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EMERGING MEMBRANE
TECHNOLOGY FOR
SUSTAINABLE WATER
TREATMENT
NICHOLAS P. HANKINS
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering
Department of Engineering Science
The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
RAJINDAR SINGH
Membrane Ventures, LLC
Colorado Springs, CO, USA
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about
the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright
Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/
permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-444-63312-5
Catalina Alvarado
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
€ ur Arar
Ozg€
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Dibakar Bhattacharyya
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
W. Richard Bowen
FREng, i-NewtonWales, Swansea, UK
Jakob Buchheim
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
Samuel Bunani
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey;
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey; Department of
Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi
Malynda A. Cappelle
The University of Texas at El Paso, Center for Inland Desalination Systems, El Paso, TX, USA
Philip A. Davies
Aston University, Birmingham, UK
Thomas A. Davis
The University of Texas at El Paso, Center for Inland Desalination Systems, El Paso, TX, USA
Mengmeng Deng
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
Kathryn Farris
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
Takahiro Fujioka
Water and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagasaki University,
Nagasaki, Japan
M.C. García-Payo
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain
xi
xii List of Contributors
J. Gilron
The Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Midreshet
Sde Boker, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Nicholas P. Hankins
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering, Department of Engineering Science,
The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Claus Helix-Nielsen
The Biomimetic Membrane Group, DTU Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens
Lyngby, Denmark; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor,
Maribor, Slovenia
Sebastian Hernandez
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Nalan Kabay
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Sher Jamal Khan
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Mohamed Khayet
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain; Madrid Institute of Advanced Studies of Water (IMDEA Water Institute), Madrid, Spain
James Kilduff
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
Chang-Min Kim
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and
Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Republic of Korea
Long D. Nghiem
Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental
Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Lindell Ormsbee
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Hyung Gyu Park
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
Anthony Saad
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Julio A. Sanmartino
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain
Li-Cheng Shen
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering, Department of Engineering Science,
The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
List of Contributors xiii
Rajindar Singh
Membrane Ventures, LLC, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Chuyang Y. Tang
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Zhining Wang
Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education of China
Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
Roman M. Wyss
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
PREFACE
‘Overcoming the crisis in water and sanitation is one of the greatest human development
challenges of the early 21st century’, a recent UN report has warned. About one in every
six people today do not have sufficient access to clean drinking water, and twice as many
lack basic sanitation. As a result, 2.2 million deaths per year are related to water/hygiene/
sanitation; many of these are children. Such problems are forecast to grow worse, with
more than half the world’s population facing chronic to critical water shortages by
2050, limiting economic development and food supplies. Ensuring adequate water
supplies to allow a sustainable future, thus poses an engineering challenge of the first
magnitude.
What are the solutions to these challenges? New and massive reservoirs, wells, pipe-
lines and river transfers are no longer acceptable; a more sustainable development and use
of water resources is required, involving more sophisticated technology. Climate change
means previously less water-stressed regions must rely increasingly on brackish under-
ground waters or seawater as the main source of water, which can be energy intensive;
alternatively, they must recycle and reuse wastewater. Yet global warming and rising
fossil fuel prices both imply increasing challenges in the sustainable supply of energy.
Add to this, the fact that the treatment of flowback water and produced water resulting
from hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’) of oil and gas wells is also becoming increasingly
critical for safe disposal and reuse. All this implies further increases in the cost of water
generally, and desalinated water in particular. On the other hand, an economically,
environmentally and socially sustainable technology for water treatment should be inex-
pensive and energy-efficient, with minimal or no chemical consumption, it should be
capable of water recycling and reuse that minimise the direct disposal of wastewater to
the aquatic environment, and it should be an accessible technology which can be
deployed in a wide range of human scenarios and over a wide range of physical scales.
Membrane separation technology offers a very promising response to address these
tough challenges; it has the promise to dramatically improve the sustainability of our wa-
ter resources. In recent years, the deployment of membrane technology in the water
sector has grown exponentially. The growing interest in membrane technology for water
and wastewater treatment is based on the following advantages:
• Compared to conventional technology, membrane technology has better contami-
nant removal efficiencies. It thus has the capability to address more stringent drinking
water regulations. Since it prevents the passage of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and other
pathogenic bacteria and viruses, it avoids the risk of microbial outbreaks without any
chemical pretreatment. In wastewater treatment, membranes produce a very high
xv
xvi Preface
effluent quality that meets strict discharge regulations, and effluents can be reused for
industrial applications, irrigation and even as a source of potable drinking water.
