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Anup Saikia
Pankaj Thapa Editors

Environmental
Change in the
Himalayan Region
Twelve Case Studies
Environmental Change in the Himalayan Region
Anup Saikia Pankaj Thapa
•

Editors

Environmental Change
in the Himalayan Region
Twelve Case Studies

123
Editors
Anup Saikia Pankaj Thapa
Department of Geography Department of Geography & Planning
Gauhati University Sherubtse College, Royal University of
Guwahati, India Bhutan
Kanglung, Bhutan

ISBN 978-3-030-03361-3 ISBN 978-3-030-03362-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03362-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966394

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Contents

Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge of Langtang

and Modi Rivers, Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rijan Bhakta Kayastha and Ahuti Shrestha
Status of Climate Change and Implications to Ecology
and Community Livelihoods in the Bhutan Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Andreas Hoy and Om Katel
The Assessment of Deforestation, Forest Degradation,
and Carbon Release in Myanmar 2000–2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Chuyuan Wang, Soe W. Myint and Maya Hutchins
Climate and Remotely Sensed Markers of Glacier Changes
in the Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Lydia Sam, Rajesh Kumar and Anshuman Bhardwaj
Shrinking Glaciers of the Himachal Himalaya: A Critical Review . . . . . 89
Pritam Chand, Milap Chand Sharma, Ujjal Deka Baruah, Sanjay Deswal,
Syed Umer Latief, Rakesh Saini, Parvendra Kumar, Satya Prakash
and Pawan Kumar
Analysing Geospatial Techniques for Land Degradation Studies
in Hindu Kush-Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Anshuman Bhardwaj, Rajesh Kumar and Lydia Sam
Urbanization Induced Land Use-Land Cover Changes in the Manipur
Valley and Surrounding Hills: A Landscape Metrics Approach . . . . . . . 137
Kiran Sharma
The Heat is on in the Himalayas: Assessing Srinagar’s Urban Heat
Island Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Chandra Kant Pawe

v
vi Contents

Swelter in the City: Population Distribution, Land Use Change

and the Urban Heat Island Effect in Shillong, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Rashima Kachari
A Socio-Economic Analysis of Livelihood Strategies in Agriculture
Dependent Communities of Mizoram, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
Dairy Farming in the Eastern Himalayan Foothills: Perspectives
from the Lower Dibang Valley, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Puspa Komor
Snow Cover Changes Observed Over Sikkim Himalaya . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Smriti Basnett and Anil V. Kulkarni
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution
in the Daily Discharge of Langtang
and Modi Rivers, Nepal

Rijan Bhakta Kayastha and Ahuti Shrestha

1 Introduction

The Himalayan region acts as an active reservoir contributing significantly to the

hydrology of the perennial rivers of South Asia including Nepal, supporting the
livelihood of the people living in these areas. It stores more snow and ice than
anywhere else in the world outside the poles and encompasses the Hindu Kush
mountains and the Tibetan Plateau (Bajracharya et al. 2014). Thus it is considered
as the ‘water towers of Asia’. The hydrologic processes of these areas are dominated
by the snow and glacial melts which are predominantly influenced by the change in
patterns of precipitation and surface temperature.
The ability of glacio-hydrologic models to incorporate projected variations in
climatic variables, snowfall and snowmelt algorithms, ground water fluctuations and
soil moisture characteristics makes them especially attractive for water resources
studies towards climatic changes (Singh and Kumar 1997). Moreover, such models
can be combined with plausible hypothetical climate change scenarios to generate
information on water resource implications of future climatic changes. Therefore,
many studies have been carried out in the HKH region recently using different glacio-
hydrological models (Kayastha et al. 2005; Alford and Armstrong 2010; Immerzeel
et al. 2010; Pradhananga et al. 2014; Brown et al. 2014; Bocchiola et al. 2015). The
recent warming and increase in precipitation variability are likely to contribute to the
increased variability of river discharge resulting in the initial increase in discharge as
glaciers melt and then decrease as de-glaciation progresses (Jiménez Cisneros et al.
2014). Hence, it is important to assess the hydrological response to the changing
climate using appropriate hydrological modelling methodologies in order to estimate
the future water supply. The latter affects the population living downstream who rely

R. B. Kayastha (B) · A. Shrestha

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Himalayan
Cryosphere, Climate and Disaster Research Center (HiCCDRC), Kathmandu University,
Dhulikhel, P. O. Box 6250, Kathmandu, Nepal
e-mail: rijan@ku.edu.np
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
A. Saikia and P. Thapa (eds.), Environmental Change in the Himalayan Region,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03362-0_1
2 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

on water from glacier and snow melt particularly during the dry season. Several
empirical relations such as ablation gradient and snow melt estimation (Racoviteanu
et al. 2013), critical air temperature (Sharma et al. 2000), and degree day factor
(Immerzeel et al. 2010) have been formulated to estimate the snow and ice melt
contribution of the Himalayan glaciers.
In this study, a modified Positive Degree Day (PDD) model is used to estimate daily
discharge from the partly debris covered glacierized Langtang and Modi River basins
of Nepal. This model is based on the relation that the melting of snow or ice during any
particular period is proportional to the positive degree-day. The positive degree day
factor involves a simplification of complex processes that are more properly described
by the energy balance of the glacier surface and overlaying atmospheric boundary
layer (Braithwaite and Olesen 1989). This approach is appropriate in regions with
scarce data as it requires less input data and uses a simple equation to estimate melt
(Kayastha et al. 2000a; Hock 2003). Hence, in the present study, the PDD model, as
used by Kayastha et al. (2005) and Pradhananga et al. (2014) for the estimation of
monthly snow and ice melt from the glacierized basin has been modified to estimate
the daily snow and ice melt and daily discharge from these two basins and also project
future basin discharges with relative contribution of the runoff components.

