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 JOHN KARLSRUD

Peace Operations in a New Era

 The UN at War

“The UN at War is an excellent resource for researchers, policy-makers, practitio-

ners, and students who want to learn more about peacekeeping. It provides a very
useful analysis on the past, present, and future of peace missions as well as how
they have faced and could face the challenges of today’s world.”
—Séverine Autesserre, Barnard College, Columbia University, USA

“Confronting new threats and challenges in a context of rising expectations, UN

peace operations are at a crossroads. In smart and succinct fashion, this important
new book identifies the key challenges confronting UN peace operations today,
examines with intelligence the opportunities presented by improved technologies
and doctrines and by the rise of regional organizations and partnerships for peace-
keeping, and shows how UN peace operations shape, and are shaped by, global poli-
tics. Combining cutting-edge analysis with deep insights into contemporary peace
operations, this book will enlighten both newcomers to the field and old hands.”
—Alex J. Bellamy, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies,
The University of Queensland, Australia

“This is an ambitious, rigorous, comprehensive and deeply thoughtful analysis of

the state of the UN peace operations. Karlsrud persuasively demonstrates that the
trend in favour of ever more ‘robust’ peacekeeping, a notable feature of UN opera-
tions since 2000, carries very real risks. Through a detailed and illuminating analy-
sis of on-going operations—informed in part by the author’s personal experience
in the field—the overall conclusion is unmistakable: ‘the urge to resort to use UN
peace operations for peace enforcement purposes, whether against armed opposi-
tion groups or terrorists’ needs to be resisted and critically reexamined.”
—Mats Berdal, Professor, Department of War Studies, King’s College London

“As the world becomes smaller, flatter, and more complex, the challenges to the
UN’s role in maintaining international peace and security have multiplied. In this
impressive new work, John Karlsrud brings a scholar-practitioner’s perspective to
bear on these problems. The deceptively simple heart of his solution lies in the
opening word of the UN Charter: ‘We, the peoples.’ Too often, he argues, the UN
has seen its mandate as protecting governments, rather than the people they are
meant to serve.”
—Simon Chesterman, Professor and Dean, Faculty of Law,
National University of Singapore
“The international community and the next United Nations Secretary-General
will have a chance to initiate meaningful, transformative reforms in the way the
United Nations addresses twenty-first-century social, political, and security chal-
lenges; the road map is provided by John Karlsrud in his new seminal treatise The
UN at War, highly recommended to all international peace and security academics
and practitioners.”
—José Ramos-Horta, Chair of the High-level Independent
Panel on UN Peace Operations, Special Representative
of the UN Secretary-General for Guinea-Bissau, Nobel Peace
Prize laureate, and former President and Prime Minister
of Timor Leste

“This is the most current, up-to-date assessment of UN peace operations available.

It addresses the new challenges of violent extremism and terrorism, and how to
confront them without resort to the UN’s use of violence. Karlsrud proposes
sequencing tasks (rather than trying to do everything at once); devising long-term
political strategies; burden-sharing between the UN, African Union, and other
partners; and proposes ‘people-centered reforms’ that protect ‘civilians, not gov-
ernments.’ A must-read for both analysts and practitioners of peacekeeping.”
—Lise Morjé Howard, Associate Professor, Department of
Government, Georgetown University

“John Karlsrud’s book is a true state of the art on contemporary UN peace opera-
tions. Among its many strengths, it addresses two critical challenges head on: how
peacekeepers can protect civilians in places where terrorism is a threat; and how to
engage more directly with the local populations they are meant to serve. Informed
by a deep knowledge of the political and practical obstacles, this excellent volume
invites serious reflection on how peace operations must adapt to an increasingly
complex security environment.”
—Dr. Ian Johnstone, Professor of International Law,
Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University

“The UN at War face a range of urgent challenges with no easy answers. John
Karlsrud, an author with first-hand experience working in UN Peace Operations,
looks over the horizon at these challenges and possible responses. His book is
timely, accessible and marshals a convincing argument about how the UN has to
change to remain relevant, but how it must withstand calls for it to become a war-
fighting organisation. This is a must-read book for those interested in the future of
the UN and peacekeeping.”
—Roger Mac Ginty, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies,
University of Manchester
 John Karlsrud

The UN at War
Peace Operations in a New Era
John Karlsrud
NUPI
Oslo, Norway

ISBN 978-3-319-62857-8    ISBN 978-3-319-62858-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62858-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017955020

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
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In memory of Anne Marie, Frode, and Maria
 Preface and Acknowledgments

In a world where peace is becoming more and more elusive, it is of utmost

importance that we uphold the values on which the UN was founded.
After a period of guarded optimism in the first decade of the 2000s, there
has been an increase in violent conflict during the last few years. Violence
seems to be emerging as the only way of expressing anger and frustration
at the lack of agency and participation. There is an urgent need to reflect
on what role UN peacekeeping, and more generally UN peace operations,
should be given in this context.
“Theory is always for someone and some purpose,” asserted Robert
Cox, a former UN employee and professor of international relations
(1981: 128). Thus, the aim of this book is to provide critical reflections on
UN peace operations, and constructive suggestions as to how the UN and
the international system can evolve to remain relevant and tackle the peace
and security challenges of the twenty-first century, without abandoning
the principles that the UN was founded upon, and on which the legiti-
macy of UN peace operations rests.
This book began with my article “The UN at War: Examining the
Consequences of Peace Enforcement Mandates for the UN Peacekeeping
Operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali,” published in Third World
Quarterly in 2015. The changes that occurred in the mandating and
implementation of these three missions from 2013 and onward seemed to
me to mark the possible start of an unsettling trend where the key princi-
ples of UN peacekeeping—and the UN Charter—were no longer heeded.
The arguments for moving away from these principles were and are
many—and indeed, many of them present the world with difficult

