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In this revision of the test bank, I have updated all of the questions to reflect changes in Society: The
Basics, 12th edition. There is also a new system for identifying the difficulty of the questions. In
earlier editions, the questions were tagged in one of three ways: factual (recall of factual material),
conceptual (understanding key concepts), and applied (application of sociological knowledge to a
situation). In this revision, the questions are now tagged according to the six levels of learning that
help organize the text. Think of these six levels as moving from lower-level to higher-level
cognitive reasoning. The six levels are:
REMEMBER: a question involving recall of key terms or factual material

UNDERSTAND: a question testing comprehension of more complex ideas
APPLY: a question applying sociological knowledge to some new situation
ANALYZE: a question requiring identifying elements of an argument and their interrelationship
EVALUATE: a question requiring critical assessment
CREATE: a question requiring the generation of new ideas
The 191 questions in this chapter’s test bank are divided into four types of questions. True/False
questions are the least demanding. As the table below shows, two-thirds of these questions are
“Remember” questions and all questions fall within the lowest three levels of cognitive reasoning
(Remember, Understand, and Apply). Multiple-choice questions span a broader range of skills
(almost half are “Remember” questions and the remainder are divided among four higher levels.)
Short answer questions also span a broad range of skills (from “Understand” to “Evaluate”).
Finally, essay questions are the most demanding because they include the four highest levels of
cognitive reasoning (from “Apply” to “Create”).
Types of Questions
Easy to Difficult Level of Difficulty
True/False Mult Choice Short Answer Essay Total Qs
Remember 35 (61%) 48 (42%) 0 0 83
Understand 16 (28%) 21 (19%) 5 (36%) 0 42
Apply 6 (11%) 19 (17%) 2 (14%) 2 (28%) 29
Analyze 0 19 (17%) 4 (29%) 1 (16%) 24
Evaluate 0 6 (5%) 3 (21%) 2 (28%) 11
Create 0 0 0 2 (28%) 2
57 113 14 7 191
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1

CHAPTER 1: SOCIOLOGY: PERSPECTIVE, THEORY, AND METHOD
TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS
1. According to sociologists, human behavior reflects our personal “free will.”

(REMEMBER; answer: F; page 2)
2. Sociology is defined as the systematic study of human society.

(REMEMBER; answer: T; page 2)
3. Sociologists focus only on unusual patterns of behavior.

4. Using the sociological perspective, we would conclude that people’s lives are mostly a result
of what they decide to do.
(APPLY; answer: F; page 3)
5. Durkheim documented that categories of people with weaker social ties have lower suicide
rates.
6. In the United States, African Americans have a higher suicide rate than whites.
7. In the United States, men have a higher suicide rate than women.
(REMEMBER; answer: T; pages 4-5)
8. People with lower social standing are usually more likely to see the world from a
sociological perspective than people who are well off.
(APPLY; answer: T; page 5)
9. A global perspective has little in common with a sociological perspective.

(UNDERSTAND; answer: F; page 5)
10. U.S. sociologist C. Wright Mills argued that times of social crisis foster widespread
sociological thinking.
11. C. Wright Mills claimed that, most of the time, people must learn to take responsibility for
their own problems.
(REMEMBER; answer: F: pages 5-6)
12. Studying other societies is a good way to learn about our own way of life.

13. Societies around the world are more interconnected than ever before.
14. Sociological research may be interesting, but it is of little use in shaping public policy,
including legislation.
15. The sociological perspective helps us assess the truth of the “common sense” beliefs we tend
to take for granted.
16. Sociology is useful training for any job that involves working with people.
(REMEMBER; T; page 8)
17. The term “sociology” was coined by Emile Durkheim in 1898.

18. Ancient philosophers, including Plato, were primarily interested in imagining the “ideal”
society rather than studying society as it really is.
19. The last of Comte’s three stages is the metaphysical stage, in which people know the world
in terms of God’s will.
20. Auguste Comte was a positivist who believed that there were laws of society in the same
way that there are laws of physics that describe the operation of the natural world.
(UNDERSTAND; answer: T; page 9)
21. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes believed that society reflected the basic goodness
of human nature.
22. The structural-functional, social-conflict, and symbolic-interaction approaches are three

basic theoretical approaches in sociology.
23. According to Robert K. Merton, social patterns are always good and have the same effect on
all members of a society.
24. To say that a social pattern is “dysfunctional” means that it has more than one function for
the operation of society.
25. Keeping young people out of the labor market is one latent function of higher education.

26. The manifest functions of our society’s reliance on personal automobiles include tens of
thousands of deaths each year in traffic accidents.
(APPLY; answer: F; page 11)
27. The goal of the structural-functional approach is no so much to understand how society
operates as it is to reduce social inequality.
28. W.E.B. Du Bois translated the writings of Auguste Comte from French into English.
29. In the United States, secondary schools place students in college preparatory tracks that
partially reflect the social background of their families.
30. Both Karl Marx and W.E.B. Du Bois carried out their work following the structural-
functional approach.
(REMEMBER; answer: F; pages 12-13)
31. Feminism and the gender-conflict approach highlight ways in which women are unequal to
men.
32. Both Jane Addams and Harriet Martineau are remembered today because they were married
to important sociologists.
33. Like the gender-conflict approach, the race-conflict approach is concerned with social
inequality.
34. The symbolic-interaction approach is a micro-level orientation.

35. The focus of the symbolic-interaction approach is how society is divided by class, race, and
gender.
36. Social-exchange analysis is one micro-level approach to understanding social interaction.

(UNDERSTAND; answer: T; pages 14, 16)
37. Sociological research shows that all categories of people have had the same opportunities to
participate in sports.

38. “Stacking” in sports is the pattern by which people of one racial category disproportionately
play in favored positions.
39. The meaning people find in competitive sports would be one focus of a symbolic-interaction
approach.
40. The sociologist recognizes that there are various kinds of “truth.”
41. Empirical evidence is nothing more than what people in a society agree is true.
42. Empirical evidence refers to what we can verify with our senses.
43. The mean is always a better statistical measure than the mode or the median.
(UNDERSTAND; answer: F; pages 17-18)
44. Reliability refers to the quality of consistency in measurement.

45. Validity refers to actually measuring what you want to measure.

46. A variable that is changed by another variable is called the “independent variable.”
47. A variable that causes change in another variable is called the “dependent variable.”
48. When two variables are statistically related, a cause-and-effect relationship exists.
49. To identify cause-and-effect relationships, it is usually necessary to exercise experimental

control of variables.

50. A false correlation between two variables caused by a third factor is described as a
“spurious” correlation.
51. Interpretive sociology considers subjective feelings to be a source of bias.

52. A positivist approach assumes that an objective reality exists “out there.”
53. Critical sociology studies society and tries to bring about social change.
54. Gender blindness is the problem of failing to consider the importance of gender in
sociological research.
55. A researcher who assumes that the man was the head of the household and his wife simply
took care of the kids is demonstrating a gender-based research error called “double
standards.”
56. A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or

questions.
57. Participant observation is a research method by which researchers stand back from a setting,
watch from a distance, and then carefully record the behavior of others.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
58. What does the statement idea that “the social world guides our actions and life choices just
as the seasons influence activities and choice of clothing” describe?
a. the basis of what philosophy calls “free will”
b. the essential wisdom of the discipline of sociology
c. the fact that people everywhere have “common sense”
d. the fact that people from countries all around the world make mostly identical
choices about how to live
(UNDERSTAND; answer: b; page 2)

59. Which discipline defines itself as “the systematic study of human society”?
a. sociology
b. psychology
c. economics
d. history
(REMEMBER; answer: a; page 2)
60. Peter Berger describes using the sociological perspective as seeing the ______ in the
_______.
a. good; worst tragedies
b. new; old
c. specific; general
d. general; particular
(REMEMBER; answer: d; page 2)
61. By stating that the sociological perspective shows us “the strange in the familiar,” the text
argues that sociologists
a. focus on the bizarre elements of society.
b. reject the familiar idea that people simply decide how to act in favor of the initially
strange idea that society shapes our lives.
c. believe that people often behave in strange ways.
d. believe that even people who are most familiar to us have some very strange habits.
(REMEMBER; answer: b; page 3)
62. The chapter’s sociological analysis of childbearing around the world suggests that the
number of children born to a woman reflects
a. only her personal preference for family size.
b. how many children she can afford.
c. whether she lives in a poor or a rich society.
d. simply the desires of her husband.
(REMEMBER; answer: c; pages 3-4)
63. According to Emile Durkheim, people with a higher suicide rate typically have
a. more clinical depression.
b. less money, power, and other resources.
c. a lower level of social integration.
d. greater self-esteem.
(ANALYZE; answer: c; page 4)
64. The pioneering sociologist who studied patterns of suicide in Europe was
a. Robert K. Merton.
b. Auguste Comte.
c. Emile Durkheim.
d. Karl Marx.
(REMEMBER; answer: c; page 4)

65. In the United States today, the suicide rate is highest for which of the following?
a. white males
b. African American males
c. white females
d. African American females
66. Sociologists use the term “social marginality” to refer to

a. people who have little understanding of sociology.
b. people who have special social skills.
c. people who are defined by others as an “outsider.”
d. people who are especially sensitive about their family background.
67. If marginality encourages sociological thinking, we would expect people in which category
listed below to make the most use of the sociological perspective?
a. the wealthy
b. disabled persons or people who are a racial minority
c. politicians
d. the middle class
(ANALYZE; answer: b; page 5)
68. Following the thinking of C. Wright Mills, we would expect the sociological imagination to
be more widespread in a population
a. during times of peace and prosperity.
b. among the very rich.
c. among very religious people.
d. during times of social crisis.
(UNDERSTAND; answer: d; page 5)
69. Which of the following categories contains countries in which average income is typical for
the world as a whole and in which people are as likely to live in a rural area as in an urban
area?
a. low-income nations
b. middle-income nations
c. high-income nations
d. None of the other responses is correct.