2 Study Area

This study comprises of two glacerized river basins of Nepal. The Langtang River
basin is located in the Langtang valley of Rasuwa district of central Nepal. It is the
headwater area of the Trisuli River in the Narayani River system. The total area
of the Langtang River basin is 353.6 km2 with elevation ranging from 3,652 to
7,215 m a.s.l. based on the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Radiometer (ASTER) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) 2009. Out of the total area,
39% (137.5 km2 ) of the basin is covered by glaciers (debris covered and clean
ice) and the remaining 61% (216.1 km2 ) by rock and vegetation (Fig. 1) based
on ICIMOD Glacier Inventory (2010). Landsat Thematic Mapper 5 (TM5) images
from 23 January 2009 were used to delineate debris covered and clean glaciers
from the total glacier area. The mean annual temperature and precipitation recorded
at Langtang Meteorological Station (LaMS), Kyangjing, Rasuwa district located
within this basin at an elevation 3862 m a.s.l. for the period 1988–2013 were 3.4 °C
and 686.9 mm, respectively (Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, DHM;
Government of Nepal, GoN).
The Modi River basin is located in the Annapurna region and has a total area of
643.2 km2 with an elevation ranging from 757 to 8000 m a.s.l. based on ASTER
DEM (2011). 12% (77.5 km2 ) of the total area is covered by glaciers (debris covered
and clean ice) and the remaining 88% (565.6 km2 ) is rock and vegetation (Fig. 1),
based on Randolph Glacier Inventory 4.0 (2014). The annual mean temperature and
precipitation recorded at the Lumle Meteorological Station (LuMS), Lumle, Kaski
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 3

Fig. 1 Location map of Langtang and Modi River basins in Nepal

district at an elevation of 1740 m a.s.l. within this basin for the period 1991–2009
were 16.1 °C and 5613.9 mm, respectively (DHM, GoN).
Out of the total area, the Langtang River basin contains a relatively larger percent-
age of glacier cover than the Modi River basin (Fig. 2). In both basins, river discharge
is maximum in July and August (mid-monsoon) due to the monsoon precipitation
and the glacial melt during these months; whereas during the winter season, dis-
charge is characterized by a constant base flow with negligible inflows of rainwater
and meltwater.

3 Model Description and Setup

The PDD model is a simple model which estimates snow and ice melt from the debris
free areas as well as ice melt under debris layers with a minimum field data require-
ment (Kayastha et al. 2005). In this study the modified PDD model simulates daily
discharge from the study basins and estimates the snow and ice melt contribution.
The entire study basin is divided into 36 elevation zones in both river basins with
a zone width of 100 m for Langtang River basin and 200 m for Modi River basin.
Temperature and precipitation at each elevation zone of the Langtang River basin
4 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

(a)
7150
Debris covered glacier

6650 Clean glacier

Rock and vegetation
6150
Elevation (m a.s.l.)

5650

5150

4650

4150

3650
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Area (km2)
(b)
7900
Debris covered glacier
6900 Clean glacier
Rock and Vegetation
Elevation (m a.s.l.)

5900

4900

3900

2900

1900

900
0 10 20 30 40 50
Area (km2)

Fig. 2 Hypsograph of a Langtang River basin and b Modi River basin

was obtained by using the temperature lapse rate of 0.59 °C/100 m (Pradhananga
et al. 2014) and precipitation gradients (as given in Eqs. 1 and 2) were applied to the
temperature and precipitation from the LaMS.

Pz  PBH {1 + 0.0003(z − 4000)} 4000 m ≤ z ≤ 5000 m (Seko 1987) (1)

Pz  1.39Pz z > 5000m (Pradhananga et al.2014) (2)

Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 5

where, Pz and PBH are the precipitation at elevation z and base house (reference
zone).
Temperature at each elevation zone of the Modi River basin is distributed
using the temperature lapse rate of 0.67 °C/100 m applied to the temperature data
obtained from LuMS. This lapse rate is obtained from the temperature data of LuMS
at Lumle (1740 m a.s.l.) and Machhapuchhre Meteorological Station (MMS) near
Machhapuchhre Base Camp (3470 m a.s.l.). Similarly, precipitation gradients were
developed using the precipitation data of these stations in order to distribute precip-
itation at each elevation zone from the LuMS and MMS (Eqs. 3, 4 and 5).

Pz  PL 2000 m < z (3)

Pz  PL {1 − 0.003953(z − 1740)} 2000 m ≤ z ≤ 3300 m (4)

Pz  PM z < 3300 m (5)

where, Pz , PL and PM are the precipitation at elevation z, LuMS and MMS, respec-
tively. The relation between monthly air temperature and snowfall percentage
obtained on the Glacier AX010 (Kayastha et al. 2005) was used to separate snow and
rain from the total precipitation in both basins. In each zone, the daily snow and ice
melt from the glacierized and glacier free areas was calculated using the following
relations:

ks or b × T if T > 0
Msi  (6)
0 if T ≤ 0
 
kd
Md  × kb × T if T > 0
kb
 0 if T ≤ 0 (7)

where, Msi is the snow or ice melt (mm/d), Md is the ice melt under a debris layer
(mm/d), T is the air temperature (°C) and k is the positive degree day factor for
snow (s) or ice (b) (mm/d/°C). The degree day factors used in the current study were
obtained from the summer values obtained on Glacier AX010 in east Nepal and the
Yala Glacier in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal (Kayastha et al. 2000a, 2003). The
ice melt under debris is estimated by using a kb and a relation between degree-day
factor and debris properties, i.e., the ratio of degree-day factor for a given debris
thickness (kd ) to the factor for ice ablation (kb ) and the ratio of thermal resistance of
debris (R) to thermal resistance for critical
  debris thickness (Rc) (Fig. 6 in Kayastha
et al. 2000b). The calculated value kkdb of 0.54 is used in the present study. Since
 
the thickness of debris is thicker in the lower part of the glacier, kkdb value of 0.50
was used for the mean elevation zones up to 4350 m a.s.l. whereas 0.58 was used for
the elevation zones above this height giving a mean of 0.54 (Kayastha et al. 2005).
6 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

Table 1 List of parameters used in the modified PDD model

Parameter Description Value
k Degree day factor 6.0–10.5 mm d/°C (Snow)
6.5–9.5 mm d−1 °C−1 (Ice)
kd /kb Ratio of degree day factor for 0.5–0.58
debris covered ice to degree day
factor for bare ice
C Runoff coefficient with Cr 0.4–0.65
referring to rain and Cs to snow
and ice melt
Qb Base flow 1.1–2.2 m3 s−1 (Langtang)
6–10 m3 s−1 (Modi)

The snow and ice melt, precipitation contributing to runoff and the base from
each elevation zone is calculated as given in Eq. 8. The discharge from each zone is
summed up to derive the discharge from the entire basin (Q) as given in Eq. 9.