vii
viii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

dilemmas that require careful reflection as well as action. Questioning the

assumption that we are facing an era of radically new threats that require
new responses from the international community, I discuss these chal-
lenges and threats, and why we need to treat them as analytically distinct
from the responses that the international community may agree on.
Basically, I take issue with the trend toward using UN peace operations for
peace enforcement purposes, whether against armed opposition groups,
violent extremists, or terrorists.
The book focuses on UN peacekeeping operations in sub-Saharan
Africa, where most UN peacekeeping missions are and have been for the
last 15 years. However, it also looks forward, considering the very real
possibility that future missions may be deployed to Libya in the Maghreb,
and Syria and Yemen in the Middle East. The book does not deal with all
the dimensions of modern UN peace operations, such as security sector
reform and the rule of law, or developing a fit-for-purpose mission support
concept for robust peacekeeping operations.
I am deeply thankful for the support received from the Training for
Peace programme at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
(NUPI) and from the Fulbright Foundation. The latter granted me a visit-
ing scholar fellowship to spend three months at the Center on International
Cooperation (CIC) at New York University, from September to December
2015. I am indebted to CIC and the staff there for hosting me. In particu-
lar, I would like to thank Richard Gowan, the then Deputy Director of
CIC, and Barnett Rubin, the then acting Director, for initially supporting
my proposal, and to the Center’s leadership Sarah Cliffe and Jim Della-
Giacoma for taking me on board and supporting me in every way possible
during my stay. I am also grateful for the continued support from col-
leagues at the Peace and Conflict Research Group (PCRG) at NUPI, with-
out which this book would not have come to fruition. I have benefited
from countless discussions and received incisive and very helpful comments
on various drafts of the manuscript from my colleagues around the world,
including Arthur Boutellis, Camilla Campisi, Cedric de Coning, Ingvild
Magnæs Gjelsvik, Richard Gowan, Ian Johnstone, Jim Della-Giacoma,
Kiyoshi Matsukawa, Hanny Megally, Kari Osland, Niels Nagelhus Schia,
Alexandra Novosseloff, Yf Reykers, Pernille Rieker, Natasja Rupesinghe,
Adam Smith, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and Maxime de Taisne. I would also
like to thank Jim Della-Giacoma and Ryan Rappa at CIC, and Jair van der
Lijn and Timo Smit at the Swedish Stockholm International Peace Research
Institute (SIPRI), for permission to use figures and help to develop these.
 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
   ix

A previous and shorter version of Chapter 3 was published as Karlsrud,

John (2016a) “New Tools for Blue Helmets,” in Jim Della-Giacoma (ed.),
Global Peace Operations Review: Annual Compilation 2015. New York:
Center on International Cooperation, New York University, pp. 101–107.
Reused with permission of Global Peace Operations Review. A previous
and shorter version of Chapter 4 was published as Karlsrud, John (2016b)
“UN peace operations and counter-terrorism—A bridge too far?” in Jim
Della-Giacoma (ed.), Global Peace Operations Review: Annual Compilation
2015. New York: Center on International Cooperation, New York
University, pp. 118–124. Reused with permission of Global Peace
Operations Review. A previous and shorter version of Chapter 6 was pub-
lished as Karlsrud, John (2016c) “How can the UN move towards more
people-centered peace operations?” in Jim Della-Giacoma (ed.), Global
Peace Operations Review: Annual Compilation 2015. New York: Center
on International Cooperation, New York University, pp. 108–11. Reused
with permission of Global Peace Operations Review.
Warm thanks go to André Broome and Shaun Breslin, editors of the
Global Reordering series for Palgrave Pivot, for initially agreeing to publish
this book, as well as to my editors Christina Brian, Ulrike Stricker, Amber
Husain, and James Safford at Palgrave, and to Susan Høivik and Natasja
Rupesinghe at NUPI, who have helped me immensely in the process of
finalizing the book. Finally, I would like to thank Astrid Hornslien for her
warm support and companionship.

Oslo, Norway John Karlsrud

February 2017

Previous publications by the same author:

UN Peacekeeping Doctrine in a New Era: Adapting to Stabilization, Protection and

New Threats. Co-edited with Cedric de Coning and Chiyuki Aoi. Abingdon:
Routledge (2017).
Norm Change in International Relations: Linked Ecologies in UN Peacekeeping
Operations. Abingdon: Routledge (2016).
The Future of African Peace Operations: From the Janjaweed to Boko Haram.
Co-edited with Cedric de Coning and Linnéa Gelot. London: Zed Books
(2016).
 Contents

Introduction   1
Outline of the Book   5
References  8

1 UN Peace Operations in a Changing World  11

UN Peacekeeping: Development and Perennial Dilemmas  16
From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement  20
The Future of UN Peace Operations  23
Spectrum of UN Peace Operations  25
Leadership and Maintaining Relevance  26
References  28

2 The Evolving Politics of UN Peace Operations  33

US Support to UN and African Peace Operations  34
Russia: Retaining Its Place at the Table  37
China: From Passive Resistance to Active Supporter?  39
France: Friend or Foe?  42
The UK  45
Western Powers and UN Peace Operations  47
Major TCCs  48
Pragmatic Partnerships  49
References  51

xi
xii Contents

3 New Capabilities, Tools, and Technologies  59

Entering the Twenty-First Century  59
From Afghanistan to Mali  61
The Future Is Here  62
Political, Principled, and Practical Hurdles  64
Can Technology Help the UN Become More People-Centric?  71
Surf, Not Turf  72
Beware of Techno-Hubris  75
A Brave New World  76
References  78

4 UN Stabilization Operations, Violent Extremism,

and Counter-­Terrorism  83
Stabilization in UN Peacekeeping  86
Stabilization in Practice  89
A Changing Context for UN Peace Operations?  92
Counter-Terrorism and PCVE at the UN Secretariat  93
UN Peace Operations, Terrorism, and Violent Extremism  94
A House Divided Against Itself?  97
Engaging with Terrorists and Violent Extremists  98
UN Stabilization and Counter-Terrorism Missions? 100
UN Stabilization Missions or Increased Burden-Sharing? 102
References 104

5 Competition or Burden-Sharing? UN and Regional

Peace Operations in Africa 111
A Continent in Rapid Change 112
African Responses 113
Fighting Al-Shabaab in Somalia: No Exit in Sight? 114
Fighting Terrorism in the Sahel 117
FIB in MONUSCO 120
Boko Haram and the MNJTF 121
An Evolving Partnership 122
Intervention Brigades or Delegating Authority? 123
Burden-Sharing and Financing 125
Two Opposing but Mutually Supportive Trends? 127
Cooperation, Representation, and Taxation 128
References 131
 Contents 
   xiii