70. About 1.4 million immigrants enter the United States each year and many (including Arnold
Schwarzenegger and Gloria Estefan) have become well known. These facts support the
conclusion that
a. the United States and other of the world’s nations are increasingly interconnected.
b. other nations have little effects on life in rich countries such as the United States.
c. people around the world share little in terms of their ways of life.
d. sociology does not have to pay attention to nations other than the United States.
(UNDERSTAND; answer: a; page 7)
71. Making use of the sociological perspective encourages

a. challenging commonly held beliefs.
b. accepting commonly-held wisdom.
c. the belief that society is mysterious.
d. people to be happy with their lives as they are.
72. Sociologist Lenore Weitzman carried out research showing that women who divorce
typically
a. remarry within one year.
b. claim they are happier than before.
c. suffer a significant loss of income.
d. have a happier sex life.
73. Learning more sociology can help you to do all of the following EXCEPT
a. assess the truth of “common sense”
b. assess the opportunities and constraints in our lives
c. be more active participants in society
d. see how individuals guide their own lives through “free will”
(ANALYZE; answer: d; pages 7-8)
74. Read the following four statements about social patterns we find in the world as a whole.
Which statement is FALSE?
a. The world is now home to 7 billion people.
b. A majority of the world’s people live in Asia.
c. People in the United States make up one-third of the global population.
d. A majority of the world’s people have completed a college degree.
(UNDERSTAND; answer: c; page 8)

75. Sarah is spending a summer living in another country where people have a way of life that
differs from her own. A sociologist might expect that this experience would lead her to
a. end up with a greater understanding of both a new way of life and her own way of
life.
b. accept what people in the United States call “common sense.”
c. assume that people’s lives simply reflect the choices they make.
d. gradually understand less and less about her own way of life.
(APPLY; answer: a; page 8)
76. Which of the following statements BEST illustrates the career advantage a person gains by
studying sociology?
a. A researcher discovers a new and effective vaccine.
b. A person in retail sales knows how to exceed the monthly sales target.
c. A police officer understands which categories of people are at high risk of becoming
crime victims.
d. A financial services worker devises a new type of hedge fund.
(APPLY; answer: c; page 8)
77. Examples of people applying their knowledge of sociology at work include people in
a. law enforcement, understanding which categories of people are at high risk of
becoming victims of crime.
b. medicine, understanding patterns of health in a community.
c. business, dealing with different categories of people.
d. All of the these responses are correct.
(APPLY; answer: d; page 8)
78. Which of the following historical changes is among the factors that stimulated the
development of sociology as a discipline?
a. the founding of the Roman Catholic Church
b. the rise of the industrial economy and growth of cities
c. the power of tradition
d. a belief that our future is defined by “fate”
79. We would expect the sociological perspective to be MOST likely to develop in a place that
was
a. very traditional.
b. experiencing major social changes.
c. very poor.
d. small and socially isolated.

80. The concept “sociology” was coined in 1838 by

a. Karl Marx.
b. Herbert Spencer.
c. Adam Smith.
d. Auguste Comte.
81. Sociology differs from the older discipline of philosophy by focusing on

a. what the ideal society should be.
b. human nature.
c. the place of God in shaping human events.
d. how society actually operates.
(UNDERSTAND: answer: d; page 9)
82. Comte described the earliest human societies as being at which stage of historical
development?
a. theological stage
b. metaphysical stage
c. scientific stage
d. post-scientific stage
83. The ancient Romans saw the stars as being gods. Auguste Comte would classify Roman
society as which of the following stages of history?
a. scientific stage
c. theological stage
d. post-scientific stage
84. Thomas Hobbes’s idea that society reflects a selfish human nature illustrates the thinking
common at which of Comte’s historical stages?
a. theological stage
c. scientific stage
d. None of the other responses is correct.
(APPLY; answer: b; page 9)
85. _____ is a way of understanding the world based on science.

a. Tradition
b. Positivism
c. Metaphysics
d. Free will

86. The major goal of Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim was to develop sociology
a. to serve the powerful.
b. to help build an “ideal society.”
c. to discover how society actually operates.
d. to prevent disruptive social change.
(UNDERSTAND; answer: c; pages 9-11)
87. When did sociology become established as an academic discipline in the United States?
a. during the Middle Ages
b. about 1800
c. about 1900
d. about 2000
88. Most of today’s sociologists agree with Auguste Comte’s claim that
a. no society has reached the scientific stage of history.
b. human behavior is not patterned and orderly.
c. sociology should be based on religion.
d. science has an important place in sociology.
89. Because there is more social isolation in rural areas of the United States than in urban areas,
we would expect suicide rates to be
a. higher in urban areas.
b. higher in rural areas.
c. high in both urban and rural areas.
d. low in both urban and rural areas.
90. Sociologists cannot identify “laws of society” that allow us to precisely predict the behavior
of an individual because
a. human behavior may be patterned, but it is also spontaneous.
b. sociology is still very young.
c. no sociologist ever tried to discover such laws.
d. no sociologist would wish to predict human behavior.
(ANALYZE; answer: a; page 10)
91. A statement that explains how and why specific facts are related is called a(n)
a. approach.
b. precept.
c. concept.
d. theory.

92. To evaluate a theory using evidence, sociologists

a. gather data or facts.
b. accept the conventional wisdom of their society.
c. are guided by their personal feelings about the issue.
d. look to the past for guidance.
93. If we state that children raised in single-parent families are at high risk of being single
parents themselves, we have constructed a(n)_____ of family life.
a. approach
b. precept
c. concept
d. theory
94. Looking at the United States, high suicide rates are typical of areas in which people
a. live densely packed in cities.
b. live spread apart in low-density areas.
c. have higher incomes.
d. live in a warmer climate.
95. The theoretical approach in sociology that assumes society is a complex system whose parts
work together to promote solidarity and stability is the
a. structural-functional approach.
b. social-conflict approach.
c. symbolic-interaction approach.
d. tradition-based approach.
96. Which concept is used to describe relatively stable patterns of social behavior?
a. social structure
b. eufunctions
c. social functions
d. social dysfunctions
97. Which of the following BEST describes the focus of the structural-functional approach?
a. the meaning people attach to their behavior
b. patterns of social inequality
c. the consequences of social patterns for the operation of society
d. ways in which each person differs from all others

98. Using the structural-functional approach, which of the following questions might you ask
about marriage?
a. What do people think marriage means?
b. How does marriage benefit women and men in different ways?
c. What are the consequences of marriage for the operation of society?
d. How can we help people find more happiness in their marriages?
99. Which theoretical approach was used by the early sociologists Auguste Comte and Emile
Durkheim?
a. the structural-functional approach
b. the social-conflict approach
c. the symbolic-interaction approach
d. no theoretical approach was used
(UNDERSTAND; answer: a; pages 10-11)
100. Which of the following is a criticism of the structural-functional approach?

a. doesn’t focus on social stability and unity
b. not critical of inequalities based on social class, race, ethnicity, and gender
c. not concerned with society’s dysfunctions
d. doesn’t focus on the consequences of patterns for society as a whole
(EVALUATE; answer:b; pages 10-11)
101. Identify the three sociologists who played a part in the development of sociology’s
structural-functional approach.
a. Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, W.E.B. Du Bois
b. Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim
c. Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Auguste Comte
d. Harriet Martineau, Robert Merton, W.E.B. Du Bois
102. Herbert Spencer described human society as a complex system having much in common
with
a. animal societies.
b. planets and stars.
c. the human brain.
d. the human body.
103. Who was the U.S. sociologist who distinguished between the manifest functions and the
latent functions of social patterns?
a. Robert K. Merton
b. William Graham Sumner
c. Talcott Parsons
d. C. Wright Mills

