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EMERGING MEMBRANE
TECHNOLOGY FOR
SUSTAINABLE WATER
TREATMENT

NICHOLAS P. HANKINS
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering
Department of Engineering Science
The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

RAJINDAR SINGH
Membrane Ventures, LLC
Colorado Springs, CO, USA

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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Catalina Alvarado
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
€ ur Arar
Ozg€
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Dibakar Bhattacharyya
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
W. Richard Bowen
FREng, i-NewtonWales, Swansea, UK
Jakob Buchheim
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
Samuel Bunani
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey;
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey; Department of
Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi
Malynda A. Cappelle
The University of Texas at El Paso, Center for Inland Desalination Systems, El Paso, TX, USA
Philip A. Davies
Aston University, Birmingham, UK
Thomas A. Davis
The University of Texas at El Paso, Center for Inland Desalination Systems, El Paso, TX, USA
Mengmeng Deng
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
Kathryn Farris
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
Takahiro Fujioka
Water and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagasaki University,
Nagasaki, Japan
M.C. García-Payo
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain

xi
xii List of Contributors

J. Gilron
The Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Midreshet
Sde Boker, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Nicholas P. Hankins
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering, Department of Engineering Science,
The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Claus Helix-Nielsen
The Biomimetic Membrane Group, DTU Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens
Lyngby, Denmark; Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor,
Maribor, Slovenia
Sebastian Hernandez
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Nalan Kabay
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Sher Jamal Khan
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Mohamed Khayet
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain; Madrid Institute of Advanced Studies of Water (IMDEA Water Institute), Madrid, Spain
James Kilduff
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
Chang-Min Kim
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and
Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Republic of Korea
Long D. Nghiem
Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental
Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Lindell Ormsbee
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Hyung Gyu Park
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
Anthony Saad
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Julio A. Sanmartino
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Physics, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid,
Spain
Li-Cheng Shen
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering, Department of Engineering Science,
The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
List of Contributors xiii

Rajindar Singh
Membrane Ventures, LLC, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Chuyang Y. Tang
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Zhining Wang
Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education of China
Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
Roman M. Wyss
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgen€
ossische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Z€
urich, Z€
urich, Switzerland
PREFACE

‘Overcoming the crisis in water and sanitation is one of the greatest human development
challenges of the early 21st century’, a recent UN report has warned. About one in every
six people today do not have sufficient access to clean drinking water, and twice as many
lack basic sanitation. As a result, 2.2 million deaths per year are related to water/hygiene/
sanitation; many of these are children. Such problems are forecast to grow worse, with
more than half the world’s population facing chronic to critical water shortages by
2050, limiting economic development and food supplies. Ensuring adequate water
supplies to allow a sustainable future, thus poses an engineering challenge of the first
magnitude.
What are the solutions to these challenges? New and massive reservoirs, wells, pipe-
lines and river transfers are no longer acceptable; a more sustainable development and use
of water resources is required, involving more sophisticated technology. Climate change
means previously less water-stressed regions must rely increasingly on brackish under-
ground waters or seawater as the main source of water, which can be energy intensive;
alternatively, they must recycle and reuse wastewater. Yet global warming and rising
fossil fuel prices both imply increasing challenges in the sustainable supply of energy.
Add to this, the fact that the treatment of flowback water and produced water resulting
from hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’) of oil and gas wells is also becoming increasingly
critical for safe disposal and reuse. All this implies further increases in the cost of water
generally, and desalinated water in particular. On the other hand, an economically,
environmentally and socially sustainable technology for water treatment should be inex-
pensive and energy-efficient, with minimal or no chemical consumption, it should be
capable of water recycling and reuse that minimise the direct disposal of wastewater to
the aquatic environment, and it should be an accessible technology which can be
deployed in a wide range of human scenarios and over a wide range of physical scales.
Membrane separation technology offers a very promising response to address these
tough challenges; it has the promise to dramatically improve the sustainability of our wa-
ter resources. In recent years, the deployment of membrane technology in the water
sector has grown exponentially. The growing interest in membrane technology for water
and wastewater treatment is based on the following advantages:
• Compared to conventional technology, membrane technology has better contami-
nant removal efficiencies. It thus has the capability to address more stringent drinking
water regulations. Since it prevents the passage of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and other
pathogenic bacteria and viruses, it avoids the risk of microbial outbreaks without any
chemical pretreatment. In wastewater treatment, membranes produce a very high

xv
xvi Preface

effluent quality that meets strict discharge regulations, and effluents can be reused for
industrial applications, irrigation and even as a source of potable drinking water.
• The technology is highly suitable in developing countries, because it can be used for
small and distributed communities. Since a membrane filtration unit typically needs
only half or less the footprint of a conventional potable water or wastewater treatment
plant, it saves on space and money. The capacity of an existing plant can be increased
by membrane units without additional footprint, whether for plant upgrade, expan-
sion or for a new plant, enabling substantial capital savings. Furthermore, membrane
units are modular in design, allowing for easy duplication and scale-up.
• Unlike the thermal effect units which are used for distillation, membrane separation
processes do not generally involve boiling, allowing for a greatly reduced energy con-
sumption. They are also ideally suited to operation which exploits renewable energy
sources, such as solar, wind and tidal.
• With the increase in membrane deployment, particularly in the water sector, there has
been a steady reduction in membrane equipment costs, making water and wastewater
treatment costs much lower. Indeed, recycling wastewater directly from municipal
sewage is much cheaper in energy and resource terms than purifying seawater, and
obviates wastewater disposal problems and water pollution.
• Membranes are capable of processing highly contaminated water, such as floodwater
and sewage, with high concentrations of suspended solids and organic compounds.
Thus, the use of membrane technology facilitates the use of lower quality water,
or so-called ‘sewer mining’. Moreover, it shows flexibility to handle changing feed-
water conditions and capacity increases. The operation is simple and automated,
which ensures that system integrity is met.
For all these reasons, there is a rapidly expanding range of emerging membrane tech-
nologies for sustainable water supply and treatment. This book has focused on these
emerging and state-of-the-art applications by inviting contributions from leading experts
in four main areas, and each chapter highlights an area of innovative and promising
technological development.
Section 1 covers membrane processes for global water solutions, with introductory
contributions on the ethical and sustainable utilisation of water, and on membrane-
based water processing. In Section 2, desalination and potable water purification are
highlighted, with contributions on forward osmosis for sustainable water processing, mem-
brane distillation for brine concentrate treatment, desalination by photovoltaic-powered
RO, the use of fuel cells to power decentralised desalination in developing countries,
the application of ion exchange membranes to water softening and high-recovery desali-
nation at zero discharge and an overview of electromembrane processes. At the other end
of the water supply chain, Section 3 focuses on wastewater treatment for reclamation and
reuse, and it includes the removal of trace organic contaminants by NF/RO, the applica-
tion of polymeresurfactant technologies to contaminant removal and recovery, the use of
Preface xvii