• The technology is highly suitable in developing countries, because it can be used for
small and distributed communities. Since a membrane filtration unit typically needs
only half or less the footprint of a conventional potable water or wastewater treatment
plant, it saves on space and money. The capacity of an existing plant can be increased
by membrane units without additional footprint, whether for plant upgrade, expan-
sion or for a new plant, enabling substantial capital savings. Furthermore, membrane
units are modular in design, allowing for easy duplication and scale-up.
• Unlike the thermal effect units which are used for distillation, membrane separation
processes do not generally involve boiling, allowing for a greatly reduced energy con-
sumption. They are also ideally suited to operation which exploits renewable energy
sources, such as solar, wind and tidal.
• With the increase in membrane deployment, particularly in the water sector, there has
been a steady reduction in membrane equipment costs, making water and wastewater
treatment costs much lower. Indeed, recycling wastewater directly from municipal
sewage is much cheaper in energy and resource terms than purifying seawater, and
obviates wastewater disposal problems and water pollution.
• Membranes are capable of processing highly contaminated water, such as floodwater
and sewage, with high concentrations of suspended solids and organic compounds.
Thus, the use of membrane technology facilitates the use of lower quality water,
or so-called ‘sewer mining’. Moreover, it shows flexibility to handle changing feed-
water conditions and capacity increases. The operation is simple and automated,
which ensures that system integrity is met.
For all these reasons, there is a rapidly expanding range of emerging membrane tech-
nologies for sustainable water supply and treatment. This book has focused on these
emerging and state-of-the-art applications by inviting contributions from leading experts
in four main areas, and each chapter highlights an area of innovative and promising
technological development.
Section 1 covers membrane processes for global water solutions, with introductory
contributions on the ethical and sustainable utilisation of water, and on membrane-
based water processing. In Section 2, desalination and potable water purification are
highlighted, with contributions on forward osmosis for sustainable water processing, mem-
brane distillation for brine concentrate treatment, desalination by photovoltaic-powered
RO, the use of fuel cells to power decentralised desalination in developing countries,
the application of ion exchange membranes to water softening and high-recovery desali-
nation at zero discharge and an overview of electromembrane processes. At the other end
of the water supply chain, Section 3 focuses on wastewater treatment for reclamation and
reuse, and it includes the removal of trace organic contaminants by NF/RO, the applica-
tion of polymeresurfactant technologies to contaminant removal and recovery, the use of
Preface xvii
emerging membrane bioreactor technology for water reclamation and reuse and brine
treatment for high-recovery desalination. Finally, Section 4 features novel membrane
materials and applications, including high-purity water purification, development of
aquaporin-based biomimetic membranes, porous ultrathin graphene membranes, nano-
composite and pH/temperature-responsive membranes and finally membrane fouling
and developments in control techniques.
Throughout the book, the unifying themes of sustainability, energy and resource ef-
ficiency including renewable energy, and reclamation, reuse and recycle are emphasised.
As a whole, the book provides a unique and single source in highlighting the growing
and competitive importance of innovative membrane technology for sustainable water
supply and technology.
Why a new book in this area?
The challenges posed by water stress and poor water-related hygiene have assumed a
growing urgency in the past decade, tied inextricably to the waterefoodeenergy nexus,
in the midst of which global climate change has adopted a key and alarming position.
Though membrane technology is hardly new, it has started to emerge globally in the
past decade as a serious contender for this challenge at the large scale. Yet, whilst there
are countless texts on water treatment and on membrane technologies, none address
in a whole and integrated way the contribution which membrane technology is poised
to make in the future. For the first time, the reader is able to see in one reference work
the state of the art in this rapidly evolving area.
We wish to thank all the chapter contributors, and appreciate the editors at Elsevier,
Kostas Marinakis, Christine McElvenny and Debasish Ghosh for their support and
patience. And, Rajindar dedicates the book to his family: Rashna Batliwala, Samir Indar
and Namrita Shirin.
Nicholas P. Hankins and Rajindar Singh
November 2015
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of a broad international consensus about the importance of human
rights is one of the outstanding achievements of the twentieth century. The concept
of human rights may be described as [1]:
There is something about each and every human being, simply as a human being, such that
certain choices should be made and certain choices rejected; in particular, certain things ought
not to be done to any human being and certain other things ought to be done for every human
being.
