Expedición de los griegos contra Troya. — El imperio
de los Heráclidas pasa a manos de Giges. — Su descendencia: Ardis, Sadiates, Aliates. —
Guerra contra los de Mileto. — Fábula de Arión. — Creso conquista algunos pueblos de
Grecia, despide a Solón de su corte y es castigado con la muerte de su hijo. Consulta a los
oráculos sobre la guerra de Persia, y envía dones a Delfos. Deseando aliarse con el imperio
más poderoso de Grecia, vacila entre los atenienses y lacedemonios. — Estado de ambas
naciones, dominada la primera por el tirano Pisístrato, y la segunda en guerra con los de
Tegea. — Decídese Creso por los lacedemonios; hace alianza con ellos y marcha en
seguida contra los persas; pasa el río Halis, pelea con Ciro en Pteria y se retira a Sardes
donde sitiado, y en breve prisionero de los persas, se liberta de la muerte milagrosamente
— Respuesta del oráculo a sus increpaciones. — Costumbres, historia y monumentos de
los lidios. — Origen del imperio de los medos. — Política de Deyoces para subir al poder
su descendencia: Fraortes, Ciaxares, Astiages. — Aventuras de Ciro durante su niñez, su
abandono, reconocimiento y venganza contra Astiages, a quien destrona, haciendo triunfa
a los persas de los medos. — Religión de los persas, sus leyes y costumbres. — Guerra de
Ciro contra los jonios, historia de estos y preparativos para resistirle. — Sublevación de los
lidios contra Ciro instigados por Pactias. — Derrota y conquista de los jonios y otros pueblos
de Grecia por Harpago, entretanto que Ciro sujeta al Asia superior, y en especial la Asiria
— Descripción de Babilonia, asedio y toma de aquella ciudad. Costumbres de los
babilonios. — Desea Ciro conquistar a los maságetas: rehusando Tomiris, su reina, casarse
con él, toma pretexto de esta repulsa para invadir el país, y después de una victoria parcia
es vencido y muerto.
 La publicación[3] que Heródoto de Halicarnaso va a presentar de su
historia, se dirige principalmente a que no llegue a desvanecerse con
el tiempo la memoria de los hechos públicos de los hombres, ni menos
a oscurecer las grandes y maravillosas hazañas, así de los griegos
como de los bárbaros.[4] Con este objeto refiere una infinidad de
sucesos varios e interesantes, y expone con esmero las causas y
motivos de las guerras que se hicieron mutuamente los unos a los
otros.
I. La gente más culta de Persia y mejor instruida en la historia
pretende que los fenicios fueron los autores primitivos de todas las
discordias que se suscitaron entre los griegos y las demás naciones
Habiendo aquellos venido del mar Eritreo[5] al nuestro, se establecieron
en la misma región que hoy ocupan, y se dieron desde luego a
comercio en sus largas navegaciones. Cargadas sus naves de
géneros propios del Egipto y de la Asiria, uno de los muchos y
diferentes lugares donde aportaron traficando fue la ciudad de Argos,[6
la principal y más sobresaliente de todas las que tenía entonces
aquella región que ahora llamamos Hélade.[7]
Los negociantes fenicios, desembarcando sus mercaderías, las
expusieron con orden a pública venta. Entre las mujeres que en gran
número concurrieron a la playa, fue una la joven Ío,[8] hija de Ínaco, rey
de Argos, a la cual dan los persas el mismo nombre que los griegos. A
quinto o sexto día de la llegada de los extranjeros, despachada la
mayor parte de sus géneros y hallándose las mujeres cercanas a la
popa, después de haber comprado cada una lo que más excitaba sus
deseos, concibieron y ejecutaron los fenicios el pensamiento de
robarlas. En efecto, exhortándose unos a otros, arremetieron contra
todas ellas, y si bien la mayor parte se les pudo escapar, no cupo esta
suerte a la princesa, que arrebatada con otras, fue metida en la nave y
llevada después al Egipto, para donde se hicieron luego a la vela.
II. Así dicen los persas que Ío fue conducida al Egipto, no como
nos lo cuentan los griegos,[9] y que este fue el principio de los
atentados públicos entre asiáticos y europeos, mas que después
ciertos griegos (serían a la cuenta los cretenses, puesto que no saben
decirnos su nombre), habiendo aportado a Tiro en las costas de
Fenicia, arrebataron a aquel príncipe una hija, por nombre Europa,[10
pagando a los fenicios la injuria recibida con otra equivalente.