Qz  Qr ∗ Cr + Qs ∗ Cs + Qb (8)
z
= 36
Q= Qz (9)
z=1

where, Q z is the discharge (m3 s−1 ) from zone Z and Qr and Qs are the discharges
(m3 s−1 ) from direct precipitation and snow and ice melt, respectively; C is runoff
coefficient with Cr referring to rain and Cs to snow and ice melt as stated in Martinec
(1975) and Qb is the base flow (m3 s−1 ), which is derived by applying the base flow
separation method II as described in Subramanya (2010). The monthly base flow
obtained from this method for both basins are presented in Table 1.
The discharge Q is then routed to the basin outlet as per the recession Eq. 10 given
by Martinec (1975).

Qn = Q * (1 − k) + Qn−1 ∗ k (10)

where, Qn is the river discharge (m3 s−1 ) at the basin outlet on nth day and k is
the recession coefficient, which is obtained by solving Eq. 11 given by Martinec
and Rango (1986). The constants x and y computed from this equation are 0.99
and 0.012, respectively for Langtang River and 0.9 and 0.015, respectively for Modi
River. However, in the case of Modi River, the recession coefficient is adjusted for
heavy precipitation (≥175 mm per day) by using x and y values as 0.97 and 0.08
respectively, in order to catch an abrupt rise and subsequent decline of a hydrograph
due to any concentrated input within a short time span.

kn+1  x Q−y
n (11)
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 7

The model accuracy assessment was achieved using the Nash–Sutcliffe model
efficiency coefficient (Nash and Sutcliffe 1970), R2 and volume difference. The list
of parameters used in the present study are shown in Table 1.

4 Hydrometeorological Input Data

The observed temperature, precipitation and the stage height data required for model
calibration and validation in Langtang and Modi River basins were obtained from
the DHM, GoN. The significance test for the selected time series of desired variables
is derived using a non-parametric Mann–Kendall test (Mann 1945; Kendall 1975) at
0.05 significance level.
The observed annual temperature and precipitation data from 1988 to 2013 at the
Langtang Meteorological Station (LaMS) show increasing trends with 0.1 °C/year
in temperature and 8.8 mm/year in precipitation (Fig. 3a, b), which are statistically
significant using the Mann-Kendall Test.
The observed precipitation data from 1991 to 2006 at Machhapuchhre Mete-
orological Station (MMS) were not continuous and hence downscaled data using
Statistical Downscaling Method was used for model calibration and validation in
the Modi River basin (Adhikari and Devkota 2016). The analysis of observed annual
temperature and precipitation data of Lumle Meteorological Station (LuMS) at Modi
River basin from 1991 to 2009 shows an increasing trend with 0.1 °C/year for tem-
perature and a decreasing trend of −1.4 mm/year for precipitation (Fig. 4a, b), both
of which are statistically significant.
The study areas are dominated by monsoon precipitation with approximately 75%
(1988–2013) and 84% (1991–2009) of annual precipitation occurring during June to
September in the Langtang and Modi river basins, respectively.
The observed discharge (Qh ) was derived from measured stage height (h) by using
a rating curve developed for Langtang and Modi Rivers as shown in Eq. 12 and Eq. 13,
respectively. The Eq. 12 was obtained from Fig. 5 and the Eq. 13 was derived by the
DHM, GoN.

Q h  12.707(h − 0.709)0.6797 (12)

Q h  3.611(h + 0.32)2.8 (13)

The climate data necessary for future discharge projection are derived from Cubic
Conformal Atmospheric Model-Centre National de Recherches Meteorologiques
(CCAM-CNRM) experiment of CORDEX with resolution 50 km in two different
climate scenarios (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5). The Regional Climate Model (RCM) used
for downscaling is Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO)-CCAM and the driving GCM used is CNRM-CM5.
The RCP4.5 and 8.5 are the Representative Concentration Pathways of greenhouse
gas concentration trajectories after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the
8 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

(a)
9

y = 0.1x + 2.3
Temperature ( C)

0
1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012

(b)
2000
Precipitaton (mm)

1500
y = 8.8x + 568.5

1000

500

0
1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012

Fig. 3 Observed annual a temperature and b precipitation of LaMS, Kyangjing, Langtang

(1988–2013)

year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values +4.5 Wm−2 and +8.5 Wm−2 , respectively.
The RCM output was bias corrected by using the equations given by Sperna Weiland
et al. (2010) for temperature (Eq. 14) and precipitation (Eq. 15).

Tcorrected_MOD  TMOD + T OBS − T MOD (14)

P OBS
Pcorrected_MOD  PMOD (15)
P MOD

where, T is the daily temperature (°C), P is the daily precipitation (mm), T and P
are the N—year average monthly temperature and precipitation, respectively with
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 9

(a)
18

15
y = 0.1x + 15.4
Temperature (°C)

12

0
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

(b)
7000
y = -1.4x + 5628.1
6000
Precipitation (mm)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

Fig. 4 Observed annual a temperature and b precipitation of LuMS, Lumle (1991–2009)

N representing the number of observed years, OBS and MOD are the observed and
modelled datasets, respectively.
The projected annual temperature (2020–2099) of LaMS at RCP4.5 scenario
used in this study shows a statistically significant increasing temperature trend of
0.02 °C/year and statistically insignificant precipitation trend of 0.8 mm/year (Fig. 6a,
b). Similarly, in RCP8.5 scenario, projected temperature and precipitation show sta-
tistically significant increasing trends of 0.05 °C/year and 2.1 mm/year, respectively
(Fig. 6a, b).
10 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

Fig. 5 Rating curve of Langtang River (29 May 2008–19 June 2014)

(a)
10 y = 0.02x + 3.3 y = 0.05x + 2.9
T RCP4.5 T RCP8.5
8
Temperature (°C)

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098
(b)
2000 y = 0.8x + 678.4 y = 2.1x + 635.0
Precipitation (mm)