The international consensus about this concept was first and most prominently
demonstrated in 1948, through the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) [2]. This recognises that respect for the inherent dignity, and conse-
quently for certain equal and inalienable rights, of all human beings is the foundation
of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The Declaration has been developed
through various international, regional and national legal instruments. At the interna-
tional level, two of the most important are the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR).
Human rights discourse continues to develop. Thus, in 2010 a resolution [3] of
the General Assembly of the United Nations acknowledged ‘the importance of equitable
access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as an integral component of the
realization of all human rights’, and further recognised:
the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for
the full enjoyment of life and all human rights.
Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment © 2016 Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63312-5.00001-2 All rights reserved. 3
4 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
UDHR challenge that ‘every individual and organ of society . shall strive by teaching
and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive
measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition
and observance’.
Progressive measures to meet each person’s needs must be sustainable if they are to be
truly effective. Thus, sustainability has become a major international concern, as exem-
plified by the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro
in 2012. The outcome document [4] of this conference had a vision of ‘commitment to
sustainable development and to ensuring the promotion of an economically, socially and
environmentally sustainable future for our planet and for present and future generations’.
It envisaged a world that is ‘just, equitable and inclusive’ in which people participate in
decision-making that influences their lives. Water and sanitation are prominent in the
document:
We recognize that water is at the core of sustainable development as it is closely linked to a
number of key global challenges. We therefore reiterate the importance of integrating water
into sustainable development, and underline the critical importance of water and sanitation
within the three dimensions of sustainable development. We stress the need to adopt measures
to significantly reduce water pollution and increase water quality, significantly improve waste-
water treatment and water efficiency and reduce water losses. In order to achieve this, we stress
the need for international assistance and cooperation.
Here the three dimensions of sustainable development are economic, social and envi-
ronmental. Water and sanitation are linked to many priorities of the outcome document,
including health, food and energy.
Thus, the needs for ethical and sustainable utilisation of water are widely recognised.
This chapter will explore, at two levels, aspects of this recognition that are pertinent to
the present book. Firstly, present global perspectives and likely global plans will be out-
lined. Secondly, the more specific responsibilities of engineers, and especially membrane
engineers, will be considered.
remains much to be done. Progress on meeting the target for drinking water has been
greatest:
The MDG drinking water target coverage of 88% was met in 2010. Whereas 76% of the global
population had access to an improved drinking water source in 1990, 89% of the global popu-
lation had access in 2012, an increase of 2.3 billion people. Fifty-six per cent of the global pop-
ulation, almost four billion people, now enjoy the highest level of access: a piped drinking
water connection on premises.
Although the world met the MDG drinking water target, 748 million people e mostly the poor and
marginalized e still lack access to an improved drinking water source. Of these, almost a quarter
(173 million) rely on untreated surface water, and over 90% live in rural areas. If current trends
continue, there will still be 547 million people without an improved drinking water supply in 2015.
Despite significant progress on sanitation, in 2012, 2.5 billion people did not have access to an
improved sanitation facility, down from 2.7 billion in 1990, a decrease of only 7%. If current trends
continue, there will still be 2.4 billion people without access to an improved sanitation facility in
2015, falling short of the MDG sanitation target by over half a billion people. A large majority
(70%) of those without access to an improved sanitation facility live in rural areas.
Inside these global figures are significant variations. For example, most of those
without sanitation are poorer people living in rural areas, and progress on sanitation
has often increased disparities by mainly benefiting wealthier people2.
For the 34 member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development, a focus on water security has developed [6]. Such security has been
described in terms of maintaining acceptable levels of risk of shortage (including
droughts), risk of inadequate quality, risk of excess (including floods) and risk of under-
mining the resilience of freshwater systems. Such consideration is based on scientific and
engineering assessments, as well as the perception of risk in society, whilst achieving a
balance of economic, social and environmental consequences. There has been an
emphasis on water pricing, such as charging for water use and pollution, as a means of
managing some of these risks. That even the most technically advanced and affluent
societies are vulnerable to water shortages has been shown by the effects of the prolonged
1
The figures take into account an increase in world population from 5.3 billion to 7.06 billion between 1990 and 2012.