104. The recognized and intended consequences of a social pattern are referred to as
a. latent functions.
b. manifest functions.
c. eufunctions.
d. dysfunctions.
105. Unrecognized and unintended consequences of a social pattern are called

a. latent functions.
b. manifest functions.
c. eufunctions.
d. dysfunctions.
106. Which of the following is the BEST example of a latent function of going to college?
a. providing skills needed for later jobs
b. keeping young people out of the labor force, which may not have jobs for them
c. gaining the knowledge required to be an active and thoughtful citizen
d. giving young people experience living more on their own
107. Robert Merton explained that what is functional for one category of a society’s population
a. is always functional for everyone.
b. may be dysfunctional for another category.
c. is unlikely to change over time.
d. can never be functional in the future.
108. The main characteristic of the _____ approach is its view of society as being orderly and
stable.
a. structural-functional
b. social-conflict
c. social-interaction
d. tradition-based
109. Which of the following is an accurate criticism of the structural-functional approach?

a. It ignores inequality that can generate tension and conflict.
b. It focuses too much on social dysfunction.
c. It focuses too much on power divisions in society.
d. It is a politically liberal view of society.
(EVALUATE; answer: a; page 11)

110. The “framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates
conflict and change” is the
a. structural-functional approach.
b. social-conflict approach.
c. symbolic-interaction approach.
d. tradition-based approach.
111. Three campus roommates are talking about why they are in college. A sociological view of
going to college highlights the effect of
a. only age, because college students tend to be young.
b. only class, because college students tend to come from families with above-average
incomes.
c. only our place in history, because a century ago going to college was not an option
for most people.
d. all three--age, class, and our place in history—because these are all ways in which
society guides college attendance.
(APPLY; answer: d; pages 11-12)
112. Looking at the operation of U.S. schools, the social-conflict approach might lead a
sociologist to conclude that
a. the function of schools is to teach needed skills.
b. the meaning of schooling varies from child to child.
c. schools have been a major path to social advancement.
d. the policy of tracking provides some students with far better schooling than others.
113. Which of the following statements might be made by a sociologist using the gender-conflict
approach?
a. Men and women share in the joys of family life.
b. In many ways, men are in positions of power over women.
c. Gender functions in an important way to keep society operating.
d. All of these responses are correct.
114. Who helped launch the discipline of sociology by studying the evils of slavery and also by
translating the writings of Auguste Comte?
a. Harriet Martineau
b. Jane Addams
c. Elizabeth Cady Stanton
d. Dorothea Dix

115. Which pioneering sociologist founded Chicago’s Hull House to assist immigrants and was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize?
a. Jane Addams
b. Harriet Martineau
c. W.E.B. Du Bois
d. Herbert Spencer
116. Karl Marx, speaking for the social-conflict approach, argued that the point of studying
society should be
a. to understand how society really operates.
b. to compare U.S. society to others.
c. to foster support for a nation’s government.
d. to bring about greater social justice.
117. Which theoretical approach would highlight the fact that, on average, African American
families have less income than white families?
a. the race-conflict approach
b. the gender-conflict approach
c. the structural-functional approach
d. the symbolic-interaction approach
118. W.E.B. Du Bois described African Americans as having a “double consciousness” because
a. most felt that, compared to white people, they had to be twice as careful in how they
acted.
b. there is a double disadvantage in being both poor and black.
c. black people have to work twice as hard as whites to get the same reward.
d. they are American citizens who have a second identity based on skin color.
(ANALYZE; answer: d; page 13)
119. Which early sociologist received the first doctorate ever awarded by Harvard University to a
person of color?
a. Jane Addams
b. Harriet Martineau
c. W.E.B. Du Bois
d. Herbert Spencer
120. The social-conflict approach sometimes receives criticism for

a. focusing on values that everyone shares.
b. being openly political.
c. promoting the status quo.
(EVALUATE; answer: b; page 13)

121. The _____ approaches are macro-level, describing societies in broad terms.
a. structural-functional and social-conflict
b. structural-functional and symbolic-interaction
c. social-conflict and symbolic-interaction
122. Which of the following examples illustrates a micro-level focus?

a. the operation of the U.S. economy
b. patterns of global terrorism
c. two people on an airplane getting to know one another
d. class inequality in the armed forces
123. Which theoretical approach claims that it is not so much what people do that matters as
much as what meaning they attach to their behavior?
a. structural-functional approach
b. social-conflict approach
c. symbolic-interaction approach
d. social-exchange approach
(UNDERSTAND; answer: c; page 14)
124. Which of the following founding sociologists urged sociologists to understand a social
setting from the point of view of the people in it?
a. Karl Marx
b. Emile Durkheim
c. Auguste Comte
d. Max Weber
125. Which of the following statements reflects a social-exchange analysis?

a. People typically seek mates who offer as much as they do.
b. Class differences are reflected in favored sports.
c. People build reality as they introduce themselves.
d. People who do more important work usually earn more pay.
(ANALYZE; answer: a; pages 14, 16)
126. Which of the following is a manifest function of sports?

a. providing recreation and physical conditioning
b. fostering social relationships
c. generating jobs
d. teaching a society’s way of life

127. Building social relationships and creating jobs are two of the ____ of sports.
a. manifest functions
b. latent functions
c. dysfunctional aspects
d. nonfunctional aspects
128. Which of the following would be the focus of a social-conflict analysis of sports?
a. the way in which sports help encourage competition
b. the importance of physical ability in success
c. how sports reflect social inequality
d. the different meanings people attach to games
129. Racial discrimination in professional sports is evident today in

a. the positions typically played by white and black players.
b. the exclusion of African American players from professional sports.
c. the fact that most managers and team owners are African American.
d. the fact that women’s sports attract less attention than men’s sports.
130. Which of the following statements is based on a symbolic-interaction analysis of sports?

a. Each player understands the game a little differently.
b. Some categories of people benefit more from sports than others.
c. Sports help develop important cultural values.
d. “Stacking” is a type of racial inequality in sports.
(ANALYZE; answer a; page 15)
131. Using the symbolic-interaction approach, sports becomes

a. a structure that contributes to the functioning of society.
b. a matter of social inequality.
c. less a system than an ongoing process.
d. just a game without any meaning.
(APPLY; Answer c; page 15)
132. A criticism of the symbolic-interaction approach is that it

a. calls attention to major social institutions.
b. ignores the influence of factors such as culture, class, gender, and race.
c. paints a very positive picture of society.
d. says little about how individuals actually experience society.
(EVALUATE; answer: b; page 16)

133. Sociologists use the term “empirical evidence” to refer to

a. information that is based on a society’s traditions.
b. information that squares with common sense.
c. information we can verify with our senses.
d. information that most people agree is true.
134. Which of the following terms is defined in the text as “a mental construct that represents
some aspect of the world in a simplified form”?
a. variable
b. operationalization
c. measurement
d. concept
135. Imagine that you were going to measure the age of a number of respondents taking part in a
survey. As you record the data, you are using the concept “age” as
a. a theory.
b. a hypothesis.
c. a variable.
d. an axiom.
136. If you were trying to measure the “social class” of various people, you would have to keep
in mind that
a. it is necessary to specify exactly what you are measuring.
b. you must measure “social class” in every way possible.
c. there is no way to measure “social class.”
d. everyone agrees on what “social class” means.
137. What process involves deciding exactly what is to be measured when assigning value to a
variable?
a. operationalizing
b. reliability
c. conceptualizing
d. validity
138. What is the term for the value that occurs most often in a series of numbers?
a. the mean
b. the mode
c. the median
d. the standard deviation
(REMEMBER; answer: b; pages 17-18)

139. What term refers to the arithmetic average of a series of numbers?

a. the mean
b. the mode
c. the median
d. the correlation
(REMEMBER; answer: a; pages 17-18)
140. Examine the following series of numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 10. Which number is the median value?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
(ANALYZE; answer: c; pages 17-18)
141. In the process of measurement, reliability refers to

a. whether you are really measuring what you want to measure.
b. how dependable the researcher is.
c. whether or not everyone agrees with the study’s results.
d. whether repeating the measurement yields consistent results.
142. Which of the concepts listed below refers to measuring exactly what you intend to measure?
a. congruence
b. validity
c. repeatability
d. reliability
143. With regard to the process of measurement, which of the following statements is true?
a. For a measurement to be reliable, it must be valid.
b. For a measurement to be valid, it must be reliable.
c. All measurements are both reliable and valid.
d. Measurements cannot be both reliable and valid.
144. A theory states that increasing a person’s formal higher education leads to increased
earnings over the individual’s lifetime. In this theory, “higher education” is the
a. independent variable.
b. dependent variable.
c. correlation.
d. effect.