emerging membrane bioreactor technology for water reclamation and reuse and brine
treatment for high-recovery desalination. Finally, Section 4 features novel membrane
materials and applications, including high-purity water purification, development of
aquaporin-based biomimetic membranes, porous ultrathin graphene membranes, nano-
composite and pH/temperature-responsive membranes and finally membrane fouling
and developments in control techniques.
Throughout the book, the unifying themes of sustainability, energy and resource ef-
ficiency including renewable energy, and reclamation, reuse and recycle are emphasised.
As a whole, the book provides a unique and single source in highlighting the growing
and competitive importance of innovative membrane technology for sustainable water
supply and technology.
Why a new book in this area?
The challenges posed by water stress and poor water-related hygiene have assumed a
growing urgency in the past decade, tied inextricably to the waterefoodeenergy nexus,
in the midst of which global climate change has adopted a key and alarming position.
Though membrane technology is hardly new, it has started to emerge globally in the
past decade as a serious contender for this challenge at the large scale. Yet, whilst there
are countless texts on water treatment and on membrane technologies, none address
in a whole and integrated way the contribution which membrane technology is poised
to make in the future. For the first time, the reader is able to see in one reference work
the state of the art in this rapidly evolving area.
We wish to thank all the chapter contributors, and appreciate the editors at Elsevier,
Kostas Marinakis, Christine McElvenny and Debasish Ghosh for their support and
patience. And, Rajindar dedicates the book to his family: Rashna Batliwala, Samir Indar
and Namrita Shirin.
Nicholas P. Hankins and Rajindar Singh
November 2015
CHAPTER 1

Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation


of Water: Global Scenarios and
Engineering Responsibilities
W. Richard Bowen
FREng, i-NewtonWales, Swansea, UK

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of a broad international consensus about the importance of human
rights is one of the outstanding achievements of the twentieth century. The concept
of human rights may be described as [1]:
There is something about each and every human being, simply as a human being, such that
certain choices should be made and certain choices rejected; in particular, certain things ought
not to be done to any human being and certain other things ought to be done for every human
being.

The international consensus about this concept was first and most prominently
demonstrated in 1948, through the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) [2]. This recognises that respect for the inherent dignity, and conse-
quently for certain equal and inalienable rights, of all human beings is the foundation
of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The Declaration has been developed
through various international, regional and national legal instruments. At the interna-
tional level, two of the most important are the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR).
Human rights discourse continues to develop. Thus, in 2010 a resolution [3] of
the General Assembly of the United Nations acknowledged ‘the importance of equitable
access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as an integral component of the
realization of all human rights’, and further recognised:
the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for
the full enjoyment of life and all human rights.

This resolution provides a very clear statement of the internationally recognised


ethical importance of each person’s need for access to clean drinking water and sanita-
tion. Furthermore, this importance should be considered in the context of the

Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment © 2016 Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63312-5.00001-2 All rights reserved. 3
4 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

UDHR challenge that ‘every individual and organ of society . shall strive by teaching
and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive
measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition
and observance’.
Progressive measures to meet each person’s needs must be sustainable if they are to be
truly effective. Thus, sustainability has become a major international concern, as exem-
plified by the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro
in 2012. The outcome document [4] of this conference had a vision of ‘commitment to
sustainable development and to ensuring the promotion of an economically, socially and
environmentally sustainable future for our planet and for present and future generations’.
It envisaged a world that is ‘just, equitable and inclusive’ in which people participate in
decision-making that influences their lives. Water and sanitation are prominent in the
document:
We recognize that water is at the core of sustainable development as it is closely linked to a
number of key global challenges. We therefore reiterate the importance of integrating water
into sustainable development, and underline the critical importance of water and sanitation
within the three dimensions of sustainable development. We stress the need to adopt measures
to significantly reduce water pollution and increase water quality, significantly improve waste-
water treatment and water efficiency and reduce water losses. In order to achieve this, we stress
the need for international assistance and cooperation.

Here the three dimensions of sustainable development are economic, social and envi-
ronmental. Water and sanitation are linked to many priorities of the outcome document,
including health, food and energy.
Thus, the needs for ethical and sustainable utilisation of water are widely recognised.
This chapter will explore, at two levels, aspects of this recognition that are pertinent to
the present book. Firstly, present global perspectives and likely global plans will be out-
lined. Secondly, the more specific responsibilities of engineers, and especially membrane
engineers, will be considered.

1.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES


The United Nations General Assembly Millennium Meeting in 2000 committed nations
to a new global partnership. It aims to reduce extreme poverty by setting out a series of
time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015, that have become known as the Millen-
nium Development Goals (MDG). The specific targets developed included to ‘halve
the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation’, using data for 1990 as a baseline. Much of the recent global focus con-
cerning water and sanitation has been on progress towards these targets. The most recent
update [5] shows not only that there has been significant progress, but also that there
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 5

remains much to be done. Progress on meeting the target for drinking water has been
greatest:
The MDG drinking water target coverage of 88% was met in 2010. Whereas 76% of the global
population had access to an improved drinking water source in 1990, 89% of the global popu-
lation had access in 2012, an increase of 2.3 billion people. Fifty-six per cent of the global pop-
ulation, almost four billion people, now enjoy the highest level of access: a piped drinking
water connection on premises.

Although the world met the MDG drinking water target, 748 million people e mostly the poor and
marginalized e still lack access to an improved drinking water source. Of these, almost a quarter
(173 million) rely on untreated surface water, and over 90% live in rural areas. If current trends
continue, there will still be 547 million people without an improved drinking water supply in 2015.

Progress on meeting the sanitation target has been less good1:


The MDG sanitation target aims to reduce the proportion of the population without access to
improved sanitation from 51% in 1990 to 25% in 2015. Coverage of improved sanitation increased
from 49% in 1990 to 64% in 2012. Between 1990 and 2012, almost two billion people gained access
to an improved sanitation facility, and open defecation decreased from 24% to 14%.

Despite significant progress on sanitation, in 2012, 2.5 billion people did not have access to an
improved sanitation facility, down from 2.7 billion in 1990, a decrease of only 7%. If current trends
continue, there will still be 2.4 billion people without access to an improved sanitation facility in
2015, falling short of the MDG sanitation target by over half a billion people. A large majority
(70%) of those without access to an improved sanitation facility live in rural areas.