P RCP4.5 P RCP8.5
1500

1000

500

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

Fig. 6 Projected annual a temperature and b precipitation of LaMS (2020–2099)

Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 11

(a) T RCP4.5 T RCP8.5

24 y = 0.05x + 2.9 y = 0.06x + 15.8

20
Temperature (°C)

16

12

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

(b) P RCP4.5 P RCP8.5

9000
y = 2.1x + 635.0 y = 4.3x + 5827.6
7500
Precipitation (mm)

6000

4500

3000

1500

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

Fig. 7 Projected annual a temperature and b precipitation of LuMS (2020–2099) and c precipitation
of MMS (2020–2099)

The projected annual temperature of LuMS for the period 2020–2099 in RCP4.5
and RCP8.5 scenarios also show statistically significant increasing trend 0.05 °C/year
and 0.06 °C/year, respectively (Fig. 7a). The precipitation trends at the same station
show a statistically insignificant increasing trend 2.1 mm/year in RCP4.5 scenario
and 4.3 mm/year in RCP8.5 scenario (Fig. 7b).

5 Results and Discussion

5.1 Model Calibration and Validation

The modified PDD model is calibrated for the period of May 2011 to December
2012 and validated for the year 2013 for Langtang River basin, the results of which
are shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 respectively. Data from only this period is used
12 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

25
Observed Simulated

20
Discharge (m3 s-1)

15

10

0
Jan-11 Apr-11 Jul-11 Oct-11 Jan-12 Apr-12 Jul-12 Oct-12

Fig. 8 Comparison of observed and simulated discharges in calibration period (May 2011–De-
cember 2012) of Langtang River

25
Observed Simulated

20
Discharge (m3 s-1)

15

10

0
Jan-13 Mar-13 May-13 Jul-13 Sep-13 Nov-13

Fig. 9 Comparison of observed and simulated discharges in validation period (2013) of Langtang
River

in the present study for model calibration and validation due to the availability of
continuous daily hydrological data of Langtang River of that period. Similarly, the
model is calibrated for 1991–2000 and validated for 2001–2006 in Modi River basin,
the results of which are shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, respectively.
In order to capture the variation in stream flow, during calibration, the model is
run with changing seasonal degree day factors and the runoff coefficients for rain
and snowmelt lying within the range of these calibrated parameters obtained from
the previous studies (Table 1). The degree day factor for snow melt is higher than for
ice melt at higher altitude as described by Kayastha et al. (2000a).
During the calibration and validation periods, the rising and recession limbs are
fairly captured by the model in both basins, albeit with slight underestimation in the
annual discharge of Langtang River and slight overestimation in Modi River. The
annual mean discharges of Langtang River during calibration and validation periods
were 9.1 m3 s−1 and 8.5 m3 s−1 , respectively, whereas the corresponding values of
Modi River were 55.3 m3 s−1 and 46.3 m3 s−1 , respectively.
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 13

1000 Simulated
Observed
800
Discharge (m3 s-1)

600

400

200

0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Fig. 10 Comparison of observed and simulated discharges in calibration period (1991–2000) of

Modi River

1000 Simulated
Observed
800
Discharge (m3 s-1)

600

400

200

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Fig. 11 Comparison of observed and simulated discharges in validation period (2000–2006) of

Modi River

During the calibration and validation periods, the model has captured the peaks
and the seasonal hydrograph was also fairly reproduced. However, the monsoonal
peak was slightly overestimated in the Langtang River, whereas in the Modi River,
some sudden high monsoonal peaks were underestimated and some low flows were
overestimated. The discharge of the Modi River was dominated largely by rainfall
and this could be aggravated by sudden high intensity or extreme rainfall events.
This could be the reason for the model’s inability to capture sudden high peaks of
Modi River. A relatively high volume difference between the observed and simulated
discharge of Modi River was probably due to the over-estimation of the low flows.
The model performed fairly well to capture the seasonal hydrograph and the model
14 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

Table 2 Model efficiency

Basin Model efficiency Calibration Validation
results
Langtang NSE 0.93 0.94
R2 0.94 0.96
VD +5.7% −4.8%
Modi NSE 0.75 0.73
R2 0.78 0.80
VD −9.3% −8.9%

efficiency results of both basins show better results during the validation period
(Table 2).

5.2 Future Discharge Projection

The discharges of both basins were projected for the period 2020–2099 at the RCP4.5
and 8.5 scenarios. The glacier areas of both basins are decreased by 6.7% per decade
as per the result obtained by Bajracharya et al. (2014) based on 2000 and 2009 glacier
area datasets for Langtang.
The annual discharge projected for the Langtang River under RCP4.5 scenario
shows an overall increasing trend in river discharge of 0.002 m3 s−1 per year from
2020 to 2099, which is statistically insignificant and a maximum annual mean dis-
charge of 10.1 m3 s−1 in the year 2043 (Fig. 12). When we divide the whole projection
period into two, this trend exhibits increase in discharge from 2020 to 2050 and slight
decrease in discharge from 2050 to 2099. The study by Immerzeel et al. (2012) also
shows a gradual increase in the discharge of Langtang River by 2050. The increas-

15 y = 0.002x + 8.6 y = 0.03x + 8.1

RCP45 RCP85
Discharge (m3 s-1)

10

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

Fig. 12 Future discharge projection (2020–2099) of Langtang River

Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 15

RCP45 RCP85
100 y = 0.1x + 65.9 y = 0.05x + 67.8

80
Discharge (m3 s-1)

60

40

20

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

Fig. 13 Future discharge projection (2020–2099) of Modi River

ing trend of discharge seen in this study can be attributed to the increasing trend
of projected temperature and the resulting increase in the glacier melt. Under the
RCP8.5 scenario, the discharge trend increases by 0.03 m3 s−1 and the maximum
annual discharge of 11.1 m3 s−1 would be in the year 2080 (Fig. 12). This trend
is statistically significant. Most of the peak discharges occurred in July as the peak
glacier melt coincides with the monsoon peak.
The discharge projections of the Modi River shows statistically increasing trend
0.1 m3 s−1 in RCP4.5 and statistically insignificant trend 0.05 m3 s−1 in RCP8.5
scenarios. The maximum annual discharge under these scenarios is estimated to be
90.4 and 87.3 m3 s−1 in 2072 and 2029 under RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios, respectively
(Fig. 13).