145. An apparent, although false, association between two variables that is caused by a third
variable is called a(n) _________ correlation.
a. spurious
b. unproven
c. unreliable
d. invalid
146. Which of the following is true about cause-and-effect relationships in the social world?
a. Most patterns of behavior have a single cause.
b. Most patterns of behavior are random and have no cause at all.
c. Most patterns of behavior are caused by many factors.
d. Sociologists are not able to reach conclusions about cause and effect.
147. The ideal of objectivity means that a researcher must

a. not personally care about the topic being studied.
b. try to adopt a stance of personal neutrality toward the outcome of the research.
c. study issues that have no value to society as a whole.
d. carry out research that will encourage desirable social change.
148. The sociologist who called on his colleagues to be “value-free” in the conduct of their
research was
a. Karl Marx.
b. Emile Durkheim.
c. Herbert Spencer.
d. Max Weber.
149. Which of the following is true about positivist sociology?

a. It focuses on the meaning people attach to behavior.
b. It seeks to bring about desirable social change.
c. It favors qualitative data.
d. It favors quantitative data.
150. Critical sociology can BEST be described as a(n) ________ approach.

a. activist
b. scientific
c. qualitative
d. value-free

151. Which German word meaning “understanding” was used by Max Weber to describe his
approach to sociological research?
a. Gemeinschaft
b. Gesellschaft
c. Verstehen
d. Verboten
152. Qualitative research has special appeal to investigators who favor the _________ approach.
a. structural-functional
b. symbolic-interaction
c. social-conflict
d. social-exchange
(ANALYZE; answer: b; pages 20, 24)
153. Interpretive sociology is sociology that

a. focuses on action.
b. sees an objective reality “out there.”
c. focuses on the meaning people attach to behavior.
d. seeks to bring about change.
154. If you have been criticized for “androcentricity” in your research, you are being criticized
for
a. overgeneralizing your results.
b. ignoring gender entirely.
c. doing the research from a male perspective.
d. using double standards in your research.
155. If you read a study that draws conclusions about all of humanity based on research using
only males as subjects, you would correctly point to the problem called
a. androcentricity.
b. overgeneralization.
c. gender blindness.
d. using double standards.

156. All of the following statements—except for one—are guidelines for ethical research
endorsed by the American Sociological Association. Which one is NOT one of the ASA’s
guidelines for ethical research?
a. Researchers must always perform their research several times in order to ensure its
accuracy.
b. Researchers must disclose their sources of funding for the research.
c. Researchers must protect the privacy of subjects taking part in a research project.
d. Researchers must ensure the safety of subjects taking part in a research project.
157. If you were to conduct sociological research that closely follows the logic of science, which
research method would you MOST likely use?
a. interviews
b. the experiment
c. questionnaires
d. participant observation
158. “A statement of a possible relationship between two or more variables” is the definition of
which concept?
a. theory
b. correlation
c. spurious correlation
d. hypothesis
159. What research method was used in Philip Zimbardo’s study, the “Stanford County Prison”?
a. an experiment
b. a survey
c. participant observation
d. secondary analysis
160. Which research method asks subjects to respond to a series of items on a questionnaire or in
an interview?
a. secondary research
b. participant observation
c. an experiment
d. a survey

161. A small number of people that are used to represent a much larger population is called a
a. target group.
b. sample.
c. closed-format group.
d. sampling frame.
162. Lois Benjamin’s investigation of racism may be criticized because

a. her sample included as many white people as African Americans.
b. she conducted her interviews over the telephone.
c. her sample may not be representative of all African Americans.
d. people cannot respond to questions they find painful.
(EVALUATE; answer: c; page 23)
163. William Foote Whyte’s study of Cornerville (Street Corner Society) used which sociological
research method?
a. experiment
b. survey
(REMEMBER; answer c; page 24)
164. A researcher doing participant observation may often “break in” to a setting more easily
with the help of a
a. key informant.
b. research assistant.
c. bigger budget.
d. longer questionnaire.
165. E. Digby Baltzell’s historical study, Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia, illustrates
which research method?
a. the experiment
b. the survey
d. existing sources

166. E. Digby Baltzell’s study, Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia, showed that a very high
number of “top achievers” listed in the Dictionary of American Biography came from
a. the South.
b. Pennsylvania.
c. Massachusetts.
d. Philadelphia.
167. Which sociological research method is MOST likely to produce quantitative data that will
identify cause-and-effect relationships?
a. the experiment
b. the survey
d. existing sources
168. Which sociological research method is likely to be the MOST difficult to replicate (repeat)?
a. the experiment
b. the survey
(EVALUATE; answer: c; page 27)
169. Unlike simple stereotypes, sociological generalizations

a. are not applied to all individuals in a category.
b. are based on all available facts.
c. are offered fair-mindedly with an interest in the truth.
170. What might a sociologist say about people’s selection of marriage partners?
a. People marry because they fall in love.
b. When it comes to romance, it’s all a matter of personal taste.
c. Typically, a person marries someone of similar social position.
d. When it comes to love, opposites attract.
(ANALYZE; answer: c; pages 30-31)
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
171. What did Peter Berger mean when he said the sociological perspective is “seeing the general
in the particular”?
(ANALYZE; pages 2-3)
172. Explain why the power of society is evident in the decision to bear a child or even in the act
of committing suicide.
(APPLY; pages 4-6, 10)

173. In several sentences, explain the focus of the structural-functional approach.

(UNDERSTAND; pages 10-11)
174. Distinguish between the manifest and latent functions of any specific social pattern.
(ANALYZE; page 11)
175. What is social structure? How do the structural-functional and social-conflict approaches
understand social structure differently?
176. In several sentences, explain the focus of the symbolic-interaction approach.

(UNDERSTAND; pages 12-13)
177. Explain the focus of the gender-conflict or feminist approach. Compare and contrast this
approach to the race-conflict approach. Using each of these approaches, provide several
sentences that offer a critical analysis of our society.
(EVALUATE; pages 12-14)
178. How do positivist sociology, interpretive sociology, and critical sociology deal with the
issue of subjectivity in different ways?
179. What are the essential differences between positivist sociology, interpretive sociology, and
critical sociology?
180. How does a researcher transform a concept into a variable?

(APPLY; page 17)
181. Thinking about measuring a variable, how is reliability different from validity? Which
concept implies the other?
(UNDERSTAND; page 18)
182. List the three conditions that are required to establish cause and effect in social scientific
research.
183. What is a spurious correlation?

184. What did Max Weber mean by “value-free” research? Do you think researchers can be
value-free? Should they try? Explain.

ESSAY QUESTIONS/TOPICS FOR SHORT PAPERS
185. Explain the difference between sociological generalizations about categories of people and
the simple stereotypes we hear in everyday life.
(ANALYZE)
186. The sociological perspective helps us recognize that the lives of individuals are shaped by
the forces of society. Explain, in a short essay, how the sociological perspective reveals “the
general in the particular.” To illustrate, explain how society plays a part in your own
decision to attend college.
(APPLY)
187. Explain how the structural-functional approach is more focused on understanding society as
it is and how the social-conflict approach (consider the gender-conflict or race-conflict
approaches) is more focused on social change. Do you prefer one approach to the other?
Explain.
(EVALUATE)
188. Since beginning this course in sociology, how has your view of the world changed? Provide
one specific example of something in your life that you see differently now compared to
before you started this course. Is this change a good thing? Explain.
(CREATE)
189. How and why is gender important in research? What are some of the problems in research
that involve gender? How about race and ethnicity? Why might a researcher need to take
race and ethnicity into account when planning research within a specific category of people?
(EVALUATE)
190. Why is it necessary for researchers to understand the social characteristics of the people they
are studying? What problems could arise if a researcher started to study the Amish, Korean
Americans, or some other distinctive category of people and had no understanding of their
way of life?
(APPLY)
191. Based on your own interests, identify a research question that you would like to investigate.
State the question, identify an appropriate research method, and point to any challenges or
issues that you would have to resolve in order to complete such a project.
(CREATE)

Name__________________________
Quick Quiz: Chapter 1

The Sociological Perspective
Multiple Choice:
1. According to Emile Durkheim, a category of people with a higher suicide rate typically has
a. more clinical depression. c. lower social integration.
b. less money, power, and other resources. d. greater self-esteem.
2. Which German word meaning “understanding” was used by Max Weber to describe his approach to
sociological research?
a. Gemeinschaft. c. Verstehen.
b. Gesellschaft. d. Verboten.

a. challenging commonly held beliefs. c. the belief that society is mysterious.
b. accepting conventional wisdom. d. people to be happier with their lives as
they are.
4. The term “sociology” was coined in 1838 by

a. Karl Marx. c. Adam Smith.
b. Herbert Spencer. d. Auguste Comte.

a. activist c. qualitative
b. scientific d. value-free
6. Herbert Spencer described human society as having much in common with

a. animal societies. c. the human brain.
b. planets and stars. d. the human body.
7. W.E.B. Du Bois claimed that _____ was the major problem facing the United States during the twentieth
century.
a. class c. gender
b. race d. ethnicity
True/False
__________ 8. Sociologists focus only on unusual patterns of behavior.
__________ 9. As a discipline, sociology first took root in France, Germany, and England.
Short Answer
10. Name the three social changes in European history that were especially important to the development of
sociology.