2
‘Improved’ drinking water sources include household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well,
protected spring and rainwater collection. ‘Improved’ sanitation includes connection to public sewer, connection to a
septic system, pour-flush latrine, simple pit latrine and ventilated improved pit latrine.
6 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
2. Water resources e Improve the sustainable use and development of water resources in
all countries: aiming to promote decisions and actions that take into account both
human and environmental water requirements, as well as the need to increase the
long-term viability of natural supply systems.
3. Water governance e All countries to strengthen equitable, participatory and account-
able water governance: aiming to promote an enabling environment, such that insti-
tutional structures relevant to water are effective and that its administrative systems
function for the benefit of society as a whole.
4. Managing wastewater and pollution to protect water quality e Reduce wastewater pollution
and improve water quality by reducing untreated domestic and industrial wastewater;
increasing wastewater reused safely; and reducing nutrient pollution to maximise
water resource availability and improve water quality.
5. Water-related disasters e Reduce mortality and economic loss from water-related
disasters: focusing on actions that build resilience.
Quantification of these targets and procedures for measuring progress are in the
process of being specified.
The UN-Water document assesses that appropriate engineering investment for the
effective use of available water has wide-reaching economic benefits in sectors as diverse
as industry, energy, agriculture, tourism and recreation. The costs of such investment
have been estimated, with particular attention to the universal provision of clean drinking
water and sanitation after the achievement of the MDG targets. On a worldwide basis,
such provision has been estimated to cost US$174 billion for drinking water and
US$217 billion for sanitation [13]. These are large amounts, but they are small compared
to annual global military expenditure, which was at least US$1756 billion in 2013 [14]. It
seems that globally there is a greater willingness to use resources for war than to use
resources for vital human needs.
There is also a concern that the human right to clean drinking water and sanitation
recognised by the UN is receiving insufficient attention in the planning of SDG. It
has been suggested that the most recently available SDG drafts tend to prioritise water
security for economic growth rather than the preservation of common resources and
the equitable distribution of scarce supplies [15]. That is, a certain priority is being given
to industries with large water requirements, such as mining and energy. Energy, in partic-
ular, is a business that has much greater financial and political influence than water.
Appropriate attention to human rights rather prioritises the dignity of each person,
with a special sensitivity to those most at risk, rather than using a cost-benefit analysis.
A promising approach to the avoidance of conflict over water sees competing claims
for access as an opportunity, an approach that has been termed Blue Peace [16]. This
approach has been proposed at high political levels and particularly for those areas of
the Middle East where tensions about water supply exist: firstly, the northern countries
(Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon and Jordan), and secondly the southern countries
8 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
It should be noted that this opportunity is practical rather than idealistic, for it con-
cerns the serious consideration of feasible options and thus, recognises that there may be
situational constraints on the action (at least initially). The opportunity certainly refers to a
type of situation in which many engineers may find themselves, for they have at their
disposal a range of knowledge, skills, techniques and technologies of great potential.
Most importantly, the same knowledge and skills may provide them with an unique
ability to identify such problems and opportunities. Here the term professional capabilities
is taken to refer specifically to the professional actions which an engineer can undertake
to remove injustice and to promote justice.
Lack of access to clean drinking water and sanitation is a clear example of an injustice.
The remedying of this injustice presents a clear opportunity of professional capabilities for
engineers. Indeed, the consequences of such a lack may be so severe as to merit consid-
eration as an obligation of professional capabilities for engineers. In considering such op-
portunities and obligations, engineers should note that the technological artefacts which
they can provide not only promote human flourishing in terms of well-being (such as
welfare, health and safety) but also enable others to choose the type of life they wish
to live. That is, the benefits of such engineering can be best understood in terms of
the capabilities of beneficiaries, the various things that a person manages to do or be in
leading a life [19]. Such capabilities may be described in terms of both well-being and
agency, the latter being the possibility to advance whatever goals and values a person
has reason to advance. Well-being is particularly useful in assessing issues of distributive
justice. Agency gives attention to the beneficiary as a doer. The specific inclusion of
agency allows for a much richer description of benefits than consideration of well-
being alone. For example, in the case of provision of clean drinking water and sanitation,
well-being may be exemplified through improved health due to reduced susceptibility to
waterborne diseases. However, such provision also enhances agency as improved health
allows adults to take a fuller part in society and ensures that children are healthy enough
to attend and fully benefit from school. These are just an indication of a multitude of such
benefits. It is through the enhancement of such agency that provision of clean drinking
water and sanitation can have a pivotal role in the achievement of all SDG.