5.3 Snow and Ice Melt Contributions

The modified PDD model used in the present study also estimated the contribution
of snow and glacier melt and the non-glacier area. The monthly distribution of river
flow with the partitioning of runoff components of both rivers show that the river
discharge as well as the contribution of snow and ice melt to total discharge was
higher during the monsoon months (June–September) as the melt season coincides
with the monsoon season (Figs. 14 and 16). The contribution of snow and ice melt
in the Langtang River basin was higher than in the Modi River basin as the glacier
area coverage was relatively higher in the former.
The average contribution of snow and ice melt to the total discharge of Langtang
River during the model calibration and validation period was 38.7% (Fig. 14) with a
maximum in the year 2013, which was 41.3%.
16 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

20 Snow and ice melt

Rain and baseflow

16
Discharge (m3 s-1)
12

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 14 Monthly partitioning of runoff components of Langtang River (May 2011–December 2013)

Over the period 2020–2099 in RCP4.5, a decrease in snow and ice melt (0.01 m3
s per year) and increase in rain and base flow (0.004 m3 s−1 per year) contribution
−1

to the annual discharge is observed (Fig. 15). The decreasing trend in snow and ice
melt contribution to the total discharge from 2020 to 2099 (Fig. 15a) can be attributed
to the decrease in snowfall as a result of warmer future climatic conditions and also
due to the gradual decrease in glacier area, which is also reported by Immerzeel et al.
(2012) and Pradhananga et al. (2014).
In RCP8.5 scenario, an increase in snow and ice melt (0.02 m3 s−1 ), and rainfall and
base flow (0.01 m3 s−1 ) contribution to the annual discharge is apparent (Fig. 15b).
The average contribution of snow and ice melt in the discharge of Langtang River in
both scenarios for the years 2020, 2050 and 2099 are shown in Table 3.
During calibration and validation period of the Modi River, the average contri-
bution of snow and ice melt to the total discharge was 2.6% and 1.8%, respectively
(Fig. 16). The discharge projection of Modi River in RCP4.5 scenario over the period
2020–2099 shows a slight decrease in snow and ice melt contribution (0.01 m3 s−1
per year) and increase in rainfall and base flow contribution (0.1 m3 s−1 per year,
Fig. 17a). Such a decrease in snow and ice contribution might be due to the result
of a warmer future climate. This marginal increase in snow and ice melt contribu-
tion may be attributed to the nominal increase in projected temperature under this
scenario. Likewise, RCP8.5 scenario shows decreasing trend of snow and ice melt
contribution in the total discharge by 0.001 m3 s−1 whereas rainfall and base flow
contribution exhibits increasing trend by 0.05 m3 s−1 (Fig. 17b).
The average contribution of snow and ice melt in the discharge of the Modi River
in both scenarios for the years 2020, 2050 and 2099 are shown in Table 3.
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 17

(a)
10
Snow and ice melt Rain and baseflow
Discharge (m3 s-1)

8
y = -0.002x + 3.9 y = 0.004x + 4.7
6

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

(b)
10
Snow and ice melt Rain and baseflow
Discharge (m3 s-1)

8
y = 0.02x + 3.5 y = 0.01x + 4.6
6

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

Fig. 15 Contribution of snow—ice melt and rain—base flow in Langtang River (2020–2099) under
a RCP4.5 and b RCP8.5 scenarios

Table 3 Partitioning of discharge of Langtang and Modi Rivers in the years 2020, 2050 and 2099
under RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios
Basin Scenario Year Snow and ice melt (%) Rain and base flow (%)
Langtang RCP4.5 2020 41.8 58.2
2050 43.2 56.8
2099 45.5 54.5
RCP8.5 2020 41.9 58.1
205 45.0 55.0
2099 50.0 50.0
Modi RCP4.5 2020 6.3 93.7
2050 5.5 94.5
2099 6.9 93.1
RCP8.5 2020 4.7 95.3
2050 5.5 94.5
2099 7.5 92.5
18 R. B. Kayastha and A. Shrestha

200
Snow and ice melt
Rain and baseflow

150
Discharge (m3 s-1)

100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 16 Monthly partitioning of runoff components of Modi River (1991–2006)

(a) Snow and ice melt Rain and baseflow

100 y = -0.01x + 5.0
y = 0.1x + 60.9
80
Discharge (m3 s-1)

60

40

20

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

(b) Snow and ice melt Rain and baseflow

100 y = -0.001x + 4.3
y = 0.05x + 63.5
80
Discharge (m3 s-1)

60

40

20

0
2020 2026 2032 2038 2044 2050 2056 2062 2068 2074 2080 2086 2092 2098

Fig. 17 Contribution of snow—ice melt and rain—base flow in Modi River (2020–2099) under
a RCP4.5 and b RCP8.5 scenarios
Snow and Ice Melt Contribution in the Daily Discharge … 19

6 Conclusion

The modified PDD model is able to simulate daily discharge of the Langtang and
Modi River basins fairly well in the calibration and validation years despite limited
hydro-meteorological input data with good model efficiency and volume difference
values. The partitioning of runoff components in the daily discharge of both rivers
during calibration and validation periods shows that the snow and ice melt contribu-
tion in the Langtang River was relatively higher than in the case of the Modi River
which corresponds to the relatively much higher glacier cover area in the Langtang
River basin. The discharge projection result obtained from the model for the period
2020–2099 shows that the discharge of Langtang River will increase by 0.002 m3
s−1 per year along with a decrease in snow-ice melt contribution by 0.002 m3 s−1
per year in the RCP4.5 scenario. This can be attributed to the positive temperature
trend and the increased precipitation in the form of rain instead of snow and the
decrease in glacier area. The discharge is predicted to decrease by 0.03 m3 s−1 with
an increase in snow and ice melt by 0.02 m3 s−1 in RCP8.5 scenario. Similarly, for
the same projection period, the discharge projection result shows that the discharge
of Modi River would decrease by 0.01 m3 s−1 per year with decrease in snow and
ice melt by 0.01 m3 s−1 per year in RCP4.5 scenario. The discharge is expected to
increase by 0.05 m3 s−1 per year with a decreasing trend in snow and ice melt con-
tribution by 0.001 m3 s−1 per year. As the model provides information on different
components of runoff, it gives insights into the dynamics of hydrological system of
the glacierized basins with limited input data and provides valuable information to
fill gaps in understanding the impacts of climate change on the hydrological regime
and the water availability of the data scarce Himalayan region.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Partnership for Enhanced Engagement in Research

(PEER) Science Project funded by the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) through the National Science Foundation (NSF), USA for supporting this research. We
are also thankful to Tirtha Raj Adhikari, the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, GoN for
providing climate data; the Department of National Park and Wild Life Conservation, GoN and
all the members of Himalayan Cryosphere, Climate and Disaster Research Center, Kathmandu
University for their kind cooperation while conducting this research.