Name ________________________________
Quick Quiz: Chapter 1 ANSWERS

The Sociological Perspective
Multiple Choice:
1. According to Emile Durkheim, a category of people with a higher suicide rate typically has
a. more clinical depression. c. lower social integration.
b. less money, power, and other resources. d. greater self-esteem.
2. Which German word meaning “understanding” was used by Max Weber to describe his approach to
sociological research?
a. Gemeinschaft. c. Verstehen.
b. Gesellschaft. d. Verboten.

a. challenging commonly held beliefs. c. the belief that society is mysterious.
b. accepting conventional wisdom. d. people to be happier with their lives as they are.
4. The term “sociology” was coined in 1838 by

a. Karl Marx. c. Adam Smith.
b. Herbert Spencer. d. Auguste Comte.

a. activist c. qualitative
b. scientific d. value-free
6. Herbert Spencer described human society as having much in common with

a. animal societies. c. the human brain.
b. planets and stars. d. the human body.
7. W.E.B. Du Bois claimed that _____ was the major problem facing the United States during the twentieth
century.
a. class c. gender
b. race d. ethnicity
True/False
___False___ 8. Sociologists focus only on unusual patterns of behavior.
___True___ 9. As a discipline, sociology first took root in France, Germany, and England.
Short Answer
10. Name the three social changes in European history that were especially important to the development of
sociology.

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deficient in the discharge of my duty, I hope it will be imputed to want
of ability, and not of integrity.
“Fully sensible of the importance of the office I have the honour to

hold, I cheerfully commit it into the hands of those who properly are,
and ever must be, the guardians of the public good. I am, sir, with
great respect, your most obliged and very humble servant—
“David Rittenhouse
“The honourable the Speaker of the Assembly.”
From the commencement of the year 1777, at which period Mr.

Rittenhouse was invested with the treasurership of his native state,
until the month of September following, when its capital was actually
possessed by the British army, that city was in imminent danger of
an hostile invasion. When it was reduced to a moral certainty, that
the speedy occurrence of such an event was inevitable, he had
retired with the treasury (as before noticed) to Lancaster, as a place
of security; where he remained until the succeeding summer: when,
after the evacuation of the capital by the British forces, he returned
thither, and replaced the treasury in its ancient seat. The time,
therefore, at which he accepted the office of treasurer, was truly one
of “difficulty and danger.”
That it was not, for many years, a lucrative place, must be

apparent from the ever memorable circumstance of the great and
unexampled depreciation of that species of paper-currency, called
continental money;[235] which was the only circulating medium of the
United States, until the year 1782, when the bank of North America
went into operation. The vast accumulation in the treasury, of that
depreciated and daily depreciating substitute for money, must
necessarily have been “extremely burthensome” to the treasurer,
and could not have afforded him “any prospect of profit,” during the
first five years of his tenure of the office. And it was not, in fact, until
those last few years, which constituted the interval between the time
of augmenting the commissions and his retirement from the office,
that the treasurership was profitable to him. During the greater part
of the time he held it, the profits of the office did not enable him to
employ even a clerk: nor could he have performed the numerous
and laborious duties of that station (such as they then were,) had he
not been greatly assisted by the assiduity, care and abilities, of an
excellent woman—Mrs. Rittenhouse. Singular as this circumstance
may appear, this notice of it seems due to the memory of an highly
meritorious wife; while, on the other hand, it must be acknowledged,
that it does not reflect any honour on the liberality of a great, wealthy,
and populous state. Such a man as David Rittenhouse ought to have
been otherwise employed, by a generous and enlightened public: the
exercise of his transcendent talents, in works of great and
permanent public utility, would not only have constituted services
which would have entitled him to a bountiful remuneration; but such
as would have conferred great additional benefits and honours on
his country.
That he should have had, in thirteen years, successively, an

unanimous annual vote for the office of treasurer, is a very strong
testimonial of the exalted sense which his countrymen entertained of
his integrity: it would have been so, under a popular government, at
any period. But when it is considered, that, during the whole of the
time he held the treasurership, the people of Pennsylvania were
divided into two opposing parties, which sprung into existence with
the adoption of the state-constitution of 1776, the unanimity of their
representatives in favour of this individual, is still more conclusive
evidence of his merits. Most of those men in the community, best
acquainted with human nature, and practically versed in the science
of politics, very early pointed out the radical defects of the new frame
of government; and predicted the utter incompetency of that
instrument, as they conceived, to promote the true interest and
happiness of civil society. In a single legislative body, a plural
executive, and in a limited duration of the judicial authority—
consequently, an undue dependence of the judges on the executive
for their re-appointment,—they foresaw those evils, which were too
soon realized: and in a septennial council of censors, such as that
constitution provided for,[236] they beheld a political chimera, at
variance with common sense and the experience of mankind. Men
entertaining these views, formed, of course, one of these parties.
The other was composed of the projectors of the constitution of

1776, and other speculative politicians; together with all those whom
they were enabled to influence, through the medium of their
prejudices, their inexperience or their interests.
These two parties continued to divide the state, until the adoption
of the fœderal constitution. The great and multiplied evils which
resulted to the people of the United States, after the restoration of
peace, and which had also been severely felt during the greater part
of the war, from the inefficacy of the original confœderation of the
States, had convinced all thinking men of the necessity of forming a
more energetic national government, as the only remedy for those
evils. And the actual formation of such a government, aided by the
long experience which the citizens of Pennsylvania had then
acquired, of the injurious effects of their own existing constitution,
disposed them soon after to establish the present constitution of the
state, which was done in convention on the 2d of September 1790; a
form of government, free from the palpable errors of the preceding
one, and much more consonant to the genius and spirit of the
fœderal constitution.
It is, then, a very extraordinary circumstance, and one that reflects

great honour on the character of Mr. Rittenhouse, that, in the long
course of years during which the people of Pennsylvania were thus
divided into two contending parties, he alone could unite the
favourable opinion of both parties, respecting his superior claims to
hold one of the most important offices in the government.
Although little more than six years and an half intervened, from the
time of Mr. Rittenhouse’s resigning the treasurership of the state,
until the period of his decease, literary and other public honours then
flowed in upon him. He enjoyed, likewise, the satisfaction of
experiencing, during that short interval, multiplied proofs of the
esteem in which his abilities and character were held, both at home
and abroad. And, notwithstanding it appears to have been his wish,
when he retired from the treasury, to decline for the future any official
situation, or public employment of any kind, not connected with
science; in order that he might, without interruption, devote the
remainder of his life to his favourite pursuits; a variety of public
trusts, some of them requiring arduous duties, were constantly
pressed upon his acceptance.
Shortly before he resigned the treasurership, the degree of Doctor

of Laws was conferred on Mr. Rittenhouse, by the College of New-
Jersey: his diploma bears date the 30th of September, 1789. This
respectable seminary had given him the degree of Master in the
Arts, seventeen years before[237]; and this new honour was a further
pledge of the high estimation in which he continued to be held by the
regents of the institution. His diploma for the Doctorate has a place
in the Appendix.
The College at Princeton, in New Jersey, then possessed—as she

still does—the first Orrery constructed by Dr. Rittenhouse; a
monument of his genius and abilities, that seemed to give him a just
claim to this highest academical honour, appropriate to his character,
which the college could confer.
This institution, called Nassau Hall, was founded about the year
1738; but its original charter was enlarged by Governor Belcher, in
1747. The president and trustees of Nassau Hall possessed a
power, by their charter, of granting to “the students of the college, or
to any others thought worthy of them, all such degrees as are
granted in either of the universities, or any other college, in Great
Britain.” This privilege, it is believed, was not enjoyed generally—if at
all, in any other instance[238], by the American colleges, before the
revolution; as it is supposed they were restricted, prior to that era, to
the conferring of degrees in the Arts only. But all the superior
seminaries of learning, in the United States, now possess the right of
creating Bachelors and Doctors, in Divinity, Law, and Medicine: and
it is greatly to be wished, that they may always dispense these high
academic honours with impartiality and a due discretion.
The college-edifice at Princeton is a stately and durable one,
constructed of stone; and it will afford satisfaction to the reader, to be
informed, that in this building is deposited the Rittenhouse Orrery. He
will derive additional pleasure from learning, that this grand machine
has, lately, been repaired in some considerable degree, and at a
great expence, by the ingenious Mr. Henry Voight, of the Mint: by
whom, that belonging to the University of Pennsylvania, has likewise
been put in good order. Neither of these Orreries appeared to have
suffered any material injury from the British troops, during the war of
the revolution; though it has been generally believed, they did. The
libraries, indeed, and some of the apparatus, belonging to both the
colleges in which the Orreries are placed, experienced great losses
from the presence of an hostile army in their vicinity: but the officers
of that army seem to have respected these greater works of human
ingenuity.[239]
On the first day of January, 1790,[240] Dr. Rittenhouse was elected

one of the Vice-presidents of the American Philosophical Society; his
colleagues, in this office, being the Rev. William Smith, D. D. and
John Ewing, D. D. both of them able and distinguished astronomers.
This appointment he held but one year; in consequence of the

death of Dr. Franklin,[241] on the 17th day of April following.[242]
In supplying the vacancy which had thus occurred in the