Awareness of the social usefulness of such provision is a vital factor in the promotion
of technical excellence in engineering. There is strong evidence that engineers who are
aware of and motivated by the socially beneficial applications of their work are likely to
think with great creativity. This results in highly innovative proposals that show great
prospects not only for social usefulness but also for sustainable commercial profitability
and sustainable employment [20].
A further type of motivation is provided by the UDHR challenge to ‘every individual
and organ of society’. Commercial businesses are important organs of society in which
many engineers are employed. There has been a series of initiatives aiming to clarify
the role of such businesses with respect to human rights. A very important culmination
10 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
of these initiatives has been the endorsement in 2011 by the United Nations Human
Rights Council of a set of Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights [21]. These
are designed to provide a global standard for preventing and addressing the risk of adverse
impacts on human rights linked to business activity. They are also intended to provide
tools to measure real progress in the daily lives of people. A key aspect of these Guiding
Principles is the corporate responsibility to respect human rights. However, many enlight-
ened businesses now go further and seek to promote human rights. There may be a num-
ber of reasons for doing so that are relevant to central business objectives, such as the
development of new business opportunities or to enhance the company’s reputation.
In some circumstances, a company may need to invest in the local provision of clean
drinking water and sanitation, health care and education so as to ensure a suitable
work force and the support of the local community. National laws and the conditions
of government contracts may also require such promotion of human rights. Furthermore,
businesses which have provision of clean drinking water and sanitation as a core concern
are clearly acting to promote an internationally recognised right.
Underlying the formulation of SDG are the need to reshape the existing global part-
nership to avoid it being based on donor-recipient relationships and the consequent need
to engage a full range of types of participants. SDG with a high degree of policy coherence
at the global, regional, national and subnational levels will be required. The vision is that of
a transformative people-centred approach: that is, both the well-being and the agency of
all should be respected and promoted. If such approaches are to succeed in the longer term,
it is essential to engage engineering students and young professional engineers in such
activities. This is specifically a goal of the international organisation Engineers Without
Borders. Its priorities exemplify such a transformative, people-centred approach [22]:
Holistic engineering e we work with an interdisciplinary approach that takes into
consideration of the local knowledge, economy, culture and environment.
Active partnerships e we build long-term relationships and work in collaboration with
communities and local organisations.
People participation e we believe in demand-led development and participatory
change.
Small footprint e we want to adopt a sustainable use of natural resources and minimise
any impact to the local environment, biodiversity or global climate.
Appropriate technology e we adapt existing low-risk technology and apply modern
engineering methods.
Furthermore, all engineers can contribute to development by participation in initia-
tives such as the Technology Exchange Lab, an online platform for the sharing and dis-
cussion of ideas for innovative, locally implemented solutions to problems of poverty and
sustainability, including clean drinking water and sanitation [23].
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 11
The political initiative that sees competition for access to water as an opportunity,
Blue Peace, has an engineering equivalent in the practice of Peace Engineering [24].
The vision is that engineers recognise the prioritising of the peace of communities as
an essential feature of their work. Notable features of this approach include the following:
• provision of practical solutions to local needs, whether they arise from competition for
resources such as water, economic marginalisation, climate change or other factors;
• activities that directly commit persons and communities in potential conflict to common
projects of benefit to all;
• provision of nonviolent means of meeting human needs and of preventing the buildup
of tensions, both of which are presently associated with the temptations of preventive
or preemptive military action.
Approaches of these types respect the full and equal status of every person, achieve a
congruence of nonviolent means and ends in the promotion of peace, and recognise that
peace involves much more than the absence of conflict.
Good evidence of the success of such practical approaches in overcoming ethnic ten-
sions is available [25]. For example, in Gal Oya in Sri Lanka, a region that had experi-
enced repeated violent ethnic conflict, an inadequate irrigation system was the source
of continuing tensions between Sinhalese farmers living upstream and Tamil farmers
living downstream. The system was updated with an emphasis on participation of all po-
tential beneficiaries, with remarkable social results. The Sinhalese farmers voluntarily
reduced their water use in order to make more available to the Tamil farmers. Sharing
of water continued even in a severe dry season. Despite efforts of Tamil Tigers during
the long civil war, the cooperation continued with Sinhalese farmers protecting Tamil
project staff and farmers. In contrast, a second scheme in Sri Lanka, at Mahaweli, failed
to include equitable participation and failed to have such peacemaking effects. The Gal
Oya scheme promoted reconciliation through a generous and compassionate approach
that involved both technical and social ingenuity.