6 People-Centered Reform at the UN? UN Peace

Operations at a Crossroads 137
Introduction 137
Nowhere to Go? Protection of Civilians in South Sudan 139
The Central African Republic: On a Treadmill to Oblivion? 144
Responding to the Needs of People in Conflict 147
What Has the UN Been Doing? 149
How Should Peace Operations Become More People-Oriented? 150
References 152

7 Serving the People 159

The Supply and Demand of UN Peace Operations 159
Moving Toward Chapter 7½? 160
Maintaining Relevance, But How? 161
The Primacy of Politics 162
Better Understand Causes of Radicalization 163
Practice Dictating Principles? 164
Toward People-Centered Peacekeeping? 165
References 167

References 171

Index 199
 About the Author

John Karlsrud is Senior Research Fellow at the Norwegian Institute of

International Affairs (NUPI), and External Associate at the Centre for the
Study of Globalisation and Regionalisation, University of Warwick, where
he also earned his PhD. He has been a Visiting Fulbright Fellow at the
Center on International Cooperation, New York University, and a Visiting
Fellow at the International Peace Institute in New York. Topics of particu-
lar interests are peace operations, peacebuilding, and humanitarian action.
He has served as Special Assistant to the United Nations Special
Representative in Chad and was part of the UN Development Programme’s
leadership program LEAD. He has published articles in Disasters, Global
Governance, International Review of the Red Cross, and Third World
Quarterly, among others. Karlsrud has worked in Bosnia and Hercegovina,
Chad, Palestine, Norway, and the USA, and conducted field research and
shorter missions to Haiti, Liberia, Mali, Mozambique, Serbia, Sierra
Leone, South Sudan, and Ukraine.

xv
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACIRC African Immediate Crisis Response Capacity

AFISMA African-led International Support Mission in Mali
AMISISOM African Union Mission in Somalia
APSA African Peace and Security Architecture
AQIM al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
ASF African Standby Force
ASG Assistant-Secretary-General (UN)
ASIFU All Sources Information Fusion Unit
AU African Union
AU PSC African Union Peace and Security Council
C-34 UN General Assembly Special Committee on Peacekeeping
Operations
CANs Community Alert Networks
CAR Central African Republic
CASEVAC Casualty Evacuation
CCC Civilian Contributing Country
CIC Center on International Cooperation
CODs Common Operational Datasets
CTITF Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force
CVE Countering Violent Extremism
CVR Community Violence Reduction
DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration
DDVE Demobilization and Disengagement of Violent Extremists
DFS Department of Field Support (UN)
DPA Department of Political Affairs (UN)

xvii
xviii Acronyms and Abbreviations

DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN)

DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
FARDC Forces armées de la République démocratique du Congo
FDLR Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda
FGS Federal Government of Somalia
FIB Force Intervention Brigade
FOBs Forward Operating Bases
FOC Full Operational Capability
G-5 Sahel Group of Five Sahel
G-77 Group of 77
HIPPO High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (UN)
IASC Inter-agency Standing Committee
ICC International Criminal Court
ICTs Information Communication Technologies
IED Improvised Explosive Device
IS Islamic State
ISSSS International Security and Stabilization Support Strategy
ITU International Telecommunications Union
LCBC Lake Chad Basin Commission
LRA Lord’s Resistance Army
MEDEVAC Medical evacuation
MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic
and Chad
MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in the Central African Republic
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in Mali
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
MISCA African-led International Support Mission to the Central
African Republic
MNJTF Multinational Joint Task Force
MNLA Movement for the National Liberation of Azawad
MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo
MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
MUJAO Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa
 Acronyms and Abbreviations 
   xix

OAU Organisation of African Unity

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
ONUC Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo
ONUCI United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire
OROLSI Office of Rule of Law and Security Institutions
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
P5 Permanent Five members of the UNSC
PBPS Policy and Best Practices Service
PCCs Police Contributing Countries
PoC Protection of Civilians
PVE Preventing Violent Extremism
R2P Responsibility to Protect
RECs Regional Economic Communities
RMs Regional Mechanisms for Conflict Prevention, Management
and
Resolution
SADC Southern African Development Community
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SFOR Stabilization Force
SG Secretary-General (UN)
SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SNA Somalia National Army
SRCC Special Representative of the Chairperson
SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General
STCDSS Specialized Technical Committee on Defence, Safety and
Security
TCCs Troop Contributing Countries
TechCCs Technological expertise Contributing Countries
UAS Unmanned Aerial Systems
UNAMA United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan
UNAMID African Union–United Nations Mission in Darfur
UNAMSIL United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
UNCCT United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre
UNCT United Nations Country Team
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDSS United Nations Department of Safety and Security
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNHQ United Nations Headquarters
xx Acronyms and Abbreviations

UNISFA United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei

UNMISS United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan
UNOCC United Nations Operations and Crisis Centre
UNSC United Nations Security Council
UN SCR United Nations Security Council Resolution
UNSG United Nations Secretary-General
UNSOA United Nations Support Office for AMISOM
UNSOM United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia
UNTSO United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
UNU United Nations University
USG Under-Secretary-General
UUAV Unmanned and Unarmed Aerial Vehicles
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Fatalities per 1000 uniformed personnel in UN peace operations,

1990–2015 (this figure is reprinted, with permission, from
van der Lijn and Smit (2015). The values for 2015 were
projections based on the fatalities in the first half of the year
(up until 2 July) and do not represent the number of deaths
in 2015 overall. For further data, see please the SIPRI
Multilateral Peace Operations Database) 15
Fig. 1.2 Surge in uniformed personnel 1990—present (the figure
was developed by the Global Peace Operations Review at
the Center on International Cooperation, New York
University. Republished with permission) 18
Fig. 1.3 African troops and police in peace operations (figure reprinted
with permission of the Center on International Cooperation
from “Ten Trends in UN peacekeeping” (Gowan 2015: 19).) 22
Fig. 4.1 Frequency of the use of the word “stabilization” in UN Security
Council open meetings, 2001–2014. (The figure has been
developed on the basis of research conducted by Curran and
Holtom (2015). The data exclude instances where
“stabilization” has referred to the EU “stabilization and
association process,” and when “stabilization” appears in
the title of the meeting.) 88

xxi
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Top ten financial contributors to UN peacekeeping