Presidentship of the Society, the members of that body could not
hesitate in selecting, for that honourable station, a suitable
successor to their late venerable patron and chief: the eyes of all
were immediately directed towards Dr. Rittenhouse. He was
accordingly elected to be President, at the stated annual meeting of
the Society for the purpose of chosing their officers, held in January,
1791. On being notified of this appointment, he addressed the
following letter to Mr. Patterson, one of the secretaries of the Society.
“Philadelphia, Jan. 22 1791.
“Sir,
“I am extremely sensible of the honour the members of the
Philosophical Society have done me, by electing me their President,
in the room of that very worthy patron of the Society, the late Doctor
Franklin.
“They have, by this act of theirs, laid an additional obligation on

me to promote the interests of the institution, by the best means in
my power, to which I shall ever be attentive; though my ill state of
health will frequently deny me the pleasure of attending the stated
meetings.
“I send you, herewith, two letters which you will please to

communicate to the society.—I am, Sir, your very humble servant.
“David Rittenhouse.”
“In this elevated situation, the highest that Philosophy can confer
in our country,” says his learned and eloquent Eulogist,[243] “his
conduct was marked by its usual line of propriety and
dignity.”—“Never,” continues his Eulogist, “did the artificial pomp of
station command half the respect, which followed his unassuming
manners in the public duties of this office. You will,” says he, “often
recollect, Gentlemen, with a mixture of pleasure and pain, the
delightful evenings you passed in the Society, every time he
presided in your meetings. They were uniformly characterized by
ardour in the pursuits of science, urbanity, and brotherly kindness.”
About the time of Dr. Rittenhouse’s elevation to the Presidency of

the Philosophical Society, and indeed pretty generally afterwards,
the delicate state of his health confined him much to his house and
his observatory. On a dry day, he would, occasionally, walk a little
abroad; in the proper seasons, he would now and then recreate
himself in a pretty little flower-garden adjoining his house, which Mrs.
Rittenhouse took pleasure in decorating. His evenings were
uniformly passed at home; except at the times of the stated meetings
of the Philosophical Society, when he usually attended, if the
weather permitted.
Besides a few of his most intimate friends, who were in the habit of
visiting him pretty often towards the close of the day[244], many
strangers of distinction, and persons who had no particular claims
upon him on the score of friendship, made him occasional visits at
other times: but in such portions of his time as he could retrench
from these avocations, he was much employed in reading; and the
books he read comprehended works of literature, taste, and science.
He blended the utile cum dulci, in the choice of his subjects; and
while he devoted some of what might be called his leisure hours,
such as were abstracted from his more appropriate pursuits, to
works of amusement, he did not neglect studies of a more serious
and important nature. He was at no loss for books: independently of
his own collection, he had ready access to two valuable and
extensive public libraries[245]; those of several literary gentlemen
were open to him; and some of his friends occasionally supplied him
with new publications. The following note addressed to him by Mr.
Jefferson, in the beginning of the year 1791, will shew that Dr.
Rittenhouse then devoted some attention to chemistry, and that he
continued to read works of natural science, in French, as well as in
his own language.
“Th. Jefferson sends to Mr. Rittenhouse Bishop Watson’s essay

on the subjects of chemistry, which is too philosophical not to merit a
half an hour of his time, which is all it will occupy. He returns him Mr.
Barton’s papers[246], which he has perused with great pleasure; and
he is glad to find the subject has been taken up by so good a hand:
he has certainly done all which the scantiness of his materials would
admit. If Mr. Rittenhouse has done with the last number of the
Journal de Physique, sent him by Th. J. he will be glad to receive it,
in order to forward it on to Mr. Randolph: if not done with, there is no
hurry.
“Monday morning.”
The relation in which Dr. Rittenhouse now stood to the American
Philosophical Society, of which he had attained to the honour of
being the President, renders it proper that some account should be
given, in this place, of an institution heretofore distinguished by its
Transactions. The following are the leading features in its history.
This Society was instituted on the 2d day of January, 1769, by an

union of two literary societies that had subsisted some time
previously, in Philadelphia. In the same year this united body
petitioned the general assembly of the province to grant them the
privilege of erecting a building, suitable for their accommodation, on
some part of the State-House square. But the Library Company of
Philadelphia, also a very useful and respectable institution and a
much older corporation, having about the same time made a similar
application to the legislature, in their own behalf, the prayer of
neither was then granted. The latter have, long since, erected for
their accommodation a large, commodious and elegant structure[247],
on a lot of ground purchased by them for the purpose, in the
immediate vicinity of the public square originally contemplated for its
site.
A second petition was presented to the general assembly by the

Philosophical Society, for the same purpose, soon afterwards;
though without success. But, finally, in pursuance of another
application to the state legislature by the Society, for the same
object, a law was enacted on the 28th of March, 1785; by which a lot
of ground (being part of the State-House Square) was granted to
them, for the purpose of erecting thereon a Hall, Library, &c. “for their
proper accommodation.”
The ground appropriated by the legislature, for this purpose,

contains seventy feet in front on (Delaware) Fifth-Street, (and nearly
opposite the Hall of the Philadelphia Library-Company,) and fifty feet
in depth; on which the Society erected, between the years 1787 and
1791, a neat, convenient, and spacious edifice: it was completed
under the direction and superintendence of Samuel Vaughan, Esq.
formerly a vice-president of the Society; and by means of this
gentleman’s disinterested exertions, principally, somewhat more than
$3500 were obtained from about one hundred and fifty contributors,
towards defraying the expense of the building. Dr. Franklin gave at
sundry times, towards this object, nearly $540 in the whole amount.
[248]
The act of assembly of 1785 having, however, restricted the

corporation of this Society, not only from selling or transferring, but
from leasing, any part of the ground thus granted to them, or of the
erections to be made on it, a supplement to that act was obtained,
on the 17th of March, in the following year; authorizing the Society to
let out any part of their Building, for such purposes as should have
an affinity to the design of their institution; but restricting the profits
arising from any such lease to the uses for which the Society was
originally instituted. The cellars and some of the apartments in the
house, have been leased accordingly; and the profits arising from
these leases constitute a considerable part of the Society’s funds,
which are of very moderate extent. The resident members pay to the
Treasurer a small annual assessment, fixed by a by-law of the
Society: these payments, in addition to occasional donations in
money, made by members and others,[249] form the residue of the
funds of the Society; besides which, they receive from time to time
valuable presents, in books, astronomical and other instruments, &c.
Their library, philosophical apparatus, and collections of various
kinds, are now respectable.
The objects of this institution are readily comprehended, from its

name; the style of the corporation being—“The American
Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia, for promoting Useful
Knowledge:” And with this view, in its formation, the fundamental
laws (passed on the 3d day of February, 1769,) direct, that “The
members of the Society shall be classed into one or more of the
following committees:
1. Geography, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy and
Astronomy.
2. Medicine and Anatomy.
3. Natural History and Chemistry.
4. Trade and Commerce.
5. Mechanics and Architecture.
6. Husbandry and American Improvements.”
The same original laws and regulations of the Society indicate the
style of the several officers of the institution, and prescribe the duties
of their respective stations: they likewise direct the manner in which
the general economy of the Society shall be managed, and their
proceedings, in the more appropriate business of their institution,
arranged and conducted. “These Rules,” say the Society (in an
Advertisement prefixed to the first volume of their Transactions,)
“were adopted from the Rules of that illustrious Body, the Royal
Society, of London; whose example the American Philosophical
Society think it their honour to follow, in their endeavours for
enlarging the sphere of knowledge and useful arts.”
The Officers of the Philosophical Society are—a patron, who is the

governor of the state for the time being—a president—three vice-
presidents—a treasurer—four secretaries, and three curators,—
together with twelve counsellors; which last board of officers was
created by an act of the legislature, in the year 1780, and the same
law designates the duties of their appointment.
The number of members of this Society is not limited: it consisted

of three hundred, forty years ago; and, probably, now amounts to
about four hundred and fifty. Of this number, however, a large
proportion is made up of foreigners; many of whom are eminent
personages, and men of the most distinguished abilities in various
departments of science, in different parts of the world.
The Proceedings, hitherto, of this very respectable association of

literary and scientific characters, have been published in six[250]
quarto volumes, denominated the “Transactions” of the Society:
Besides which, several learned and ingenious Orations—including
two or three of much eloquence, under the title of Eulogiums—have
been delivered before the Society and by their appointment, by
members of their body.
These outlines will serve to furnish the reader with some ideas of
the nature, condition, and character of an institution, which has, in
many respects, reflected honour on the country to which it belongs.
Its usefulness,[251] it is earnestly to be wished, will not be suffered to
diminish, by any declension of that noble ardour in cultivating, that
public spirit in promoting, learning and science, which, while they
adorn the names of individuals, contribute to the glory of a nation.
Let a hope be still cherished, that notwithstanding the tumult, the
folly, and the distractions, which at the present day pervade a large
portion of the civilized world, the period is not remote, when
tranquillity, good sense and order, shall resume their blest dominion
over the conduct of the too many now infatuated nations of the earth.
—Let a belief be yet encouraged, that under the guidance of a
benign Providence, not only the rising generation will be found
zealous to emulate the fair fame of a Franklin and a Rittenhouse;
but even, that good and rational men in our own time, and among
ourselves, will continue to cultivate the arts of peace, and to promote
those objects of literature and science, which, at the same time they
meliorate the heart and elevate the mind, contribute to the happiness
of the individual and the general welfare of mankind.
Dr. Rittenhouse’s attachment to the interests of the institution of