 Añaden también que no satisfechos los griegos con este desafuero
cometieron algunos años después otro semejante; porque habiendo
navegado en una nave larga[11] hasta el río Fasis, llegaron a Ea en la
Cólquide, donde después de haber conseguido el objeto principal de
su viaje, robaron al rey de Colcos una hija, llamada Medea.[12] Su
padre, por medio de un heraldo que envió a Grecia, pidió, juntamente
con la satisfacción del rapto, que le fuese restituida su hija; pero los
griegos contestaron, que ya que los asiáticos no se la dieran antes po
el robo de Ío, tampoco la darían ellos por el de Medea.
III. Refieren además, que en la segunda edad[13] que siguió a estos
agravios, fue cometido otro igual por Alejandro, uno de los hijos de
Príamo. La fama de los raptos anteriores, que habían quedado
impunes, inspiró a aquel joven el capricho de poseer también alguna
mujer ilustre robada de la Grecia, creyendo sin duda que no tendría
que dar por esta injuria la menor satisfacción. En efecto, robó a
Helena,[14] y los griegos acordaron enviar luego embajadores a pedir su
restitución y que se les pagase la pena del rapto. Los embajadores
declararon la comisión que traían, y se les dio por respuesta
echándoles en cara el robo de Medea, que era muy extraño que no
habiendo los griegos por su parte satisfecho la injuria anterior, n
restituido la presa, se atreviesen a pretender de nadie la debida
satisfacción para sí mismos.
IV. Hasta aquí, pues, según dicen los persas, no hubo más
hostilidades que las de estos raptos mutuos, siendo los griegos los que
tuvieron la culpa de que en lo sucesivo se encendiese la discordia, po
haber empezado sus expediciones contra el Asia primero que
pensasen los persas en hacerlas contra la Europa. En su opinión, esto
de robar las mujeres es a la verdad una cosa que repugna a las reglas
de la justicia; pero también es poco conforme a la cultura y civilización
el tomar con tanto empeño la venganza por ellas, y por el contrario, e
no hacer ningún caso de las arrebatadas es propio de gente cuerda y
política, porque bien claro está que si ellas no lo quisiesen de veras
nunca hubieran sido robadas.
Por esta razón, añaden los persas, los pueblos del Asia miraron
siempre con mucha frialdad estos raptos mujeriles, muy al revés de los
griegos, quienes por una hembra lacedemonia juntaron un ejército
numerosísimo, y pasando al Asia destruyeron el reino de Príamo;[15
época fatal del odio con que miraron ellos después por enemigo
perpetuo al nombre griego. Lo que no tiene duda es que al Asia, y a
las naciones bárbaras que la pueblan, las miran los persas como cosa
propia suya, reputando a toda la Europa, y con mucha particularidad a
la Grecia, como una región separada de su dominio.
V. Así pasaron las cosas, según refieren los persas, los cuales
están persuadidos de que el origen del odio y enemistad para con los
griegos les vino de la toma de Troya. Mas por lo que hace al robo de
Ío, no van con ellos acordes los fenicios, porque estos niegan haberla
conducido al Egipto por vía de rapto, y antes bien, pretenden que la
joven griega, de resultas de un trato nimiamente familiar con el patrón
de la nave, como se viese con el tiempo próxima a ser madre, por e
rubor que tuvo de revelar a sus padres su debilidad, prefirió
voluntariamente partirse con los fenicios, a fin de evitar de este modo
su pública deshonra.
Sea de esto lo que se quiera, así nos lo cuentan al menos los
persas y fenicios, y no me meteré yo a decidir entre ellos, inquiriendo
si la cosa pasó de este o del otro modo. Lo que si haré, puesto que
según noticias he indicado ya quién fue el primero que injurió a los
griegos, será llevar adelante mi historia, y discurrir del mismo modo po
los sucesos de los estados grandes y pequeños, visto que muchos que
antiguamente fueron grandes, han venido después a ser bien
pequeños, y que, al contrario, fueron antes pequeños los que se han
elevado en nuestros días a la mayor grandeza. Persuadido, pues, de la
inestabilidad del poder humano, y de que las cosas de los hombres
nunca permanecen constantes en el mismo ser, próspero ni adverso
haré, como digo, mención igualmente de unos estados y de otros
grandes y pequeños.
VI. Creso, de nación lidio e hijo de Aliates, fue señor o tirano[16] de
aquellas gentes que habitan de esta parte del Halis, que es un río, e
cual corriendo de mediodía a norte y pasando por entre los sirios y
paflagonios, va a desembocar en el ponto que llaman Euxino. Este
Creso fue, a lo que yo alcanzo, el primero entre los bárbaros que
conquistó algunos pueblos de los griegos, haciéndolos sus tributarios
y el primero también que se ganó a otros de la misma nación y los tuvo
por amigos. Conquistó a los jonios, a los eolios y a los dorios, pueblos
todos del Asia menor, y ganose por amigos a los lacedemonios. Antes
de su reinado los griegos eran todos unos pueblos libres e
independientes, puesto que la invasión que los cimerios[17] hicieron