(Data from Global Peace Operations Review (2016)
“Those who pay, do not play…”) 34
Table 2.2 Top ten contributing countries of military and police
contributions to UN peacekeeping as of July 31, 2016
(Data from “Ranking of Military and Police Contributions
to UN Operations” (UN 2016e)) 49

xxiii
 Introduction

In 2013, the United Nations (UNSC) mandated the inclusion of a regional

force—the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB)—in the UN peacekeeping
mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) (MONUSCO)
and authorized the mission to “neutralize” identified rebel groups (UN
2013a: 7). The FIB defeated the M23 rebel group in joint operations with
the national Forces armées de la République démocratique du Congo
(FARDC).
Only days after MONUSCO was authorized, the United Nations
Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA)
was instructed to confront rebel, extremist, and terrorist groups in Mali
(UN 2013b). The mission has in its short life-span become one of the
deadliest UN peace operations on record, with 70 fatalities due to attacks
by rebel and terrorist groups since its deployment in 2013 until October
30, 2016 (UN 2016a).
And in 2014, the UN mission in the Central African Republic
(MINUSCA) was deployed to help the country move back onto a path to
peace, after sectarian violence had reached levels bordering on genocide.
Unfortunately, the mission soon gained notoriety for repeated revelations
of sexual exploitation and abuse, shared in equal measure with the African-­
led International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA)
and the French-backed peacekeeping force known as Opération Sangaris.
In South Sudan, the UN mission, United Nations Mission in the
Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS), has been struggling to protect

© The Author(s) 2018 1

J. Karlsrud, The UN at War,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62858-5_1
2 INTRODUCTION

civilians after the outbreak of civil war at the end of 2013. During the last
three years, the UN camps have been converted to protection of civilians
(PoC) sites, and the mission has been hard pressed to protect even those
residing within its camps, much less the millions of people living in fear
outside its camps. As a result, the UNSC in August 2016 authorized a
regional protection force that should deal preventively and robustly with
any actor threatening civilians (UN 2016b).
Each of these challenges, changes, and turns would in itself have been
a reason to take pause, and several have resulted in reviews and inquiries.
But together, they show that there is a fundamental mismatch between the
tasks given to UN peacekeeping operations, and what they are able to do
on the ground. It is clear that UN peacekeeping operations are struggling
with increasing gaps between its foundational principles and the mandates
given by the UNSC. The gaps are both principled and practical—should
the UN go beyond the core principles of impartiality, consent, and the
minimum use of force except in self-defense, and in defense of the man-
date to fight actively against strategic actors? Should the UN Secretariat
resist deployment to conflicts when there is no peace on the ground and
where a mission may face violent extremists and terrorist without suffi-
cient means to defend itself? How should the UN, and the international
community at large, deal with conflicts where no peace operation will be
able to offer sufficient protection to civilians, as is the case in South Sudan?
The increasing gap between the expectations to UN peace operations
and what was happening on the ground was recognized by the then UN
Secretary-General (UNSG) Ban Ki-moon in June 2014 when he announced
the establishment of a High-level Independent panel on Peace Operations
(HIPPO). The same year, the USA took the initiative to organize a
Peacekeeping Summit during the UN General Assembly in September,
chaired by the then US Vice-President Joseph Biden. The release of the
HIPPO Report in 2015, together with releases of the 2015 review of the
UN peacebuilding architecture; the global study of the implementation of
UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security; and
a second US-led summit on peacekeeping during the 2015 UN General
Assembly chaired by the then President Barack Obama—all these brought
a sense of urgency and new momentum for dealing with these gaps and
challenges. David Cameron and other world leaders cited the threat of ter-
rorism as one of the factors motivating the contributions of troops, equip-
ment, and training (Mason 2015). The picture that is generally presented
is that of an organization that should modernize and be updated
 INTRODUCTION 3

to deal more effectively with the arguably new threats of the twenty-first
century—­violent extremism and terrorism—in addition to the core and
traditional task of protecting civilians.
In this book, I argue for a more nuanced picture. The gap between
expectations and what UN peace operations are able to deliver is not solely
created by a lack of performance, poor management, and lack of capabili-
ties, but is also the result of the increasing tendency of the UNSC to not
match mandates with means, and to give to UN peace operations tasks
they are not, and will not be, suited to accomplish. UN peace operations
are deployed to more difficult theaters and given more robust mandates,
including stabilization and enforcement tasks, in some instances veering
toward counter-terrorism. In this context, the dissonance between what
these missions are capable of providing, measured against the complex
realities on the ground, is growing painfully clear. To understand the shift
toward more robust mandates for UN peacekeeping operations, we have
to look at four other important trends.
First, the financial crisis in 2008–2009 was expected to precipitate a
drop in UN peacekeeping operations, as cash-strapped governments
wanted to cut costs—particularly those bearing the main burden of the
UN peacekeeping budget, like the USA. However, the earthquake in
Haiti, the new mission in South Sudan, and two missions deployed succes-
sively to Mali and the Central African Republic (CAR) instead resulted in
an increase in the number of troops deployed. At the same time, calls for
the UN to do more with less have been persistent and actually successful.
Since 2010, there has been a general increase in the cost effectiveness of
UN peace operations, with the HIPPO Report noting a 17 % cost reduc-
tion in the period from 2010 to 2015 (UN 2015).1
Third, fatalities caused by terrorism have increased rapidly—from
3329 in 2000 to a spike of 32,685 in 2014 (IEP 2015: 2). Much of the
recent increase is due to the Islamic State (IS) and Boko Haram (ibid.). In
this period, the UN has moved from being seen as an impartial actor to
more often being the target of terrorist attacks—from Baghdad, to Algiers,
Kabul, Mazar-i-Sharif, Abuja, Mogadishu, and Mali.
Concurrent with the enduring pressure of economic austerity, the
increased numbers of UN peacekeepers in the field, and the growing threat
of terrorism comes a fourth and equally important trend. Since the 9/11
attacks, counter-terrorism has been high on the international agenda, but
in recent years, the rhetoric has moved from the “Global War on Terror,”
to less ominous-sounding concepts of “countering violent extremism”
4 INTRODUCTION