Global goals for water are essential for setting a worldwide agenda. However, the
practical achievement of such goals depends crucially on the work of engineers. The
basis of this crucial contribution lies in engineering capabilities, the range of knowledge,
skills, techniques and technologies of great potential which engineers have at their
disposal. Two further factors are also important. Firstly, engineers are widely dispersed
in differing types of communities and differing geographical locations. They are hence
often available where essential work needs to be undertaken. Secondly, engineers
can often work across state boundaries without many of the political restrictions
that limit high-level initiatives. Though such engineering work may not have
the glamour associated with prestigious initiatives, it can efficiently and effectively
improve the lives of many.
12 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
REFERENCES
[1] M.J. Perry, The Idea of Human Rights: Four Enquiries, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998
p. 13.
[2] The Texts of the UDHR and Other Components of the International Bill of Human Rights,
Together with Further Human Rights Documentation, are available at: http://www.ohchr.org/en/
udhr/pages/introduction.aspx.
[3] United Nations, The Human Right to Water and Sanitation, A/RES/64/292, United Nations Gen-
eral Assembly, New York, 2010.
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 13
[4] United Nations, The Future We Want, A/RES/66/288, United Nations General Assembly, New
York, 2012.
[5] World Health Organization and UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water Sanitation: 2014 Update,
WHO, Geneva, 2014.
[6] Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Water Security for Better Lives, OECD,
Paris, 2013.
[7] S. Goldenberg, California drought: authorities struggle to impose water conservation measures, The
Guardian (March 11, 2014).
[8] M. Freyman, Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Stress: Water Demand by the Numbers, Ceres, Boston,
2014.
[9] C.B. Amos, P. Audet, W.C. Hammond, R. B€ urgmann, I.A. Johanson, G. Blewitt, Uplift and seis-
micity driven by groundwater depletion in central California, Nature 509 (2014) 483e486.
[10] http://worldwater.org/water-conflict/.
[11] Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom, CO, London, 2008.
[12] UN-Water, A Post-2015 Global Goal for Water: Synthesis of Key Findings and Recommendations
from UN-Water, UN-Water, Geneva, 2014.
[13] G. Hutton, Global Costs and Benefits of Drinking-water Supply and Sanitation Interventions to
Reach the MDG Target and Universal Coverage, WHO/HSE/WSH/12.01, WHO, Geneva, 2012.
[14] Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook 2013: Armaments, Disarmament
and International Security, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013.
[15] M. Karunananthan, Is the UN turning its back on the human right to water? The Guardian (June 19,
2014).
[16] Strategic Foresight Group, The Blue Peace: Rethinking Middle East Water, SFG, Mumbai, 2011.
Strategic Foresight Group, Water Cooperation for a Secure World: Focus on the Middle East,
SFG, Mumbai, 2013.
[17] W.R. Bowen, Engineering Ethics: Challenges and Opportunities, Springer International Switzerland,
Cham, 2014.
[18] A. Sen, The Idea of Justice, Allen Lane, London, 2009 p. 206.
[19] A. Sen, On Ethics and Economics, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 1987.
[20] M. Cooley, Architect or Bee? the Human Price of Technology, second ed., The Hogarth Press,
London, 1987.
[21] Office of the United Nations Commissioner for Human Rights, Guiding Principles for Business and
Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework,
OHCHR, New York and Geneva, 2011.
[22] http://www.ewb-uk.org/about/approach.
[23] http://www.technologyexchangelab.org.
[24] P.A. Vesilind, W.R. Bowen (Eds.), Peace Engineering, second ed., Lakeshore Press, Woodsville,
2013.
[25] R.J. Muscat, Investing in Peace, M.E. Sharp, New York, 2002 (The text describes further practical
examples).
[26] S. Loeb, The Loeb-Sourirajan Membrane: How it Came about, ACS Symposium Series 153 (1981)
1e9.
CHAPTER 2
Introduction to Membrane
Processes for Water Treatment
Rajindar Singh1, Nicholas P. Hankins2
1
Membrane Ventures, LLC, Colorado Springs, CO, USA; 2The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering,
Department of Engineering Science, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Membrane separation processes used for water treatment and purification include
reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), microfiltration (MF)
and electrodialysis (ED). Basic characteristics of these processes are given in Table 2.1.