References

Adhikari TR, & Devkota LP (2016) Climate change and hydrological responses in Himalayan
basins, Nepal. In: Climate Change, Glacier Response, and Vegetation Dynamics in the Himalaya:
Contributions Toward Future Earth Initiatives. RB Singh, Udo Schickhoff, Suraj Mal (eds.), pp
65–86. Springer International, Switzerland.
Alford D, & Armstrong R (2010) The role of glaciers in stream flow from the Nepal Himalaya. The
Cryosphere Discuss., 4, 469–494.
Bajracharya SR, Maharjan SB, Shrestha F et al (2014) Glacier status in Nepal and decadal change
from 1980 to 2010 based on Landsat data. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Devel-
opment (ICIMOD), Kathmandu.
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 XI
THE TOUCH OF DEATH

I HAVE no intention, in writing this work, to describe the entire war.

It would be an impossible task, and I do not suppose that any author
who is a contemporary of the immense tragedy would have the
presumption to attempt it. To undertake such a task with success, it
would be necessary to wait until many years had effaced the
secondary details, leaving in the foreground only the principal facts.
Then, too, each person sees the war in his own way, from his own
point of view, and can relate neither the ensemble nor the particular
detail after the same fashion as his neighbor. It is all a question of
individuality in handling such a subject. That which one is able to tell
is merely a résumé of certain brief instants lived in the furnace; in
long waits, which are told by a few words, but which lasted for
months. We must, then, leave to the future historians the literary task
of enclosing in a single book the story of the events which have
upset and transformed the world; as Homer’s Iliad in its brief pages
narrates the War of Troy, which lasted ten years. All that the writer of
the present day may depict are separate minutes of the time in which
we lived, and the sensations of a man who is only one of the
hundred millions of combatants. Therefore I cannot add much to
what I have told concerning Verdun.
We remained there four days. So short a time! and yet in this brief
space a regiment melted away as the iron melts in the crucible. Four
days under fire, and two battalions disappeared. When our relief
came, scarcely one-third of our number survived; and of that third
not one could tell clearly just what had passed. We had lived, though
we knew not how, under the rain of steel, of flames, of flying earth, of
splintering shells, of breaking stones; knocked about, thrown to the
earth, rising only to fall again; eating little, drinking less; without
sleep, without rest, battered and torn, but still clinging to our post.
Automobiles had brought us, automobiles took us away. We were
gray with dust when we came; we went away looking like blocks of
earth. Nothing about our uniforms was recognizable. Mud and clay
blotched our faces and hands, matted our hair and beards, stiffened
our shirts, weighed down our clothing. We had all grown old. Our
eyes were sunken, our features drawn, our lassitude was extreme.
Nevertheless, we almost ran when permitted to go away. We knew
that the danger pursued us, and we mustered enough energy to
escape. Again we ascended the hills, descended the slopes; again
we saw the same spectacles we had seen in coming. It was our turn
to cry to the arriving troops: “Count your bones, boys, it is getting
hot!”
Yes, it was getting hot! The surging flood of Germans beat upon the
French fortress like sea-breakers upon a rocky coast. The uproar
increased. It seemed that the utmost limits of the possible must be
reached, but each day those limits receded. Each day more cannon
crashed; each day the explosions were faster and more furious;
each day the storm augmented. One made his escape as from a
horrible nightmare. Our ears hummed. Our nerves, strained to the
breaking-point, vibrated and quivered like the strings of a violin. We
could have dropped in our tracks from suffering and weakness.
However, an immense pride sustained our waning physical force.
Mud-bespattered, thin, repulsive, we resummoned our stamina when
we heard a command, at the edge of a ruined village; a general was
looking at us. Instantly, backs straightened, heads lifted; bayonets
were fixed on gun-barrels. Our troop, panting with exhaustion, but
proud, impeccable, filed past that man, our chief, whose clear eyes
were fixed upon us. We understood each other. Without words,
without speech, our faces told him, “We have given our lives; ‘They’
have not passed!” and, without a word, his look responded: “I know
it.”
We had our reward. Somehow our physical pains disappeared. Our
effort, our sacrifices, our fears, our wounds, had been of service; the
baffled enemy was stumbling without progressing, was crumbling
away. Verdun held, and behind her protecting arm France still lived.
Just the same, the time had come to seek the automobiles. We
could not hold control of ourselves except when on our feet. The
instant we stopped moving about, the instant we were seated, or
reclining, no matter in what position we relaxed for a single second,
we were asleep. Neither jolts, nor knocks, nor sudden stops
interrupted our giant sleep. We slept without a remnant of physical
sensation. We slept violently, as heavy and inert as dead men. We
slept with all our body, all our heart and soul; fists clinched, mouths
open; shaken about, wholly unconscious, carried away less like men
than like parcels of cloth, earth, flesh, and accoutrement. We no
longer had names or personality. We were nothing but clods, utterly
at the end of our vitality.
Thus we crossed the country, passing bivouacs where troops were
encamped, roads where convoys were mounting toward the battle-
line, forests where cavalry were awaiting their call. The noise of the
cannon diminished to a distant rumble, became faint, and was lost.
We slept on. Occasionally, a man stretched himself, changed
position, and plunged again into oblivion like the rest. Some, in their
dreams, cried out disconnected words, mumbled, or wept. A
madman in my carriage suddenly leaped out and plunged into the
blackness of the night. He was not missed until the next day. Three
camions had passed over him, leaving him nothing but a mangled
rag on the road.
At last we reached our destination, and came to life again. A camp
was ready to receive us—a camp so new and fresh we thought it
almost elegant. There were Adrian barracks[G] of unpainted spruce,
with water for drinking and water for washing; with coffee prepared,
fresh bread, hot soup, and abundance of clean straw. We knew that
the horrible inferno was at an end for us; at evening a train would
take us each to his own family to enjoy a furlough.
To come out of the abyss of hell and arrive at his own hearthside is
an emotion too deep for a mortal man. He knows not if he is living in