(CVE) and “preventing violent extremism” (PVE). However, while

“violent extremism” may be a more inclusive term than “terrorism,” it is
also a notoriously slippery term, and the UN has not agreed on an official
definition of either “terrorism” or “violent extremism” (see Glazzard and
Zeuthen 2016). Emergent research on violent extremism underscores that
there is a wider range of tools than just military means available for tack-
ling the root causes of these challenges. However, the re-­conceptualization
has also made it more palatable to see the UN as a possible actor and UN
peace operations a possible tool to deal with these challenges, increasing
the geographic and thematic scope of UN peace operations.
The release of the HIPPO Report was followed by a plan of action
announced by the Secretary-General (SG) in September 2015. The
momentum was sustained by a May 2016 debate arranged by the President
of the General Assembly on the synergies of these reports and how to
implement their recommendations; and then a follow-up summit in
September 2016 on peacekeeping arranged by the UK in London, conven-
ing the largest number of Ministers of Defense ever to discuss UN peace-
keeping. When the previous high-level review of UN peacekeeping (“the
Brahimi Report”) was released in 2000 (UN 2000), 16 working groups
worked for more than two years on implementing some of the more broadly
accepted recommendations. That Report has continued to generate debate
and serve as a reference ever since. Judging from this fact, and the fact that
António Guterres, the new SG who took the helm at the UN in 2017, initi-
ated his term with a number of organizational changes, continuous discus-
sions about the form and function of UN peace operations, and efforts to
put all the recommendations into action, are likely to continue for years to
come. In this book, I identify and discuss the interests of the permanent five
members of the UNSC and key stakeholder groups, like the major troop
contributing countries (TCCs), and Western and African states.
Part of the reason why we have ended up in this conundrum, in my
view, is that the UN has evolved from being primarily an arena where
member states meet and discuss issues, to become an increasingly impor-
tant actor in international relations in its own right. In the area of peace
and security, there was not a single reference to “peacekeeping” in the UN
Charter. The tool has been developed from deploying observer missions
in its first four decades of existence (with the notable exception of the UN
mission to Congo), to a rapid increase and decrease with the deployments
to and failures in former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, and Somalia in the early and
mid-1990s, and another boom with a concurrent conceptual development
 OUTLINE OF THE BOOK 5

during the 2000s until today. What emerges is a potential tension between
the role of the UN as an arena and its role as an actor. For cash-strapped
governments still under the pressure of economic austerity measures, it
might seem like a good idea to offload some conflicts on the lower end of
the conflict intensity and/or interest spectrums to the UN.
Related to this, one of the many improvements in UN peace operations
since the Cold War has been the development of multidimensional peace-
keeping operations, to support peace- and statebuilding efforts while the
military and the police are working to help establish a modicum of secu-
rity. But this multidimensionality in peacekeeping has developed in tan-
dem with the gradual weakening of another central principle—that the
deployment of troops, police, and civilians must take place within the
framework of a longer-term political strategy, rather than replacing it.
Similarly, UN peace operations have developed in terms of the capabili-
ties and equipment they possess, although considerable gaps remain. The
calls for updating UN peace operations to the twenty-first century with
modern capabilities and equipment are well-founded—but, as discussed
in this book, it might be that these calls sometimes want to equip UN
peace operations with the right tools, but for the wrong reasons.
Technological advances in data collection should serve to provide better
protection for civilians, and the implementation of these reforms should
not fuel allegations of intelligence-gathering that could be used by actors
with vested interests.
With this book I issue a challenge to UN member states and peace
operations practitioners to make sure that the calls for reform are anchored
in the desire to improve the lives of people suffering in conflicts on the
ground—not spurred by intra-organizational turf battles or solely the nar-
row self-interests of member states. How can the UN adapt its practices to
become more field- and people-centered, in line with its core, primary
commitments of protecting and serving local people? What is needed is a
move from mandating missions to “extend state authority” to “enhance
state–society relations,” making UN peace operations a tool to support
more inclusive, participatory, and stable states.

Outline of the Book

I begin by assessing the role and purpose of UN peace operations in the
context of rapidly evolving and increasingly complex conflict dynamics.
After mapping out some persistent institutional dilemmas facing the UN,
6 INTRODUCTION

I examine one of the most politically charged trends: the gradual slide
toward more robust mandates and peace enforcement. Chapter 1 high-
lights the necessity of crafting tailored responses and maintaining rele-
vance, always aware of the limits of what the UN can and cannot be
expected to do when faced with the widening gap between expectations,
principles, and capabilities.
Chapter 2 examines the evolving politics of UN peace operations and
presents the interests and motivations of key actors who seek to influence
the future of UN peace operations, including the permanent members of
the Security Council, Western countries, major TCCs, and emerging
economies. It highlights the growing consensus among Western countries
to adapt UN peace operations to become a central tool for countering
violent extremism and terrorism, while also illustrating the position of
countries opposed to this move, including Russia and major traditional
peacekeeping TCCs. Here I also note the emerging consensus among
many African and Western member states on moving UN peace opera-
tions in a more robust direction. The division of responsibilities between
member states, regional actors, and the UN must take into consideration
the respective capabilities of these actors, and, in the case of the UN, the
role that the organization is playing in not only keeping the peace, but
also making, mediating, and facilitating peace, humanitarian action, and
development.
Chapter 3 explores the opportunities and potential challenges pre-
sented by technology and new capabilities available to UN peace opera-
tions. On the one hand, the use of intelligence cells, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs,) satellite imagery, and geo-tag software can massively
improve the UN’s situational awareness to protect and serve local popula-
tions and the mission itself. On the other, these tools may also be exploited
to serve national interests and can infringe upon the right to personal
privacy. The All Sources Information Fusion Unit (ASIFU) in MINUSMA,
the first explicit intelligence cell in a UN mission, illustrates the promises
and pitfalls of these current reforms. If the UN is to add these types of
tools to its regular toolkit, both internal and external explanations for how
these capabilities will benefit mission objectives and the people they are
deployed will need to be articulated, coupled with clear guidelines for
their operational use, and protocols and tools for protecting the informa-
tion and analysis developed.
Proceeding to one of the more contentious debates on reform,
Chapter 4 analyzes the ongoing doctrinal discussions on stabilization and
Another random document with
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[9] A piece of timber projecting from the bows, by which the
anchor is hoisted up for security.
 DADDY DAVY, THE NEGRO.
“A negro has a soul, an please your honour, said the
corporal, (doubtingly.)
I am not much versed, corporal, said my Uncle Toby, in
things of that kind; but I suppose God would not leave him
without one, any more than thee or me.”
Sterne.