Inside these global figures are significant variations. For example, most of those
without sanitation are poorer people living in rural areas, and progress on sanitation
has often increased disparities by mainly benefiting wealthier people2.
For the 34 member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development, a focus on water security has developed [6]. Such security has been
described in terms of maintaining acceptable levels of risk of shortage (including
droughts), risk of inadequate quality, risk of excess (including floods) and risk of under-
mining the resilience of freshwater systems. Such consideration is based on scientific and
engineering assessments, as well as the perception of risk in society, whilst achieving a
balance of economic, social and environmental consequences. There has been an
emphasis on water pricing, such as charging for water use and pollution, as a means of
managing some of these risks. That even the most technically advanced and affluent
societies are vulnerable to water shortages has been shown by the effects of the prolonged

1
The figures take into account an increase in world population from 5.3 billion to 7.06 billion between 1990 and 2012.
2
‘Improved’ drinking water sources include household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well,
protected spring and rainwater collection. ‘Improved’ sanitation includes connection to public sewer, connection to a
septic system, pour-flush latrine, simple pit latrine and ventilated improved pit latrine.
6 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

drought in California during 2014. Conservation measures were hampered by a lack of


water metring and by the multitude of providers with different rules [7]. Water supply in
areas such as California is also increasingly under stress, due to the use of hydraulic frac-
turing (‘fracking’) for oil and gas extraction [8]. Furthermore, a study indicates that
groundwater depletion in California may be increasing the chances of earthquakes [9].
All states and societies may be vulnerable to violent conflict connected with access to
water. A ‘Water Conflict Chronology’ lists and provides details of 265 such conflicts
between 3000 BC and 2012 AD [10]. These are categorised as control of water
resources e where water supplies or access to water is at the root of tensions; military
tool e where water resources or water systems are used during a military action; political
tool e where water resources or water systems are used for a political goal; terrorism e
where water resources or water systems are either targets or tools of violence or coercion;
military target e where water resources or water systems are targets of military actions;
development disputes e where water resources or water systems are a major source of
contention and dispute in the context of economic and social development. Most of
the recent conflicts have been intrastate, particularly development disputes. However,
there are significant interstate tensions related to water, including Israel, Jordan and
Palestine; Syria and Turkey; Egypt and Ethiopia; Angola and Namibia; China and India;
Pakistan and India. Indeed, governments are recognising water stress as one of the most
significant potential drivers of the breakdown of the present international system and the
emergence of major interstate conflict [11].

1.3 GLOBAL PLANS


The time of writing occurs during a period of transition. The deadline for the MDG is
approaching and plans are being formulated for Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) as
a basis for the post-2015 development agenda. A recent document [12] has collected
together recommendations from a number of high-level international initiatives. This
document recognises the economic, social and environmental importance of water. It
also recognises that, although access to drinking water and sanitation for all is vital, the
global water challenge must also include management of water resources, wastewater
treatment, water quality and preparedness for natural and manmade catastrophic events.
It therefore proposes that the overall goal should be stated as ‘Securing Sustainable Water
For All’. The document specifies five targets that are intended to drive progress at national
and global levels:
1. Safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) e By 2030: to eliminate open defe-
cation; to achieve universal access to basic drinking water, sanitation and hygiene for
households, schools and health facilities; to halve the proportion of the population
without access at home to safely managed drinking water and sanitation services;
and to progressively eliminate inequalities in access.
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 7

2. Water resources e Improve the sustainable use and development of water resources in
all countries: aiming to promote decisions and actions that take into account both
human and environmental water requirements, as well as the need to increase the
long-term viability of natural supply systems.
3. Water governance e All countries to strengthen equitable, participatory and account-
able water governance: aiming to promote an enabling environment, such that insti-
tutional structures relevant to water are effective and that its administrative systems
function for the benefit of society as a whole.
4. Managing wastewater and pollution to protect water quality e Reduce wastewater pollution
and improve water quality by reducing untreated domestic and industrial wastewater;
increasing wastewater reused safely; and reducing nutrient pollution to maximise
water resource availability and improve water quality.
5. Water-related disasters e Reduce mortality and economic loss from water-related
disasters: focusing on actions that build resilience.
Quantification of these targets and procedures for measuring progress are in the
process of being specified.
The UN-Water document assesses that appropriate engineering investment for the
effective use of available water has wide-reaching economic benefits in sectors as diverse
as industry, energy, agriculture, tourism and recreation. The costs of such investment
have been estimated, with particular attention to the universal provision of clean drinking
water and sanitation after the achievement of the MDG targets. On a worldwide basis,
such provision has been estimated to cost US$174 billion for drinking water and
US$217 billion for sanitation [13]. These are large amounts, but they are small compared
to annual global military expenditure, which was at least US$1756 billion in 2013 [14]. It
seems that globally there is a greater willingness to use resources for war than to use
resources for vital human needs.
There is also a concern that the human right to clean drinking water and sanitation
recognised by the UN is receiving insufficient attention in the planning of SDG. It
has been suggested that the most recently available SDG drafts tend to prioritise water
security for economic growth rather than the preservation of common resources and
the equitable distribution of scarce supplies [15]. That is, a certain priority is being given
to industries with large water requirements, such as mining and energy. Energy, in partic-
ular, is a business that has much greater financial and political influence than water.
Appropriate attention to human rights rather prioritises the dignity of each person,
with a special sensitivity to those most at risk, rather than using a cost-benefit analysis.
A promising approach to the avoidance of conflict over water sees competing claims
for access as an opportunity, an approach that has been termed Blue Peace [16]. This
approach has been proposed at high political levels and particularly for those areas of
the Middle East where tensions about water supply exist: firstly, the northern countries
(Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon and Jordan), and secondly the southern countries
8 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

(Israel and The Palestinian Territories). Collaboration in establishing common standards


for measuring water flow and quality, setting and implementing goals for sustainable wa-
ter resource management and promotion of regional strategies to combat drought arising
from climate change could provide a shared investment in the most essential of resources
and hence provide an important motivation for peaceful coexistence.
The UN-Water document in which the goal of Securing Sustainable Water for All is
proposed recognises the need for a substantial increase in research and development
that could lead to technological innovation and reduction of the cost of efficient technol-
ogies. It also recognises the need to build the practical capacities that would enable the
means for achieving the goal to be provided. Thus, the next section will consider the
responsibilities of engineers in the ethical and sustainable utilisation of water.

1.4 ENGINEERING RESPONSIBILITIES


Consideration of the responsibilities of engineers in response to these global perspectives
and likely global plans can benefit from a consideration of the overall objectives of
engineering. The goal of engineering has been described as the promotion of the flourishing
of persons in communities through contribution to material well-being [17]. This is a description of
an ethical endeavour: it describes the activities of persons, in this case engineers, for the
benefit of other persons. Individual engineers and engineering enterprises may seek to
contribute to the fulfilment of this goal in many different ways. Their actions will typi-
cally involve practical improvements to presently existing circumstances, using their
unique engineering capabilities to identify and implement such improvements. It can
be beneficial to have an aspirational approach to the prioritisation of such activities. It
may be proposed that a useful guide for the choice of such actions can be formulated
in terms of an opportunity of professional capabilities:
.if some action that can be freely undertaken is open to a person (thereby making it feasible),
and if the person assesses that the undertaking of that action will create a more just situation in
the world (thereby making it justice-enhancing), then that is argument enough for the person to
consider seriously what he or she should do in view of these recognitions.