reality or in a dream. He goes on mechanically. He is hairy,
barbarous, dirty, hideous. He is black, and torn, and bruised, and
ragged. He reeks of powder, blood, and earth. He trembles. He is
conscious of a sensation of joy—he feels it without comprehending
it.
Before long the train will be in the station. His wife will be there with
his mother, his father, and others who are dear. They will take him in
their arms. They will hold him, they will press him to their hearts. He
will feel the sweet thrill of their touch; he will receive their caresses,
will hear the familiar voices. His heart beats fast. A feeling of
faintness sweeps over him; he puts his hand before his eyes. He
speaks to his neighbor. He laughs. He drinks a little, he smokes. He
suddenly feels smothered. It must be his great-coat which bothers
him; he pulls it off. He holds imaginary conversations with himself.
He gesticulates. He recounts what he has seen, what he has done,
what he has said; the death of his comrades, the frightful wounds of
his dearest friends. He strives to classify his recollections; he yawns,
he gives it up. The battle still crowds his brain, obsesses him, holds
him, fills his entire consciousness. The other men are like himself.
Some laugh, some sing, some sleep.
The special train rolls away—passes stations, traverses pleasant
country, arrives at towns, whistles, snorts, runs smoothly, flies over
the rails, carries him on and on. The man is dumb with amazement:
a field where reapers are binding the grain enchants him; a glimpse
of a garden where a woman is hanging up washing moves him to
tenderness. A house intact astonishes him. The panorama passes
before his window, is gone, is repeated. It is not yet the country, the
province, where he was born, but that is approaching. Familiar
names are seen at the stopping-places along the track. In an hour
the train will reach his station. He can no longer sit still. He rises,
fusses with his clothing, sits down, gets up again. The train no longer
is going fast enough. It is stopping. What for? Now it goes again.
Good. There it is stopping again! This is deadly. Villainous train!
Villainous trip! Villainous life!
At last it is his own country, his own town, his own station ... and the
train is stopping! Yes, the family are all there, running to meet him.
The man leaves the carriage; he falls into their arms; he leans on
their shoulders. Tears are on his cheeks; his mind is benumbed, he
can only look. There is father, there is mother, there is wife and child.
“Well, well! How are you?”
“Ah, yes, all right,”—somewhat abstractedly.
He pulls himself together, recovers his strength and composure. He
stands erect, proudly. He is bruised, stained, and dirty; a dreadful
object, at once repulsive and sublime. He is in the midst of his
doting, distracted family, who forget all the questions they had
planned to ask about himself and the war, and can only ask: “Are
you hungry? are you thirsty? are you warm?” He does not know if he
is or not. He feels no need of anything. He goes with them. He
recognizes the land, the road, the trees, and the houses. He
breathes deeply. What delicious air! He is hurried along. As he
passes the neighbors exclaim:
“There he is!”
He is safe and whole, he is brave and noble. He wears on his breast
the Croix de Guerre. He is petted. He is washed and cleaned and
mended and taken out for a promenade. He tries to tell his story, but
he tells it badly: he has not the words for it. He knows not how to
express all the misery endured, the bodily suffering, the horror of the
battle. He tells little fragments of stories, and already he is forgetting
the most terrible features. The struggle which was beyond all
comprehension seems small when he tries to recount it. It becomes
nothing more than a local fight with grenades, a patch of ground
occupied in the night, a brook crossed—a thing of shadow and of
mystery. It is no longer grandiose. It really was a catastrophe: it
becomes a mere fist fight. However, they listen, they ask questions.
He must repeat and go into detail. And he, who has escaped the
jaws of death, who by a miracle has come out of the destruction,
who feels with strangeness the new pulses of life, he runs about to
see his friends, he shakes the burden from his thought, he amuses
himself—and finally is aware that the time has passed like a flash of
lightning and he must again depart. Then the anguish again lays
hold upon him; for that which he could not tell clearly he knows only
too well. No fibre of his being has forgotten it. His flesh creeps at the
thought of entering again the bath of blood, of noise, of war; the long
vigils in the trench, the whistle of the shells, the infantry attack.
He goes to join his regiment. He is loaded with delicacies, tobacco,
and presents. He has new socks on his feet and a new sweater on
his back. He is made over, he is a man again. He is sad, but he
goes: there is no other way.
Once more he is at the front with all its horrors. He is in a sector of
great commotion, where ruins pile upon ruins; where the very earth
under his feet explodes; where a fresh drive is being pushed; where
no minute is without its danger. There is the patrol toward the
enemy’s lines, the life underground, the sky shot with airplanes, the
shrapnel overhead and the mine under feet. There is the torpedo
coming with its ugly growl; there are all the changing forms in which
death beckons—the Grim Monster which prowls and shrieks; there is
the agony renewed.
The attack is resumed. The attack, yes. “C’est la Guerre.” There is
no longer, as in former days, a battle of a single day, wherein one is
either victor or vanquished, where the outcome is decisive. The
attack of to-day is one of the rôles in the drama of life, like being a
soldier. Yes, it is life itself.
We made an attack, then, on a certain day, toward Mont Cornillet,
which stood out before us like a volcano of chalk. The German and
French artillery were crossing their shell-fire. Below, the French were
holding. The position was hardly tenable after it was gained, and we
were trying to enlarge and strengthen it a bit. My regiment, entirely
reformed and equipped, formed a part of the advancing force. Each
man, grown wise from his experience in war, could estimate the
distance, and the effect of the firing. It was going well. It was hard,
but the firing was good. Perhaps we would suffer less this time than
on former occasions. Perhaps once more we would return alive. But
then, what matter? One is a fatalist in such moments. Destiny will
decide. A man is nothing, can do nothing. He is a mere atom, a drop
of water in the ocean, a grain of sand in the desert. He goes where
the wind drives him. If he is lucky, he comes back alive; if he is
unlucky, he returns to the bosom of the earth. It is all very simple,