“I have now no written memorandums of the storms, the battles,

the scenes which I have witnessed; no description of the beautiful
shores of the Mediterranean, the ice-bound rocks of Greenland, the
burning regions of the torrid zone, or the mild and salubrious climate
of the Rio de la Plata. In my youth I trusted to a retentive memory,
little thinking that time and the cares of the world would obliterate the
recollection of past events.”
Such was the apostrophe of my worthy grandfather, a veteran
captain in his Majesty’s navy, one winter evening, when a little
orphan in my seventh year I climbed upon his knee (which he always
called one of his timbers) and begged very hard that he would tell
me some pretty story. The candles were not yet lighted in the
parlour; but the glowing fire sent forth its red blaze, and its cheering
heat seemed ten times more grateful from a heavy fall of snow,
which was rapidly collecting in piles of fleecy whiteness on the lawn.
My grandfather was a man of a kindly and compassionate heart;
and though I used to play him many a sly trick and sometimes grieve
his spirit, yet he was always lenient to my failings; and now that he
lies in yonder village churchyard, this often causes me a pang of
unfeigned contrition for the past. It was my chief delight to hear him
tell of the roaring of the guns when ships met in deadly strife, or the
howling of the winds when the bitter tempest and the raging sea
threatened destruction to the mariner; and he would so mingle his
stories with the generous sympathies of his nature, that many a night
has sleep dried the tears from my eyes as I lay on my pillow after
retiring to bed.
 I had taken my favourite seat on the evening I have mentioned,
just as a poor negro with scarcely any covering appeared at the
window and supplicated charity. His dark skin was deeply contrasted
with the unblemished purity of the falling snow, whilst his trembling
limbs seemed hardly able to support his shivering frame; and there
he stood, the child of an injured race, perishing in the land of
boasted hospitality and freedom!
With all the active benevolence which my grandfather possessed,
he still retained the usual characteristics of the hardy seaman. He
discouraged every thing that bore the smallest resemblance to
indolence. The idle vagrant dared not approach his residence; but he
prized the man of industrious habits, however lowly his station, and
his influence was ever extended to aid the destitute and to right the
injured. On his first going to sea, he had been cabin boy on board a
Liverpool ship, which was engaged in that horrible traffic—the Slave-
trade; and towards the poor anathematized descendants of Ham he
had already imbibed erroneous prejudices, which after-years could
not wholly eradicate though they were chiefly manifested in the
unmeaning jokes so common among British sailors. He had also
held an official appointment for several years in the island of
Trinidad, where the negroes were more rigorously treated than in
any other part of the West Indies, and where their debased condition
rendered them more depraved in their habits and more treacherous
in their actions. In England, however, the very colour of the skin is a
passport to commiseration, and my grandfather no sooner saw the
dark countenance of the perishing creature than he hastily rang the
bell, and a footman entering, “Robert,” said he, “go and bring yon
pale-face here directly.”
“Pale face, did you say, sir?” inquired the man.
“Yes, yes,” replied my grandfather, “yon black fellow; fetch him
hither to me.”
The servant quitted the room, and it was not without some
feelings of fear, as well as hopes of amusement, that a few minutes
afterwards I saw the poor African stand bowing at the parlour door.
The twilight had faded away, and except the reflection from the
snow, night had thrown its sable shadows on the scene; but as the
bright gleam of the fire shed its red hue upon the jetty features of the
negro and flashed upon his rolling eyes, he presented rather a terrific
appearance to my young mind.
“Come in!” exclaimed my grandfather in a shrill voice; but the
poor fellow stood hesitatingly on the borders of the carpet till the
command was repeated with more sternness than before, and then
the trembling African advanced a few steps towards the easy chair in
which the veteran was sitting. Never shall I forget the abject figure
which the poor black displayed. He was a tall large-boned man, but
was evidently bent down under the pressure of sickness and of want
rather than age. A pair of old canvass trousers hung loosely on his
legs, but his feet were quite naked. On the upper part of his body
was a striped flannel shirt, one of the sleeves of which was torn
away; he had no covering for his head, and the snow which had
fallen on it having melted in the warmth of the room, large
transparent drops of clear water hung glistening on his thick woolly
hair. His look was inclined downwards, as if fearful of meeting the
stern gaze of my grandfather, who scanned him with the most minute
attention not unmingled with agitation. Every joint of the poor fellow’s
limbs shook as if struck with ague, and the cold seemed to have
contracted his sinews; for he crouched his body together, as if to
shrink from the keen blast. Tears were trickling down his cheeks, and
his spirit seemed bowed to the earth by distress.
“Don’t stand showing your ivories[10] there,” said my grandfather;
“but tell me, sir, what brought you to England, and what you mean by
strolling about the country here as a beggar? I have a great mind to
order you to be put in the stocks.”
“Ah, massa!” replied the negro, “Buckra[11] neber hab stocks for
nigger-man in dis country; yet nigger-man die, if massa neber give
him something for fill hungry belly.”
Whilst he was speaking, my grandfather was restless and
impatient. He removed me from his knee and looked with more
intense eagerness at the black, who never raised his head. “But we
have beggars enough of our own nation,” said the veteran, “without
having a swarm of black beetles to eat up the produce of our
industry.”
“Massa speak for true,” replied the African meekly; “distress lib
every where; come like race-horse, but go away softly, softly.”
 Again my grandfather scanned the dark features of the negro,
and showed signs of agitation in his own. “Softly! Softly!” said he,
imitating the black; “that’s just your negro cant! I know the whole
gang of you; but you are not going to deceive me. Why, sirrah! I
know you would sacrifice me and all I am worth for a bunch of
plantains.”[12]
“Massa hab eat de plantains den,” responded the black; “and yet
massa tink hard of poor nigger who work for make ’em grow. Gor
Amighty send rain,—Gor Amighty send sun: but Gor Amighty send
poor nigger too.”
“Well, well,” said my grandfather, softening his voice to its
accustomed tone of mildness; “the Omnipotent is no respecter of
colours, and we must not let you be put in the stocks till the morning,
daddy;[13] so Robert, tell the cook to get some warm broth for this
shivering piece of ebony; and bid her bear a hand about it.”
“Gor Amighty for eber bless massa!” exclaimed the negro; and
his countenance underwent an instantaneous change, as he listened
to the order, and keenly directed his eye towards the person who