Electrodeionisation (EDI) and membrane degasification have important but limited
applications. Newer and promising processes such as membrane distillation and forward
osmosis (FO) are discussed in later chapters. A general overview of membrane technol-
ogy and separation for water treatment is presented in this chapter.
A membrane is defined as a permselective barrier between two homogeneous fluid
phases. The semipermeable barrier selectively allows the passage of some components
but not others, e.g. an RO membrane allows the passage of water but rejects almost
all of the ions and salts, resulting in a concentrated salt on the feed side of the membrane
and a virtually ion-free water product on the other side of the membrane. Thus, the most
permeable component (water) becomes enriched in the permeate stream while the least
permeable component becomes enriched in the reject (salt) stream.
Membrane performance is based on a number of factors, including membrane selec-
tivity and flux; good mechanical, chemical and thermal stability of the membrane mate-
rial; minimal fouling during operation; and good compatibility with the feed solution.
For a membrane process to be effective, the membrane must combine high permeability
with high selectivity. For liquid separations, the membrane should preferably have both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic characteristics.
No one membrane process is suitable for every fluid stream, owing to the nature of
the feed solution, the product specification and the type of membrane. Even for the same
membrane process, the performance can vary depending on the type of feed. For
example, when UF is used to treat wastewater as compared to purified water, the product
water (permeate) flow rate can eventually be 70e80% lower, due to the build-up (i.e.
concentration polarisation (CP)) of rejected solutes on the membrane surface. Thus,
there is a clear distinction between the intrinsic membrane characteristics and the actual
membrane performance.
The first major breakthrough in membrane separation came in 1959 when S. Sourirajan
and S. Loeb discovered a method to make a very thin cellulose acetate (CA) RO membrane
Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment © 2016 Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63312-5.00002-4 All rights reserved. 15
16 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
using the phase inversion method called henceforth the LoebeSourirajan (L-S) membrane
[1,2]. This technique produces homogenous membranes with an asymmetric (or
anisotropic) structure. The membranes were subsequently found to be ‘skinned’ when
examined under an electron microscope by Riley in 1964 [3]. The membranes consisted
of a very thin, porous salt-rejecting barrier of CA, integrally supported by a fine CA
porous substrate. The first noncellulosic asymmetric RO membrane was the hollow
fibre (HF) polyamide (PA) membrane developed in the late 1960s, which led to the
development of HF UF and MF membranes in the 1970s, as shown in Figure 2.1.
The next major breakthrough was the development of the so-called thin-film com-
posite (TFC) RO membrane by Cadotte and Rozelle from a new class of membrane
materials in the early 1970s [3,4]. It was made by depositing a very thin layer of a
salt-rejecting PA polymer onto the surface of a suitable finely porous substrate, such
as a polysulphone (PS) UF membrane, by an interfacial polymerisation reaction (see
Figure 2.2). The dense cross-linked polymer layer, which can only form at the inter-
face, is extremely thin (0.1 mm) and results in high flux. Since the polymer is highly
Introduction to Membrane Processes for Water Treatment 17
Figure 2.1 Asymmetric ultrafiltration membranes: (a) polymeric (thickness of ‘skin’ shown);
(b) ceramic; (c) hollow fibre with skin on the tube (lumen) side.
cross-linked, the selectivity is high. In 1976, Cadotte also developed TFC membranes
showing high flux and high rejection of divalent ions but high permeability to aqueous
chloride solutions. These loose RO membranes were given the name ‘nanofiltration’
membranes by Petersen in 1984 [4].
Figure 2.2 (a) Micrograph of a TFC membrane e PA skin layer on PS support; (b) Schematic of the
interfacial polymerisation reaction to form TFC membranes - the monomers m-phenylenediamine
and trimesoyl chloride react to form a highly cross-linked polyamide layer. Ultrathin films are fabri-
cated by dissolving the m-phenylenediamine in water and trimesoyl chloride in a water-immiscible
organic solvent such as hexane. A porous support is soaked in the aqueous solution and then con-
tacted with the organic solution. The resulting PA layer is confined to the region near the interface
of the two solutions. (P.A. Pacheo, et al., Journal of Membrane Science 358 (2010), 51e59. CopyrightÒ
(2010), with permission from Elsevier.)
negative charge and are slightly hydrophilic with a contact angle of 50 e60 .