This formulation was used to define an obligation of power in an account of (political)


justice given by the economist and philosopher Amartya Sen [18]. However, engineers
rarely have the type of political power referred to by Sen. It has, therefore, been
proposed to retain the definition but to refer instead to an opportunity of professional
capabilities. Such opportunity could be considered as a generalisation of the ‘rule of
rescue’: the compelling motivation to save endangered human life wherever possible.
When we become aware of the need of others, we are almost always free to walk
away. Nevertheless, we are often moved to action by the situation that confronts us.
Such involvement is an ethical act.
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 9

It should be noted that this opportunity is practical rather than idealistic, for it con-
cerns the serious consideration of feasible options and thus, recognises that there may be
situational constraints on the action (at least initially). The opportunity certainly refers to a
type of situation in which many engineers may find themselves, for they have at their
disposal a range of knowledge, skills, techniques and technologies of great potential.
Most importantly, the same knowledge and skills may provide them with an unique
ability to identify such problems and opportunities. Here the term professional capabilities
is taken to refer specifically to the professional actions which an engineer can undertake
to remove injustice and to promote justice.
Lack of access to clean drinking water and sanitation is a clear example of an injustice.
The remedying of this injustice presents a clear opportunity of professional capabilities for
engineers. Indeed, the consequences of such a lack may be so severe as to merit consid-
eration as an obligation of professional capabilities for engineers. In considering such op-
portunities and obligations, engineers should note that the technological artefacts which
they can provide not only promote human flourishing in terms of well-being (such as
welfare, health and safety) but also enable others to choose the type of life they wish
to live. That is, the benefits of such engineering can be best understood in terms of
the capabilities of beneficiaries, the various things that a person manages to do or be in
leading a life [19]. Such capabilities may be described in terms of both well-being and
agency, the latter being the possibility to advance whatever goals and values a person
has reason to advance. Well-being is particularly useful in assessing issues of distributive
justice. Agency gives attention to the beneficiary as a doer. The specific inclusion of
agency allows for a much richer description of benefits than consideration of well-
being alone. For example, in the case of provision of clean drinking water and sanitation,
well-being may be exemplified through improved health due to reduced susceptibility to
waterborne diseases. However, such provision also enhances agency as improved health
allows adults to take a fuller part in society and ensures that children are healthy enough
to attend and fully benefit from school. These are just an indication of a multitude of such
benefits. It is through the enhancement of such agency that provision of clean drinking
water and sanitation can have a pivotal role in the achievement of all SDG.
Awareness of the social usefulness of such provision is a vital factor in the promotion
of technical excellence in engineering. There is strong evidence that engineers who are
aware of and motivated by the socially beneficial applications of their work are likely to
think with great creativity. This results in highly innovative proposals that show great
prospects not only for social usefulness but also for sustainable commercial profitability
and sustainable employment [20].
A further type of motivation is provided by the UDHR challenge to ‘every individual
and organ of society’. Commercial businesses are important organs of society in which
many engineers are employed. There has been a series of initiatives aiming to clarify
the role of such businesses with respect to human rights. A very important culmination
10 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

of these initiatives has been the endorsement in 2011 by the United Nations Human
Rights Council of a set of Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights [21]. These
are designed to provide a global standard for preventing and addressing the risk of adverse
impacts on human rights linked to business activity. They are also intended to provide
tools to measure real progress in the daily lives of people. A key aspect of these Guiding
Principles is the corporate responsibility to respect human rights. However, many enlight-
ened businesses now go further and seek to promote human rights. There may be a num-
ber of reasons for doing so that are relevant to central business objectives, such as the
development of new business opportunities or to enhance the company’s reputation.
In some circumstances, a company may need to invest in the local provision of clean
drinking water and sanitation, health care and education so as to ensure a suitable
work force and the support of the local community. National laws and the conditions
of government contracts may also require such promotion of human rights. Furthermore,
businesses which have provision of clean drinking water and sanitation as a core concern
are clearly acting to promote an internationally recognised right.
Underlying the formulation of SDG are the need to reshape the existing global part-
nership to avoid it being based on donor-recipient relationships and the consequent need
to engage a full range of types of participants. SDG with a high degree of policy coherence
at the global, regional, national and subnational levels will be required. The vision is that of
a transformative people-centred approach: that is, both the well-being and the agency of
all should be respected and promoted. If such approaches are to succeed in the longer term,
it is essential to engage engineering students and young professional engineers in such
activities. This is specifically a goal of the international organisation Engineers Without
Borders. Its priorities exemplify such a transformative, people-centred approach [22]:
Holistic engineering e we work with an interdisciplinary approach that takes into
consideration of the local knowledge, economy, culture and environment.
Active partnerships e we build long-term relationships and work in collaboration with
communities and local organisations.
People participation e we believe in demand-led development and participatory
change.
Small footprint e we want to adopt a sustainable use of natural resources and minimise
any impact to the local environment, biodiversity or global climate.
Appropriate technology e we adapt existing low-risk technology and apply modern
engineering methods.
Furthermore, all engineers can contribute to development by participation in initia-
tives such as the Technology Exchange Lab, an online platform for the sharing and dis-
cussion of ideas for innovative, locally implemented solutions to problems of poverty and
sustainability, including clean drinking water and sanitation [23].
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 11

The political initiative that sees competition for access to water as an opportunity,
Blue Peace, has an engineering equivalent in the practice of Peace Engineering [24].
The vision is that engineers recognise the prioritising of the peace of communities as
an essential feature of their work. Notable features of this approach include the following:
• provision of practical solutions to local needs, whether they arise from competition for
resources such as water, economic marginalisation, climate change or other factors;
• activities that directly commit persons and communities in potential conflict to common
projects of benefit to all;
• provision of nonviolent means of meeting human needs and of preventing the buildup
of tensions, both of which are presently associated with the temptations of preventive
or preemptive military action.
Approaches of these types respect the full and equal status of every person, achieve a
congruence of nonviolent means and ends in the promotion of peace, and recognise that
peace involves much more than the absence of conflict.
Good evidence of the success of such practical approaches in overcoming ethnic ten-
sions is available [25]. For example, in Gal Oya in Sri Lanka, a region that had experi-
enced repeated violent ethnic conflict, an inadequate irrigation system was the source
of continuing tensions between Sinhalese farmers living upstream and Tamil farmers
living downstream. The system was updated with an emphasis on participation of all po-
tential beneficiaries, with remarkable social results. The Sinhalese farmers voluntarily
reduced their water use in order to make more available to the Tamil farmers. Sharing
of water continued even in a severe dry season. Despite efforts of Tamil Tigers during
the long civil war, the cooperation continued with Sinhalese farmers protecting Tamil
project staff and farmers. In contrast, a second scheme in Sri Lanka, at Mahaweli, failed
to include equitable participation and failed to have such peacemaking effects. The Gal
Oya scheme promoted reconciliation through a generous and compassionate approach
that involved both technical and social ingenuity.
Global goals for water are essential for setting a worldwide agenda. However, the
practical achievement of such goals depends crucially on the work of engineers. The
basis of this crucial contribution lies in engineering capabilities, the range of knowledge,
skills, techniques and technologies of great potential which engineers have at their
disposal. Two further factors are also important. Firstly, engineers are widely dispersed
in differing types of communities and differing geographical locations. They are hence
often available where essential work needs to be undertaken. Secondly, engineers
can often work across state boundaries without many of the political restrictions
that limit high-level initiatives. Though such engineering work may not have
the glamour associated with prestigious initiatives, it can efficiently and effectively
improve the lives of many.
12 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