had issued it; but my grandfather had turned his head towards me,
so that his face was concealed from the grateful black.
“So, I suppose you are some runaway slave,” said my
grandfather harshly.
“No, massa,” rejoined the African, more assured; “no massa, me
neber run away; I free man. Good buckra gib freedom; but den I lose
kind massa, and—”
“Ay, ay,” replied my grandfather, interrupting him. “I think you said
something about Plantation Josef, in Trinidad?”
“Ky!” responded the negro as his eyes were bent upon his
interrogator, who again concealed his face; “de buckra sabby
[knows] ebery ting; him like angel of light for know de secret of de
heart.”
“Come nearer the fire, Daddy Davy,” said my grandfather, as he
extended his hand to the poker and bent down his body to stir the
burning coals.
Never shall I forget the look of the African; joy, wonder, and
admiration were pictured on his countenance as he exclaimed, whilst
advancing forward, “De buckra know my name too! How dis?”
 My grandfather having rekindled a bright flame that illuminated
the whole room, turned his face carelessly towards the black; but no
sooner had the poor fellow caught sight of his features, than
throwing himself at his feet, he clasped the old man’s knees,
exclaiming, “My own massa! what for you give Davy him life? what
for you give Davy him freedom? and now de poor nigger die for
want! But no!” checking himself, “neber see de day for go dead, now
me find my massa!”
“Confound the cold!” said my grandfather, thrusting his thumb
and forefinger to his eyes, “how it makes one’s eyes run! William, my
boy,” turning to me, “fetch that pocket handkerchief off the sofa.”
I immediately obeyed, and felt as if the cold had affected me too;
for I employed my grandfather’s handkerchief two or three times to
wipe the trickling drops from my face, before I delivered it into his
hands. At this moment the footman opened the door to say that the
broth was ready, but stood transfixed with amazement at seeing the
half-naked black at his master’s feet.
“Go, Davy,” said my grandfather, “go, and get some food; and
Robert, tell the cook to have a warm bath ready, and the housemaid
must run a pan of coals over the little bed in the blue room, and put
some extra blankets on. You can sleep without a night-cap, I dare
say, Davy; and, Robert, tell the butler to give you a bottle of Madeira;
simmer half of it over the fire, and when heated beat up an egg in it,
—it will be better than cold sangaree, Davy; and d’ye hear, Robert,
grate a little nutmeg on the top, and carry it to the pale face as soon
as he gets into bed. There, go along, Davy, go along!” and the
gratified negro left the room with unfeigned ejaculations of “Gor
Amighty for eber bless kind massa!”
As soon as the door was closed, and I was once more seated on
my grandfather’s knee, he commenced his usual practice of holding
converse with himself. “What can have brought him here?” said he; “I
gave him his freedom and a piece of land to cultivate. There was a
pretty hut upon it, too, with a double row of cocoa-nut trees in front,
and a garden of plantains behind, and a nice plot of guinea grass for
a cow, and another of buckwheat:—what has become of it all, I
wonder? Bless me, how time flies! It seems but the other day that I
saved the fellow from a couple of bullets, and he repaid the debt by
rescuing my Betsy—ah, poor dear! She was your mother, William,
and he snatched her from a dreadful and terrific fate. How these
things crowd upon my mind! The earthquake shook every building to
its foundation, the ground yawned in horrible deformity, and your
poor mother—we can see her grave-stone from the drawing-room
window, you know, for she died since we have been here, and left
her old father’s heart a dreary blank. Yet not so, either, my child,”
pressing me to his breast and laying his hoary head on mine, “not
so, either; for she bequeathed you to my guardian care, and you are
now the solace of my gray hairs.”
“But the earthquake, grandpapa,” said I, “the earthquake.”
“And your poor father,” continued he, absorbed in his subject, “as
brave a lad as ever broke a king’s biscuit, to become a prey to the
sharks, with the ocean for his grave!—but there, don’t cry, my boy,
don’t cry; you shall never be wrecked upon a lee shore whilst I can
keep you afloat; and when this old hull is stowed away in the ground
tier, I shall leave you to the protection of Him, who gives the fleecy
coat to the tender lamb and feeds the young ravens when they cry.
But it puzzles me a little to think how this black rogue got to England,
and what he can have come for. He was a faithful servant, that Davy,
and I picked him up in a strange way too,—a very strange way,—for
in another half hour he would have been food for the fishes. It was in
ninety-eight I commanded the Zephyr sloop of war. We were cruising
off the river Plate, when a schooner hove in sight and showed
American colours; so I bore up to speak to her, and just as we got
within hail we heard the report of firearms, and saw a negro fall from
the schooner’s side into the water. At first I thought it was some poor
wretch relieved from his earthly misery whom they were burying. As
he sank in the ocean, the billow closed over his dark form, but the
next instant he rose struggling on the surface of the wave, and the
white foam around him assumed a red and gory tinge. Again he
sank, and again the sea rolled smoothly on; but that poor murdered
wretch arose no more. We were now close to the schooner, and I
commanded her crew to heave-to for a boat, which after some
hesitation they obeyed. Curiosity, and perhaps a little compassion,
induced me to visit the schooner; but oh, what a scene of horror
presented itself! I have witnessed in my youth enough to make my
heart callous, if any thing could, but this exceeded all I had ever
seen. The schooner had a cargo of slaves from the coast of Africa;
but not men,—not women—no, no; there were ninety-seven little
children, from four to twelve years of age, in the most horrid and
emaciated condition. The space in which they were kept was so
confined that they could scarcely sit upright; and having nothing but
rough planks to lie on, the rolling of the vessel had chafed their joints
into wounds; they looked as if perishing with hunger. You shudder,
boy, and well you may. The helpless creatures were ranged upon the
deck, and close by the gangway lay four young men, wounded and
in fetters, but who did not seem otherwise much the worse for the
voyage. Another was placed astride the gunwale, with his arms
pinioned behind him. Seated on the companion abaft, appeared a
stout tall man in a white shirt deeply stained with blood; his head was
bandaged with new cotton, through which the blood was still oozing;
his left arm was bound up, and he seemed to have suffered in some
desperate conflict. This was the captain; and the crew, more or less
hurt, showing visible marks of a recent fight, stood near, and every
one displayed strong indications of intemperance. On the hencoop,
by the captain’s side, lay a long-barrelled pistol; the fellow to it was
grasped in his right hand, and with the rolling eye of intoxication he
first glanced at the instrument of death, and then at the poor wretch