However, unlike cellulose membranes, they are susceptible to attack by oxidising
agents such as chlorine and are more prone to fouling due to their rough surface.
The polymer structure and cross-section of a TFC membrane is shown in Figure 2.2.
Cross-linked fully aromatic PA X-20 (Tri-Sep) has shown a superior resistance to
fouling and chlorine, due to its relatively neutral charge and stronger polyamidee
urea bond linkage [7].
• UF membranes e UF membranes are typically manufactured by the phase inversion
process [6,7,12]. The most widely used polymer is PS, but other polymers are also
used; CA, regenerated cellulose, polyether sulphone (PES), polyacrylonitrile
(PAN), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
Cellulose-based membranes have a higher flux at equivalent rejections, and are
less prone to fouling. However, noncellulosic membranes are necessary for many
applications because of their higher stability, e.g. where steam sterilisation is
required. Among the newer membranes in use are polyimide (PI) UF membranes:
PI membranes are promising because of their resistant to organic solvents [13] such
as hexane, benzene, methanol, acetic acid, acetone, ethyl ether, ethoxy ethanol and
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Double-skinned, hydrophilic PS HF UF membranes
(Asahi) with a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) rating of 6000 and 10,000 Da
are used in ultrapure water (UPW) applications; the membranes have a skin or
20 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
barrier layer both on the inside and the outside of the fibre. This morphology pro-
vides greater structural support, thus reducing possible particle shedding and
providing high particle retention. Further, the two skin layers also ensure sterile
conditions by preventing migration of any bacteria (colonised in the porous support
layer) downstream. The flow path is outside to inside (see Figure 13.9).
• MF membranes e MF membranes are prepared by sintering, track-etching, stretching,
or by phase inversion [6,12]. The most common polymeric materials are PTFE
(TeflonÒ), PVDF, polypropylene (PP), PS, cellulosic, PE, polycarbonate, polyester,
polyether imide and nylon 6. Of these, only PTFE, PVDF and PP have excellent
to good chemical stability. Even though hydrophilic, cellulosic membranes have
limited chemical stability, they are best suited to treating high-fouling feeds using
tubular membranes (TMs).
• ED membranes e The membrane polymer is hydrophobic, e.g. polystyrene, PE and
PS (see Section ‘charged membranes’).
• Membrane contactor (MC) membranes e MCs use polyolefins, e.g. PP microporous HF
membranes [14]. The polymer is required to be hydrophobic.
»Rakas lapsi, ota tuo palli ja istuudu tänne ja kuuntele mitä minulla
on sinulle sanottavaa. Kuten tiedät, olen minä sinun suhteesi äidin
asemassa. Minun täytyy valvoa etuasi ja suojella sinua. Pelkään
sinun olevan… liian kiemailevan… Sinun ikäisenäsi olin tosin
minäkin kiemaileva, mutta ainoastaan sellaisille ihmisille, joille äitini
luvalla sain kiemailla. Olen vakuutettu, että sinulla ensi talvena on
tilaisuus keskiviikkokutsuissani tehdä sopivia valloituksia. Siellä on
esimerkiksi majuri, paroni Schimmerer, joka on leskimies ja omistaa
kolmikerroksisen talon jossain Wienin esikaupungissa…»
»Ja miksi en! Äiti sanoi aina, että minusta on tuleva kreivitär tai
miljoonain omistaja…»
Hanna oli tuskin jäänyt yksin, kun jo suli kyyneliin. Nyt hän vasta
selvästi tunsi rakastavansa nuorta tiedemiestä. Ja tämä… tämä oli
pyytänyt häntä vaimokseen; varmaankin riippui hänen elämänsä
vastauksesta… ja kummitäti aikoi musertaa hänen sydämensä
rukkasilla. Ei, tapahtukoon mitä hyvänsä, hän vastaa myöntyvästi.
»Sisään!»
»Tulevaisuuteni.»
»Vastaus on myöntävä.»
Hanna huokasi.
»Ei, ei… pukujen takia en epäile… mutta jos Ewald ei ole mukana,
on kai sopimatonta…»
»Oh, miten ikävä ilta!» hän huokaa. »Miten olet nyt huvitellut
lapsi?»
»Kuninkaallisesti!»