1.5 MEMBRANE ENGINEERING


To provide an inspiration to current and future workers in this area, it is worth recalling
the contributions of the pioneers of membrane technology. A key innovative step was
the development in 1959 of practically useful polymeric anisotropic membranes [26].
The first Loeb-Sourirajan membrane was what is now termed a reverse osmosis mem-
brane, and is the prototype of a family of membranes, also including nanofiltration mem-
branes and ultrafiltration membranes, with pores in specified segments of the range from
subnanometre dimensions to about 100 nm.
A key engineering contribution was the use of such membranes in the development
of the world’s first commercial reverse osmosis system in the town of Coalinga in
California, a development that required the ingenious solution of several practical prob-
lems. The process at Coalinga provided 19,000 L of drinking water daily for the residents;
there was a special need for such provision, as the local water was so high in minerals that
drinking water was previously transported in by rail tanker. Further noteworthy scaleup
was achieved at the first reverse osmosis plant in the Middle East, at Kibbutz Yotvata,
Israel, which used locally manufactured membranes to produce 150,000 L of drinking
water daily. This installation was much needed as the local water was sufficiently brackish
to pose a serious threat to health when consumed. It was from such modest beginnings
that the membrane business developed that is now worth many billions of euros annually.
The engineers working on these processes acted on what has been described in the
present chapter as an opportunity of professional capabilities. Their success shows that
aspirational approaches to the promotion of human flourishing through engineering are
practically achievable. Though membrane processes are commercially successful, such
success was not the main motivation for many of these early pioneers. Their greatest moti-
vation was often rather that they could use their engineering skills to contribute much to
the welfare of many. However, as this chapter has made clear, there are still many in the
world whose human rights to clean water and sanitation are not being fulfilled. There
remains a great need to develop new membrane technologies for the sustainable provision
of clean drinking water, sanitation and wastewater treatment, and especially so in forms
that are cost-effective and appropriate for use in deprived communities. The technical
chapters of this book provide accounts of some of the most promising approaches.

REFERENCES
[1] M.J. Perry, The Idea of Human Rights: Four Enquiries, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998
p. 13.
[2] The Texts of the UDHR and Other Components of the International Bill of Human Rights,
Together with Further Human Rights Documentation, are available at: http://www.ohchr.org/en/
udhr/pages/introduction.aspx.
[3] United Nations, The Human Right to Water and Sanitation, A/RES/64/292, United Nations Gen-
eral Assembly, New York, 2010.
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities 13

[4] United Nations, The Future We Want, A/RES/66/288, United Nations General Assembly, New
York, 2012.
[5] World Health Organization and UNICEF, Progress on Drinking Water Sanitation: 2014 Update,
WHO, Geneva, 2014.
[6] Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Water Security for Better Lives, OECD,
Paris, 2013.
[7] S. Goldenberg, California drought: authorities struggle to impose water conservation measures, The
Guardian (March 11, 2014).
[8] M. Freyman, Hydraulic Fracturing and Water Stress: Water Demand by the Numbers, Ceres, Boston,
2014.
[9] C.B. Amos, P. Audet, W.C. Hammond, R. B€ urgmann, I.A. Johanson, G. Blewitt, Uplift and seis-
micity driven by groundwater depletion in central California, Nature 509 (2014) 483e486.
[10] http://worldwater.org/water-conflict/.
[11] Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom, CO, London, 2008.
[12] UN-Water, A Post-2015 Global Goal for Water: Synthesis of Key Findings and Recommendations
from UN-Water, UN-Water, Geneva, 2014.
[13] G. Hutton, Global Costs and Benefits of Drinking-water Supply and Sanitation Interventions to
Reach the MDG Target and Universal Coverage, WHO/HSE/WSH/12.01, WHO, Geneva, 2012.
[14] Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook 2013: Armaments, Disarmament
and International Security, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013.
[15] M. Karunananthan, Is the UN turning its back on the human right to water? The Guardian (June 19,
2014).
[16] Strategic Foresight Group, The Blue Peace: Rethinking Middle East Water, SFG, Mumbai, 2011.
Strategic Foresight Group, Water Cooperation for a Secure World: Focus on the Middle East,
SFG, Mumbai, 2013.
[17] W.R. Bowen, Engineering Ethics: Challenges and Opportunities, Springer International Switzerland,
Cham, 2014.
[18] A. Sen, The Idea of Justice, Allen Lane, London, 2009 p. 206.
[19] A. Sen, On Ethics and Economics, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 1987.
[20] M. Cooley, Architect or Bee? the Human Price of Technology, second ed., The Hogarth Press,
London, 1987.
[21] Office of the United Nations Commissioner for Human Rights, Guiding Principles for Business and
Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ Framework,
OHCHR, New York and Geneva, 2011.
[22] http://www.ewb-uk.org/about/approach.
[23] http://www.technologyexchangelab.org.
[24] P.A. Vesilind, W.R. Bowen (Eds.), Peace Engineering, second ed., Lakeshore Press, Woodsville,
2013.
[25] R.J. Muscat, Investing in Peace, M.E. Sharp, New York, 2002 (The text describes further practical
examples).
[26] S. Loeb, The Loeb-Sourirajan Membrane: How it Came about, ACS Symposium Series 153 (1981)
1e9.
CHAPTER 2