clear, and clean-cut. The sacrifice was made long since. Once for all,
the very first time, he has said: “What will come, will come.” He has
left his home, he has marched, he has fought, he has suffered.
Some men have been killed, others only await their turn. Infinite
Fatality holds them in her hand. Those who believe in God, and that
God brings solace, have their comfort always with them. They
piously attend religious service when they can, wherever the
chaplain sets up his altar: in a crushed-in chapel of a demolished
village, or in a barn without a roof, or in the trench itself. The man
who believes in nothing has no greater fear of death.
Certainly, were it not for the war, one would have lived otherwise.
One would have lived in a world of work, with its pains and
pleasures, founding a family and rearing his children. One would
have lived as lived his father; one would have had a wife like his
mother; one would have pursued happiness. But this dream is one of
peace. Now, “C’est la Guerre.” The giant struggle passes the control
of men, and its unknown end is still far off. One no longer fights
merely for his home, his land, his own well-being. One feels that
these things have become dwarfed in the tremendous world tragedy,
and that at the foundation it has to do with great principles, ideals,
and human destiny.
The soldier in action does not see so far. The immediate, the
concrete, demand his close scrutiny; but he feels that the war is
waged for all the human race, and that his blood will not flow in vain.
Emancipation is coming. Man is throwing aside autocratic authority;
he has reached his age of majority and wishes to be free. Society
impels and guides him. He is no longer the soldier of a people, he is
the soldier of a principle. He fights for the triumph of ideals that are
noble, ideals that are just, ideals that are free. He assists at the
ghastly death-throes of an autocracy which can live only through his
enslavement. He knows the price of a revolution: some men must
die that others may live. He accepts it. He knows not just how great
must be his sacrifice. He knows only that he is resigned.
I saw all this among my comrades. I gathered it in their discussions:
for we talk, at the front. The squad argues, reads the newspapers,
makes its comments, follows the trend of events when it can. But—
when the “Coup de Chien” comes; when the unit enters an
engagement; when one fills his cartridge-box or receives his case of
grenades; when one goes over the top, to storm the enemy’s
parapets and rush to the assault, all else disappears, is wiped out.
There remains only exaltation and the act of the moment—a
sacrament.
The zero hour is passed from one to another in advance. The attack
will be at ten o’clock. A half-hour before, each man is in his place.
The artillery fire is redoubled. The German knows that his last
minutes have come. As for ourselves, we are attentive and
impatient. The anguish of the drive puts our nerves on a tension;
eyes take on a hard look, hands grip convulsively. One wishes he
could start, leap to the surface, cross No Man’s Land on the run, and
drop into the opposite trench. The half-hour drags on slowly.
The hour strikes. With one leap, furiously, the first wave bounds
forward, spreads, and crosses the intervening space. The second
line follows. We of the next line look and listen. They cry out—they
go on—they are running—they arrive! We start. The others are
already upon the German. The grenades crackle and snap. The
machine-guns spit, the airplanes hum, the shells burst. Forward,
forward! We run at full speed. Each knows his rôle. Each knows his
act, his allotted piece of work. Each is strangely lucid. The
movement is admirable. All is going well, everything is working out
with precision. We will gain our point. With an infallible glance the
soldier knows the outcome, and in that moment he judges his chief
without error, without appeal.
The trench is taken. The shelters are crushed in, the dead are lying
all about. Pale and haggard prisoners run toward us, huddled
together with up-lifted arms to give themselves up:
“Gut Franzose! Kamarad! Polones, Polones!”
They are Poles: big and little, tall and short; a whole troop. They
shrink, now. They would like to run. They are anxious to get away
from the place, for the miserable creatures cling to life and fear the
shells, their own shells, the German shells, which follow each other
in gusts. We drive them on. They go as captives. Three pass, a
Frenchman follows, then three more prisoners and another
Frenchman, with gun ready. The procession follows the wrecked
trench, leaps over the débris, reaches the open space between our
lines. Now there is less danger. The prisoners are parcelled off by
twenties and are led to the rear. They stop at the first post where
wounded are cared for. The stretchers are taken up and carried by
the same men who made the wounds, by these men now quite
docile, who, dressed in dirty gray made still more dirty by the ground,
march with their burden, fearful, but at heart happy: for them the war
is over.
It will continue for their conquerors who still live. Death has once
more made her choice. The prisoners are safe. Those others who
took them will die perhaps to-morrow, on this same ground or on
another. Satiated to-day, the Grim Monster is reserving them: they
are kept for a coming feast of death.
How well they know it! but they care not at all. They are tired and
happy. They wander about the captured trench and gather up little
nothings: fragments of clothing, pieces of arms, splinters of
cartridges. They go to and fro; or, impassive, they choose a corner
and go to sleep, indifferent to the shells, to the battle which is dying
out; indifferent to to-day and to-morrow.
They know their task is accomplished.
 FOOTNOTES:
[A] The trial of Mme. Caillaux for the murder of the editor of Le
Figaro.—Translator.
[B] “Les compagnons—ceux avec qui on rompt le pain.”
[C] The banquette is about eighteen inches above the pathway at
the bottom of the trench. The men stand here when firing or when
on guard.—Translators’ Note.
[D] The trenches were about seven feet deep. On the forward side
was a step, or ledge, on which the men could stand when
shooting.—Translators’ Note.
[E] It has been found that water must not touch the skin for many
hours after suffering a gas attack. The chemical action of the
water rots the flesh. For the same reason the “poilu” is now clean-
shaven: the poison of gas remains in a beard for days, and
perspiration adds to the dangers of inhalation.—Translator.
[F] Literally, “I am gnawing them away.”
[G] Adrian barracks are made in sections, which enables them to
be put up or taken down quickly.—Translator’s Note.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
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