which he had been thus recently elected President, was amply
manifested soon after. In the month of November, of the same year,
he presented to the Society, the sum of 308l. (equivalent to 821⅓
dollars,) for the purpose of discharging a debt due by their
corporation to the estate of the late Francis Hopkinson, Esq. the
treasurer, then deceased. This liberal donation was thankfully
received; and the acknowledgments of their grateful sense of it were
made to the donor, by the following address,—expressive as well of
their feelings on the occasion, as of the high opinion they entertained
of his merits and character.
“To David Rittenhouse, Esq. LL.D. President of the American
Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for promoting Useful
Knowledge.
“Sir,
“The American Philosophical Society embrace the present

occasion of a meeting for stated annual business, to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter, dated Nov. 15th, addressed to their
treasurer; in which you are pleased to inform him, that you have paid
the 308l. due to the late Judge Hopkinson, and will lay the bond and
mortgage before the Society; expressing your hopes, that this
benefaction, on your part, may “encourage the Society to exert
themselves to get rid of some other heavy debts and incumbrances.”
“This renewed instance of your liberality joined to the

consideration of the illustrious part which you have taken in their
labours, for many years past, has made such an impression upon
them, that they are at a loss in what manner they can best express
their gratitude, or their respect and veneration for your name.
“At any time, and in any country, such a “brilliant present” would
indicate a mind that can feel the inseparable connection between
Learning and Human Felicity: But in the present state of our
finances, it is a most important benefaction; and a noble specimen of
Literary Patronage in a young empire, where many other
improvements must share with the Arts and Sciences, in the public
attention and bounty.
“We are sensible of the necessity of extinguishing the other heavy

debts of the Society, with all possible speed, and have appointed a
proper committee for that purpose.
“Signed in behalf, and by order, of the Society, at a meeting held

the 16th day of December, 1791.
“John Ewing, William Smith, Th. Jefferson, Vice Presidents.

“James Hutchinson, Jonathan Williams, Samuel Magaw,
Secretaries.”
To which address, Dr. Rittenhouse returned this answer.
“Gentlemen,
“The satisfaction I feel, in contributing something towards

promoting Science, the interests whereof are, I am persuaded,
inseparable from those of humanity, is greatly increased by your very
polite approbation.
“My sincerest wishes are, that you may ever merit public
encouragement, and enjoy the patronage of the generous and the
good.”
In the spring succeeding Dr. Rittenhouse’s election to the

Presidency of the Philosophical Society, his name was included,
jointly with those of Thomas Willing, Esq. and the late Samuel
Howell, Esq. in a commission to receive subscriptions, in
Pennsylvania, to the Bank of the United States. This appointment
was made by President Washington, on the 26th of March, 1791.
Soon after, he was commissioned by Governor Mifflin to be one of

three joint “Agents of Information,” relating to the business of
opening and improving certain roads, rivers and navigable waters, in
Pennsylvania. His colleagues in this commission were the Rev. Dr.
William Smith and William Findley, Esq. and this board of
commissioners, whose appointment bears date the 10th of May,
1794, was erected in pursuance of an act of assembly, passed the
13th of April, preceding. These gentlemen, it appears, proceeded on
that service; for, about two months after their appointment, monies
were advanced to them, towards defraying the expences to be
incurred in executing the duties of their commission.
These duties, it is believed, were in some way connected with an

investigation of the most practicable route for a turnpike-road
between Philadelphia and Lancaster. A company, which had been
formed some time before, for the purpose of constructing such a
road, were incorporated by the governor of the state, by virtue of a
law passed the 9th of April, 1792. Dr. Rittenhouse was a member of
that company, and he actually superintended the surveyors, who
were employed in tracing one of the then contemplated routes: Dr.
Ewing was likewise engaged in the same service. Neither of those
gentlemen held any appointment for such purposes, from the
managers of the turnpike-company, nor received any compensation
from them, for their services: it is therefore presumed, that Dr.
Rittenhouse officiated under the commission last mentioned; and
perhaps Dr. Ewing acted, also, under a similar commission.[252] The
former, however, was himself one of the board of managers; in which
capacity he acted as a member of several committees, particularly in
1792: but at the end of that year, he declined to continue any longer
a manager.[253]
It has been before noticed, that, on the elevation of the College of

Philadelphia to the grade of an University, by an act of assembly
passed in November, 1779, Dr. Rittenhouse was one of the trustees
of the new institution, created by that law. On the 30th of September,
1791, almost twelve years afterwards, a compromise was effected
between the respective advocates of the old and the new institution;
a law of the state being then passed, “to unite the University of the
state of Pennsylvania, and the College, Academy and Charitable
School of Philadelphia, &c.” By this act, the then existing trustees of
each institution were to elect twelve trustees; and the twenty-four
persons who should be thus chosen, together with the governor of
the state for the time being, as president of the board, were to be the
trustees of this united seminary, under the denomination of “The
Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania.”
On this occasion, Dr. Rittenhouse was again chosen a member of

the corporation, on the part of the University, the election having
been made the 3d of November, 1791; at which time, Bishop White
was president of the board of the College trustees, and Dr. M‘Kean,
late governor of Pennsylvania, of that of the University. By an act of
assembly, passed the 6th of March, 1789, so much of the act
erecting the University, as affected the charters, franchises and
estates of the College of Philadelphia, had been repealed, and the
powers of the former trustees revived: but by the act of 1791, all the
estates of the two institutions were vested in this one, composed of
both.
The union of the separate interests of those seminaries, it may be

reasonably expected, will eventually prove a fortunate circumstance:
because, by its extinguishing the jealousies and rivalship[254] that
heretofore subsisted between the friends of each, which must, too,
have continued to operate, had they remained separate; and, by
consolidating their estates and pecuniary resources into one fund,
greatly encreasing the sphere of their usefulness, beyond the ratio in
which they could have been enjoyed separately; the important
interests of literature might be expected to be proportionably
advanced. A doubt can not be entertained, that this was an object
very desirable by the benevolent Rittenhouse, as well as by the
trustees, generally, of these conjoint institutions.[255]
It has been already noticed, that the first academic honour

conferred on Dr. Rittenhouse, was obtained from the College of
Philadelphia: he might therefore consider it as being his Alma Mater;
and his attachment to that seminary must have been strengthened,
by the circumstance of one of his (only two) Orreries having been
acquired by it, and its being deposited in the college-edifice. But,
besides these considerations, he officiated, for some time, as Vice-
provost and a professor in the institution, after it became an
University. To the first of these stations, he was elected on the 8th of
February, 1780; having been unanimously appointed professer of
astronomy, the 16th of December preceding: a salary of one hundred
pounds per annum was annexed to the vice-provostship, and three
hundred pounds per annum to the professor’s chair. These places
Dr. Rittenhouse resigned, the 18th of April 1782.
Thus attached to, and connected with, this very respectable

seminary of learning, as Dr. Rittenhouse was, the following
occurrences in the history of its origin and advancement, will not be
deemed uninteresting, by the reader.
The Academy and Charitable School, of Philadelphia, originated in

the year 1749. This institution, which was opened in that year, was
projected by a few private gentlemen; and many others, of the first
respectability, gave their countenance to it, as soon as it became
known: some of them were, on its first establishment, appointed
trustees of the infant seminary.
The persons on whom the charge of arranging and digesting the

preparatory measures for this important undertaking, were Thomas
Hopkinson,[256] Tench Francis,[257] Richard Peters and Benjamin
Franklin, Esquires.[258] The last mentioned of these distinguished and
patriotic gentleman draughted and published the original proposals;
and on the opening of the Academy, another of them, Mr. Peters,
(afterwards D. D. and rector of Christ’s-Church and St. Peter’s in
Philadelphia,) who long officiated as provincial secretary, preached
an appropriate sermon—on the 7th of January, 1751—from these
words (St. John, viii. 32.) “And ye shall know the truth, and the truth
shall make you free.”—“This reverend and worthy gentleman” said
Dr. Smith, in his account of this institution, first published among his
works in the year 1762 “(who, amid all the labours of his public
station, as well as the private labours in which his benevolence
continually engaged him, has still made it his care to devote some
part of his time to classical learning, and the study of divinity, to
which he was originally bred,) took occasion, from these words of
our blessed Saviour, to shew the intimate connexion between truth
and freedom,—between knowledge of every kind, and the
preservation of civil and religious liberty.”
The Rev. William Smith, M. A. (afterwards D. D.) was inducted, on

the 25th of May, 1754, as head of this seminary, under the title of
Provost, with the professorship of natural philosophy[259] annexed to
that station.
On the 14th of May, 1755, an additional charter was granted by