Introduction to Membrane
Processes for Water Treatment
Rajindar Singh1, Nicholas P. Hankins2
1
Membrane Ventures, LLC, Colorado Springs, CO, USA; 2The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering,
Department of Engineering Science, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Membrane separation processes used for water treatment and purification include
reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), microfiltration (MF)
and electrodialysis (ED). Basic characteristics of these processes are given in Table 2.1.
Electrodeionisation (EDI) and membrane degasification have important but limited
applications. Newer and promising processes such as membrane distillation and forward
osmosis (FO) are discussed in later chapters. A general overview of membrane technol-
ogy and separation for water treatment is presented in this chapter.
A membrane is defined as a permselective barrier between two homogeneous fluid
phases. The semipermeable barrier selectively allows the passage of some components
but not others, e.g. an RO membrane allows the passage of water but rejects almost
all of the ions and salts, resulting in a concentrated salt on the feed side of the membrane
and a virtually ion-free water product on the other side of the membrane. Thus, the most
permeable component (water) becomes enriched in the permeate stream while the least
permeable component becomes enriched in the reject (salt) stream.
Membrane performance is based on a number of factors, including membrane selec-
tivity and flux; good mechanical, chemical and thermal stability of the membrane mate-
rial; minimal fouling during operation; and good compatibility with the feed solution.
For a membrane process to be effective, the membrane must combine high permeability
with high selectivity. For liquid separations, the membrane should preferably have both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic characteristics.
No one membrane process is suitable for every fluid stream, owing to the nature of
the feed solution, the product specification and the type of membrane. Even for the same
membrane process, the performance can vary depending on the type of feed. For
example, when UF is used to treat wastewater as compared to purified water, the product
water (permeate) flow rate can eventually be 70e80% lower, due to the build-up (i.e.
concentration polarisation (CP)) of rejected solutes on the membrane surface. Thus,
there is a clear distinction between the intrinsic membrane characteristics and the actual
membrane performance.
The first major breakthrough in membrane separation came in 1959 when S. Sourirajan
and S. Loeb discovered a method to make a very thin cellulose acetate (CA) RO membrane

Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment © 2016 Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63312-5.00002-4 All rights reserved. 15
16 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

Table 2.1 Classification of membrane processes used in water treatment


Average
Nominal pore permeability
Process size Driving force Membrane type L/m2 h bar
Microfiltration 0.05e10 mm 1e3 bar Porous, 500
symmetric or
asymmetric
Ultrafiltration 0.001 2e5 bar Microporous, 150
e0.05 mm asymmetric
Nanofiltration <2.0 nm 5e15 bar Tight porous, 10e20
asymmetric,
thin-film
composite
Reverse Osmosis w0.5 nm 15e75 bar Semiporous, 5e10
asymmetric,
thin-film
composite
Electrodialysis MW < 200 Da Electrical Swollen gel, e
potential, charged,
1e2 V/cell symmetric
pair
Electrodeionisation MW < 200 Da Electrical Swollen gel, e
potential charged,
symmetric
Membrane 500e1000 Vacuum Porous, e
degasification symmetric

using the phase inversion method called henceforth the LoebeSourirajan (L-S) membrane
[1,2]. This technique produces homogenous membranes with an asymmetric (or
anisotropic) structure. The membranes were subsequently found to be ‘skinned’ when
examined under an electron microscope by Riley in 1964 [3]. The membranes consisted
of a very thin, porous salt-rejecting barrier of CA, integrally supported by a fine CA
porous substrate. The first noncellulosic asymmetric RO membrane was the hollow
fibre (HF) polyamide (PA) membrane developed in the late 1960s, which led to the
development of HF UF and MF membranes in the 1970s, as shown in Figure 2.1.
The next major breakthrough was the development of the so-called thin-film com-
posite (TFC) RO membrane by Cadotte and Rozelle from a new class of membrane
materials in the early 1970s [3,4]. It was made by depositing a very thin layer of a
salt-rejecting PA polymer onto the surface of a suitable finely porous substrate, such
as a polysulphone (PS) UF membrane, by an interfacial polymerisation reaction (see
Figure 2.2). The dense cross-linked polymer layer, which can only form at the inter-
face, is extremely thin (0.1 mm) and results in high flux. Since the polymer is highly
Introduction to Membrane Processes for Water Treatment 17

Figure 2.1 Asymmetric ultrafiltration membranes: (a) polymeric (thickness of ‘skin’ shown);
(b) ceramic; (c) hollow fibre with skin on the tube (lumen) side.

cross-linked, the selectivity is high. In 1976, Cadotte also developed TFC membranes
showing high flux and high rejection of divalent ions but high permeability to aqueous
chloride solutions. These loose RO membranes were given the name ‘nanofiltration’
membranes by Petersen in 1984 [4].

2.1 MEMBRANE MATERIALS


Membranes can be made from a large number of materials [3,5,6]. The material is
selected based on processing requirements, thermal and chemical stability and fouling
tendency. The most common material is polymeric with an asymmetric (anisotropic) or
symmetric (microporous) structure. Asymmetric membranes are used in RO, NF and
UF, whereas MF membranes are either anisotropic or symmetric. An asymmetric
18 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

Table 2.2 Standard membrane manufacturing methods


Method Materials
Phase inversion: Solvent evaporation, Polymers: CA, PA, PP, PS, nitrocellulose
temperature change, precipitant addition
Interfacial polymerisation Polymer: PA e thin-film composite
Stretching sheets of partially crystalline polymers Polymers: PTFE
Irradiation and etching Polymers: Polycarbonate, polyester
Moulding and sintering of fine-grain powders Ceramics, metaloxides, PTFE, PE

membrane consists of a very dense skin supported by a porous sublayer of thickness


50e150 mm as shown in Figure 2.1. The typical skin layer thickness is: RO/
NF ¼ 0.1e1.0 mm; UF ¼ 0.1e1.0 mm; MF (symmetric) ¼ 10e150 mm; and MF
(asymmetric) ¼ 1 mm [5]. Inorganic membranes, introduced in the 1980s, are confined
to UF and MF. Several methods of manufacturing synthetic membranes are listed in
Table 2.2. Each method produces a different membrane morphology e in terms of
porosity, pore size distribution and ultrastructure.
Membrane surface morphologies and properties such as roughness, charge and
hydrophilicity have remarkable effects on performance and fouling. Interfacial prop-
erties, such as interfacial tension and adsorption, are considered to be the most impor-
tant physical properties of the membrane material because the solid membrane phase is
in contact with a liquid or a gas phase. For example, the precipitous drop in permeate
flux with hydrophobic UF membranes is the result of irreversible adsorption (fouling)
of solutes, such as proteins, on the membrane surface, whereas cellulosic hydrophilic
membranes, which swell in water, present a more ‘waterlike’ surface to the proteins.
Data on various membranes in use are summarised in recent works [7e9] (see also
Section 9.3.3).