who sat with an unmoved countenance on the gunwale. ‘You are just
come in time, sir,’ said the captain, ‘to witness an act of justice; for I
guess, though you have got the British bunting[14] at the peak, you
come from the land of the stripes and stars.[15] But you shall see, sir,
how cleverly I’ll put a brace of balls through that mutinous rascal.’ He
raised the pistol to a level with his eye; his fore-finger was on the
trigger, when I hastily struck it up with my hand, and the bullets
whistled over the negro’s head without doing him any injury. But he
had experienced only cruelty from white men; he had expected
death, and could not suppose that one of the fair-skinned race would
rescue him from the fate of his companion. As soon as he heard the
report of the pistol, he fell forward on his face; but my boat’s crew
ran, and saved him from going overboard. ‘What is the meaning of
all this?’ said I, ‘thou disgrace to manhood. I am a British officer, and
to me you shall be accountable for your demoniac conduct. What
has that poor creature done? and these too on the deck? Release
them my men,’ and my boat’s crew had soon broken off their fetters.
“The negro, whom I had saved from the murderous intention of
the captain, could not exactly comprehend the scene; but when he
found that he was safe and knew me for his deliverer, he clung round
my knees—ay, just as the fellow did to-night, for it was no other than
Davy himself. But I can’t think what brings him here to England away
from the pretty hut, and the cocoa-nut trees, and the guinea grass.”
“But what became of the little black children, grandpapa?”
inquired I, “and the other four men, and the wicked captain? and
where did you take Davy to? and—”
“Stop, stop, child!” said my grandfather; “don’t overhaul your
questions so fast, and I’ll tell you, for the sight of the dog is a
memorandum one cannot meet with every day. The captain had
freighted his schooner at Loando, in the Congo country, with one
hundred and thirty male and female children, and six fine young
men. Thirty-three of the children had died on the passage, and been
thrown overboard. The crew of the schooner fearing nothing from the
poor emaciated innocents and trusting to the half-starved weakness
of the young men, indulged in drinking to excess. But to the surprise
of the captain, these latter began to recover their sleek and healthy
appearance, and he was calculating upon getting a handsome price
for them in the market; when the very night before I fell in with the
schooner, the young men rose upon the crew, they attacked the
captain in his bed, and inflicted several severe wounds on his body
and head. But what could these poor creatures do against a superior
force, who were well acquainted with the use of arms? The negroes
were overpowered and put in irons; and the wretched man, whom
we had seen shot before getting along-side, was the ringleader. But
now, mark me, my boy; on inquiry, I discovered that the plan had
been a long time in agitation, and these injured and devoted children
had daily set apart a portion of their own very scanty food, to
strengthen the men for the enterprise. Most of them knew of the
attempt, yet none betrayed the secret. I bought Davy of the captain,
and went up the Plate as far as I could, (for the schooner was bound
to Monte Video,) and then was compelled to quit her, for she was
under the flag of a neutral power: besides our own country was then
engaged in the same traffic.”
“And what became of the children, grandpapa?”
“All sold into slavery, my dear.”
“And Davy, grandpapa?”
“I took him with me: but what he has done with the hut and the
plantain ground, I can’t tell.”
“And the earthquake; grandpapa?” for I had not forgotten that.
“You want to know every thing, boy, and you forget that my
memory fails me; however, I’ll try and recollect that too for some
other night; but you must go to bed now, and to-morrow Davy will tell
you all about it.”
I afterwards learned that Davy had rescued my poor dear mother
from destruction at the risk of his own life during an earthquake in
Trinidad, for which my grandfather had given him his freedom,
together with the hut and land. But the free black had no protection
in the west: the slaves plundered his property; sickness came, and
no medical attendant would minister to his wants without his
accustomed fee; he contracted debts, and his ground was sold to the
estate on which it was situated to pay the lawyers. He quitted the
island of Trinidad to go to Berbice; but being wrecked near Mahaica
Creek, on the east coast of Demerara, he lost his free papers, was
seized by the government, and sold as a slave to pay the expenses
of advertising and his keep. He fortunately fell into the hands of a
kind master, who at his death once more set him at liberty, and he
had come to England in the hope of bettering his condition. But here
misfortune still pursued him; the gentleman whom he accompanied
died on the passage; he could obtain no employment on his landing;
he had been plundered of what little money he possessed, and had
since wandered about the country, till the evening that he implored
charity and found a home.
My worthy grandfather is now numbered with the dead; and I love
to sit upon his grave-stone at the evening hour: it seems as if I were
once more placed upon his knee and listening to his tales of by-gone
years. But Daddy Davy is still in existence and living with me; indeed
whilst I have been writing I have had occasion to put several
questions to him on the subject, and he has been fidgetting about
the room to try and ascertain what I was relating respecting him. “I
am only giving a sketch of my grandfather, Davy,” said I.
“Catch, massa! what he call catch?”
“About the schooner, and Trinidad, and the earthquake, Davy.”
“And da old massa what sleep in da Werk-en-rust?”[16]
“Yes, Davy, and the snow-storm.”
“Ah, da buckra good man! Davy see him noder time up dere,”
pointing towards the sky; “Gor Amighty for eber bless kind massa!”

Footnotes
[10] Ivories is a common term among the negroes for teeth.
[11] White man.
[12] The plantain is a fruit which when ripe is very sweet; but
roasted when green, it resembles a chesnut in taste. It is a
general article of food instead of bread in the West Indies.
[13] Daddy is a familiar term of kindness used by the male
negroes to each other, as “Aunty” is used by the females; and it is
nothing uncommon to hear children, as soon as they can talk,
calling one another, “daddy” and “aunty.”
[14] Bunting is the stuff of which flags are made.
[15] The captain thought the vessel was in the service of the
United States, their colours being striped red and white, except
the upper quarter next the staff, which is blue, and bears as many
stars as there are states in the Union.
[16] Werk-en-rust, literally work-and-rest, is the name given to the
burying-ground at Demerara; but here it is meant to apply
generally to all places of sepulture.

END OF VOL. I.
 Transcriber’s Note
Punctuation and other obvious typographic inaccuracies were silently
corrected.
Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
Footnotes moved to the end of their respective chapters.

Correction

Footnote 4 (originally on p. 149), “dismissed the navy” to “dismissed by the

navy”
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