the Proprietaries to this seminary, by which a College was engrafted
upon the original Academy: a joint government was agreed on for
both, under the style of “The College, Academy and Charitable
School, of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania;” and this enlarged
institution became invested with a power of conferring degrees, and
appointing professors in the various branches of the arts and
sciences.
The first commencement, in this College and Academy, was held

the 17th of May, 1757;[260] on which occasion, an excellent charge
was delivered to the graduates, by the Provost. One passage in that
charge is so patriotic and impressive, as to merit attention at all
times, in a country that boasts of a free constitution of government;
its introduction at this time, and on the present occasion, cannot be
considered improper: it is the following animated and eloquent
exhortation to active patriotism, in times of misrule, popular delusion,
and public danger:—
“Should your Country call, or should you perceive the restless

tools of faction at work in their dark cabals, and ‘stealing upon the
secure hour of Liberty;’ should you see the corruptors, or the
corrupted, imposing upon the public with specious names,—
undermining the civil and religious principles of their country, and
gradually paving the way to certain Slavery, by spreading destructive
notions of Government;—then, Oh! then, be nobly roused! Be all
eye, and ear, and heart, and voice, and hand, in a cause so glorious!
Cry aloud, and spare not,—fearless of danger, regardless of
opposition, and little solicitous about the frowns of power, or the
machinations of villany. Let the world know, that Liberty is your
unconquerable delight; and that you are sworn foes to every species
of bondage, either of body or of mind. These are subjects for which
you need not be ashamed to sacrifice your ease and every other
private advantage. For, certainly, if there be aught upon earth suited
to the native greatness of the human mind, and worthy of contention,
—it must be to assert the cause of Religion, and to support the
fundamental rights and liberties of mankind, and to strive for the
constitution of your country,—and a government of laws, not of Men.”
In the year 1765, the original plan of this institution was greatly
enlarged, by the addition of the Medical School;[261] with the
appointment of Professors,[262] for reading lectures in anatomy,
botany, chemistry, the materia medica, the theory and practice of
physick, and also for delivering clynical lectures in the Pennsylvania
Hospital.[263] Since that period, and after the erection of the whole of
the College-establishment into an University, the Medical department
has been still further extended, by the creation of other
Professorships in the Schools of Medicine, and filling these new
chairs—as well as those originally instituted—with men of
distinguished learning and abilities: By which means, the Medical
School in Philadelphia, connected with the University of
Pennsylvania, now justly vies with that of Edinburgh, in celebrity.
The whole of the literary and scientific institution, thus formed—

which, besides the Medical Schools, was composed of the College,
the Academy and the Charitable School, continued under the
provostship of the Rev. Dr. Smith, assisted by able teachers and
professors,[264] from his induction in the year 1754, until the
establishment of the University, in 1779:[265] during which time,
comprehending a period of twenty-five years, this seminary
increased in reputation and flourished; and indeed it was indebted
for much of its respectability and usefulness to the zeal,[266] the
talents and the services of Dr. Smith.
This gentleman was educated in the university of Aberdeen,[267] in

Scotland, where he graduated as Master of Arts. He soon after
obtained clerical orders, in the Church of England; and, in the year
1759, he was honoured with the degree of Doctor in Divinity, from
the University of Oxford, on the recommendation of the archbishop
of Canterbury, and the bishops of Durham, Salisbury, Oxford and St.
Asaph.[268] About the same time, he received a similar degree from
the University of Trinity-College, Dublin. Dr. Smith died the 14th of
May, 1803, at the age of seventy-six years.
On the 10th of April, 1792, an act was passed by the general

assembly of Pennsylvania, for the purpose of enabling the governor
to incorporate a company for opening a canal and water-
communication between the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill: and by
this act, David Rittenhouse, William Moore, Eliston Perot,
Cadwallader Evans, jun. and Francis Johnston, Esquires, were
appointed commissioners to receive subscriptions of stock, for
constituting a fund for this purpose.
Thus, after having been engaged in the course of eleven years, at

a prior period, in the improvement of a great natural highway of his
native country, he was again employed, in conjunction with others,
by the legislative body of that country, after a lapse of nineteen years
from the time of his first appointment to a similar duty, in forwarding
the great design of uniting more intimately, and more beneficially for
the purposes of agriculture and commerce, the waters of the
beautiful stream near whose banks he was born, with those of the
majestic Delaware.
This comparatively inconsiderable appointment was presently after

succeeded by a most important one. Dr. Rittenhouse was
commissioned to be Director of the Mint, by President Washington,
the 14th of April, 1792; but he did not take the requisite qualifications
for that office, until the 1st of July following. He entered upon the
duties of this arduous and very respectable station with great
reluctance: it was, indeed, pressed upon him; not only by Mr.
Jefferson, then secretary of state, with whom Dr. Rittenhouse had
long been in habits of intimate friendship; but (through the means of
Mr. Secretary Hamilton, of the Treasury,) by the illustrious President
himself, who always entertained the highest regard for him: and this
esteem was mutual, notwithstanding some “shades of difference” in
the political tenets of these two great and good men; for no person
could hold a more exalted opinion of the integrity, abilities, and public
services of Washington, than Dr. Rittenhouse uniformly did. Such
was the extreme diffidence with which our Philosopher accepted this
appointment thus honourably conferred on him, that he declined, for
a considerable time, to be sworn into office; until, finally, on applying
to the writer of these memoirs, he obtained his promise to render
such assistance to him as he should be able to do, in the event of his
own incapacity, from want of health or by reason of any incidental
circumstance, to devote a sufficient portion of his time to the duties
of the station. Although the writer was never required to act in the
capacity thus proposed to him, circumstances not occurring to
render it necessary, he shall always consider the arrangement then
made upon the subject, on the voluntary proposition of Dr.
Rittenhouse, as an estimable testimonial of his confidence in his
friend and relative: yet the writer would have introduced the mention
of these particulars, into the present work, with greater hesitation
than he does, did he not conceive that a statement of facts of this
kind will evince the delicate sensibility of Dr. Rittenhouse, on the
occasion.
As soon as he had determined to accept the Directorship of the

Mint, he began to make suitable arrangements for carrying the
institution into operation. Towards this end, he suggested to the
secretary of state the expediency of purchasing two contiguous
houses and lots of ground, conveniently situated, for the
establishment; in preference to taking buildings upon lease, for a
purpose that seemed to require something like a permanent position.
His proposal relative to this matter, it appears, was communicated to
the secretary of state, for the purpose of being submitted to the
consideration of the President: for, on the 9th of June, 1792, his
approbation of the plan was expressed in the following note to the
secretary.
“Dear Sir,
“I am in sentiment with you and the Director of the Mint, respecting

the purchase of the lots and houses which are offered for sale, in
preference to renting—as the latter will certainly exceed the interest
of the former.
“That all the applications may be brought to view, and considered,

for Coining &c., Mr. Lear will lay the letters and engravings before
you, to be shewn to the Director of the Mint:—I have no other object
or wish in doing it, than to obtain the best. Yours, &c.

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REMEMBER: a question involving recall of key terms or factual material

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1

CHAPTER 1: SOCIOLOGY: PERSPECTIVE, THEORY, AND METHOD

1. According to sociologists, human behavior reflects our personal “free will.”

2. Sociology is defined as the systematic study of human society.

3. Sociologists focus only on unusual patterns of behavior.

9. A global perspective has little in common with a sociological perspective.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2

17. The term “sociology” was coined by Emile Durkheim in 1898.

22. The structural-functional, social-conflict, and symbolic-interaction approaches are three

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3

(APPLY; answer: T; page 11)

34. The symbolic-interaction approach is a micro-level orientation.

36. Social-exchange analysis is one micro-level approach to understanding social interaction.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4

44. Reliability refers to the quality of consistency in measurement.

45. Validity refers to actually measuring what you want to measure.

49. To identify cause-and-effect relationships, it is usually necessary to exercise experimental

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 5

51. Interpretive sociology considers subjective feelings to be a source of bias.

56. A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 6

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 7

66. Sociologists use the term “social marginality” to refer to

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 8

71. Making use of the sociological perspective encourages

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 10

80. The concept “sociology” was coined in 1838 by

81. Sociology differs from the older discipline of philosophy by focusing on

85. _____ is a way of understanding the world based on science.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 11

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 12

92. To evaluate a theory using evidence, sociologists

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 13

100. Which of the following is a criticism of the structural-functional approach?

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 14

105. Unrecognized and unintended consequences of a social pattern are called

109. Which of the following is an accurate criticism of the structural-functional approach?

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 15

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 16

120. The social-conflict approach sometimes receives criticism for

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 17

122. Which of the following examples illustrates a micro-level focus?

125. Which of the following statements reflects a social-exchange analysis?

126. Which of the following is a manifest function of sports?

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 18

129. Racial discrimination in professional sports is evident today in

130. Which of the following statements is based on a symbolic-interaction analysis of sports?

131. Using the symbolic-interaction approach, sports becomes

132. A criticism of the symbolic-interaction approach is that it

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 19

133. Sociologists use the term “empirical evidence” to refer to