2.1.1 Polymeric Membranes


• RO/NF membranes e Homogeneous asymmetric CA and PA membranes made by
the phase inversion process and TFC PAs have been used for RO systems for over
30 years [10,11]. Both CA and PA membranes possess an economically viable com-
bination of high rejection and water flux. However, TFC membranes now domi-
nate the RO/NF market with CA membranes a distant second. For example, with
the exception of Toyobo cellulose triacetate (CTA) membranes, all seawater RO
desalination membranes are TFC membranes of the fully aromatic type as manufac-
tured by Dow/Film-Tec, Nitto Denko/Hydranautics, Tri-Sep, and Toray. Along
with the ability to remain stable over a greater pH range than cellulose-based mem-
branes, TFC membranes exhibit much higher intrinsic water permeabilities because
of their extremely thin (w100 nm) PA-selective layers. The membranes have a
Introduction to Membrane Processes for Water Treatment 19

Figure 2.2 (a) Micrograph of a TFC membrane e PA skin layer on PS support; (b) Schematic of the
interfacial polymerisation reaction to form TFC membranes - the monomers m-phenylenediamine
and trimesoyl chloride react to form a highly cross-linked polyamide layer. Ultrathin films are fabri-
cated by dissolving the m-phenylenediamine in water and trimesoyl chloride in a water-immiscible
organic solvent such as hexane. A porous support is soaked in the aqueous solution and then con-
tacted with the organic solution. The resulting PA layer is confined to the region near the interface
of the two solutions. (P.A. Pacheo, et al., Journal of Membrane Science 358 (2010), 51e59. CopyrightÒ
(2010), with permission from Elsevier.)

negative charge and are slightly hydrophilic with a contact angle of 50 e60 .
However, unlike cellulose membranes, they are susceptible to attack by oxidising
agents such as chlorine and are more prone to fouling due to their rough surface.
The polymer structure and cross-section of a TFC membrane is shown in Figure 2.2.
Cross-linked fully aromatic PA X-20 (Tri-Sep) has shown a superior resistance to
fouling and chlorine, due to its relatively neutral charge and stronger polyamidee
urea bond linkage [7].
• UF membranes e UF membranes are typically manufactured by the phase inversion
process [6,7,12]. The most widely used polymer is PS, but other polymers are also
used; CA, regenerated cellulose, polyether sulphone (PES), polyacrylonitrile
(PAN), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
Cellulose-based membranes have a higher flux at equivalent rejections, and are
less prone to fouling. However, noncellulosic membranes are necessary for many
applications because of their higher stability, e.g. where steam sterilisation is
required. Among the newer membranes in use are polyimide (PI) UF membranes:
PI membranes are promising because of their resistant to organic solvents [13] such
as hexane, benzene, methanol, acetic acid, acetone, ethyl ether, ethoxy ethanol and
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Double-skinned, hydrophilic PS HF UF membranes
(Asahi) with a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) rating of 6000 and 10,000 Da
are used in ultrapure water (UPW) applications; the membranes have a skin or
20 Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment

barrier layer both on the inside and the outside of the fibre. This morphology pro-
vides greater structural support, thus reducing possible particle shedding and
providing high particle retention. Further, the two skin layers also ensure sterile
conditions by preventing migration of any bacteria (colonised in the porous support
layer) downstream. The flow path is outside to inside (see Figure 13.9).
• MF membranes e MF membranes are prepared by sintering, track-etching, stretching,
or by phase inversion [6,12]. The most common polymeric materials are PTFE
(TeflonÒ), PVDF, polypropylene (PP), PS, cellulosic, PE, polycarbonate, polyester,
polyether imide and nylon 6. Of these, only PTFE, PVDF and PP have excellent
to good chemical stability. Even though hydrophilic, cellulosic membranes have
limited chemical stability, they are best suited to treating high-fouling feeds using
tubular membranes (TMs).
• ED membranes e The membrane polymer is hydrophobic, e.g. polystyrene, PE and
PS (see Section ‘charged membranes’).
• Membrane contactor (MC) membranes e MCs use polyolefins, e.g. PP microporous HF
membranes [14]. The polymer is required to be hydrophobic.

2.1.2 Inorganic Membranes


There are four general categories of inorganic membranes: ceramics, sintered metals, glass
and zeolite [5,15]. These membranes are now viable alternatives to polymeric mem-
branes for some UF and MF applications because of their outstanding thermal and chem-
ical stability, particularly their resistance to chemical attack. They are, however, much
more expensive than polymeric membranes.
Ceramic UF and MF membranes are made by sintering and solegel processes. Sinter-
ing is limited to pore sizes of about 0.1 mm. Tighter UF membranes are generally pre-
pared by the solegel technique. g-alumina (g-Al2 O3) and a-alumina are the most
common ceramic membrane materials. Others include zirconia (ZrO2), titania (TiO2),
silicon carbide (SiC) and glass (SiO2). Alumina-based MF membranes and porous carbon
substrates are made into UF membranes by depositing a layer of ZrO2 on the surface.
A cross-section of a ceramic membrane is shown in Figure 2.1.
Organo-mineral membranes that are intermediate between polymeric and ceramic
membranes, e.g. UF organo-mineral membranes, are composed of a polymeric matrix
(mostly PS) in which zirconia grains are dispersed finely as a filler material [7]. These
membranes have a considerably higher flux than polymeric membranes. Newer UF
membranes that have been investigated include carbon membranes prepared by spray
deposition and pyrolysis of poly(furfuryl alcohol)/poly(ethylene glycol) mixtures on
macroporous stainless steel supports [8]. They show sieving characteristics similar to com-
mercial 100,000 Da PES UF membranes. Nanoporous carbon membranes are very stable
to aggressive cleaning agents.
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jälkeensä ikkunassa?… Mutta kuten näet, olet antanut hänelle liiaksi
toivomisen aihetta. Nyt täytyy meidän antaa miesparalle rukkaset ja
siten hankimme itsellemme vihollisia.»

»Ja miksi rukkaset?»

»Miksi? Tämä ei ole sinulle mikään sopiva naimiskauppa, Hanna.


Ei suinkaan sinun, joka tuskin olet täysi-ikäinen, sovi myöntyä
ensimäiseen tarjoukseen? Koulunopettaja! Ja neiti von Orfalvy, vielä
niin kaunis ja etevä kuin sinä! Sinä et tosin kuulu kermaan… tiedän
hyvin, ettet voi joutua kaikkein hienoimpiin naimisiin…»

»Ja miksi en! Äiti sanoi aina, että minusta on tuleva kreivitär tai
miljoonain omistaja…»

»Äiti parkasi oli liian haaveileva…»

»Mutta avioliiton ei pidä perustua maallisiin etuihin, Dori kummi…


sehän on sydämen asia. Minä antaisin aina käteni miehelle, jota
rakastan, olkoon hän sitten jalosukuinen tai porvari, kerjäläinen tai
pohatta.»

»Nyt haaveilet vain. Onneksi on sinulla viisas, käytännöllinen


kummitäti, joka ei anna sinun heittäytyä kenelle tahansa.»

»Anna minun lukea kirje! Anna minulle se!»

»En, tekisin sinut vielä haaveellisemmaksi», vastasi rouva von


Orfalvy katkeroituneena ja pisti kirjeen taskuun.
Ovi avautui.

»Tahtoisiko kenraalitar antaa tarpeet taikinaa varten? Se tarvitsee


pitkän ajan noustakseen.»

»Tulen heti.» Kenraalitar otti avainkimpun pöytälaatikosta. »Siis,


Hanna kultaseni, pois tuhmat haaveet.»

Näin sanoen hän lähti huoneesta seuratakseen keittäjätärtä


ruokakammioon.

Hanna oli tuskin jäänyt yksin, kun jo suli kyyneliin. Nyt hän vasta
selvästi tunsi rakastavansa nuorta tiedemiestä. Ja tämä… tämä oli
pyytänyt häntä vaimokseen; varmaankin riippui hänen elämänsä
vastauksesta… ja kummitäti aikoi musertaa hänen sydämensä
rukkasilla. Ei, tapahtukoon mitä hyvänsä, hän vastaa myöntyvästi.

Jos kenraalitar olisi tälle nuorelle tytölle näyttänyt Ballmannin


kirjeen, jossa tämä kylmin, liian varmoin sanoin pyysi neiti von
Orfalvyn kättä, jos hän vielä käytännöllisistä syistä olisi kehottanut
suostumaan tarjoukseen ja lisännyt: »Sinä et ole rikas, sinä et kuulu
'kermaan', herra Ballmann on kyllin hyvä sinulle ja hän pitää sinusta
huolta», niin olisi Hanna varmaan ruvennut luulemaan olevansa
luotu komeampaa tarjousta varten. Koko avioliitto ja kuiva kosinta
olisivat tuntuneet hänestä kovin arkipäiväisiltä, ja hän olisi
varmaankin vastannut »ei». Mutta Dori täti ei näyttänyt hänelle
kirjettä, »jottei tekisi häntä vieläkin haaveellisemmaksi»; siinä oli siis
runollinen rakkaudentunnustus, ja hänestä tuntui, kuin nuori mies
olisi joutuva kurjien »käytännöllisten» syiden takia onnettomuuteen.
Hän ei voisi elää ilman Hannaa; hän tiesi varmaankin, miten paljon
korkeammalla häntä Hanna oli, mutta rakkaus uskaltaa kaiken ja hän
piti Hannaa sellaisena ihanteena, että luuli hänen uhraavan maalliset
edut, lahjoittaakseen hänelle sydämensä.

»Hän ei saa pettyä!» huudahti Hanna jatkoksi omille ajatuksilleen.

Samassa joku koputti oveen. Hanna hypähti pystyyn, pyyhki


nopeasti silmänsä ja sanoi hiljaa:

»Sisään!»

Ovi avautui, ja kynnykselle ilmaantui Ewald Ballmann. Nuoren


tytön sydän sykki kiivaasti; hän ei ollut milloinkaan tuntenut itseään
niin kiihtyneeksi. Nuori mieskin oli nähtävästi liikutettu; hän oli luullut
saavansa nähdä kenraalittaren ja seisoikin rakastettunsa edessä…

Hän rakastikin ensi kertaa elämässään, ja tämä kaunis tyttö sai


hänet vapisemaan. Mitäpä hän olisikaan antanut, jos
kihlausmuodollisuudet olisivat ohi, jos tämä vieras neitonen, jota hän
rakasti, jo olisi hänen vaimonsa! Rakkaudesta ja avioliitosta hän ei
tiennyt muuta kuin että ne olivat välttämättömiä tapahtumia
ihmiselämässä; ja kun naisellinen sulous ensi kerran teki häneen
valtavan vaikutuksen, arveli hän hetken tulleen ja rohkaisten
mielensä teki mahdollisimman pian avioliittotarjouksensa.

Nyt hän seisoi kynnyksellä kalpeana ja ahdistetuin mielin. Yhtä


kalpeana ja tuskaisena oli Hanna ikkunakomerossa nojaten
ompelupöytään.

Ballmann puhui ensin.

»Suokaa anteeksi, neiti; luulin rouva von Orfalvyn olevan täällä.»


Hänen äänensä, jonka Hanna nyt kuuli ensimäisen kerran, oli
matala ja kaunissointuinen ja se sai Hannan värisemään. Miten
ihanalta kuuluisikaan tämän äänen kiihkeä »minä rakastan»…

»Dori kummi tulee kohta», vastasi hän tuskin kuuluvasti.

»Te sallitte siis?» sanoi hän ja astui sisään sulkien oven.

Hanna seisoi aivan hiljaa. Lyhyt vaitiolo.

»Neiti Hanna, olen tänään kirjoittanut kummitädillenne ja… olen


tullut kuulemaan vastausta.»

»Mitä riippuu vastauksesta?» kysyi Hanna ja odotti hänen


vastaavan:
»Elämäni».

Ballmann vastasi siihen suuntaan:

»Tulevaisuuteni.»

Uusi vaitiolo. Nuorten sydämet sykkivät yhä kiivaammin.

»Tunnetteko kirjeeni sisällyksen?» kysyi Ballmann sitten, astuen


askeleen eteenpäin.

»Tunnen, kyllä tunnen.»

Ewald lähestyi yhä.

»Silloinhan voin kuulla vastauksen heti teiltä itseltänne, Hanna…


Onko se kieltävä? Onko se myöntävä?»
Hetki oli ratkaiseva. Hanna ymmärsi kahden ihmisen
tulevaisuuden riippuvan hänen huultensa liikkeestä… Hän sulki
silmänsä kuin suinpäin veteen syöksyvä ja sanoi:

»Vastaus on myöntävä.»

Hanna luuli onnellisen kosijan huudahtavan riemusta, syöksyvän


hänen jalkainsa juureen tai sulkevan hänet tuliseen syleilyyn, mutta
mitään sellaista ei tapahtunut. Ewald tarttui hiljaa hänen käteensä,
suuteli sitä ja lausui sydämellisesti:

»Kiitos, neiti Hanna! Koetan tehdä teidät onnelliseksi.»


IV.

Dori kummi antoi pian suostumuksensa. Kuultuaan nuoren tytön jo


antaneen myöntävän vastauksen ei hän tahtonut joutua puretun
kihlauksen herättämän huomion alaiseksi, vaan tuli siihen
lopputulokseen, ettei Hanna ollut hänestä riippuvainen, vaan oli
oikeutettu antamaan kätensä kenelle tahtoi ja että hänellä oli
edellytyksiä tulla onnelliseksi seuratessaan sydämensä ääntä, ehkä
onnellisemmaksi kuin paroni Schimmererin kolmikerroksisessa
talossa.

Ewald Ballmann kuului olevan erinomaisen »mallikelpoinen» mies,


minkä lisäksi hänellä oli paitsi professorinpalkkaansa myöskin
pienen omaisuuden useaan sataan guldeniin nousevat korot
käytettävänään. Sitäpaitsi tuli hän perimään rikkaan sedän. Tämä
avioliitto oli köyhälle, orvolle tytölle käytännölliseltäkin kannalta
katsoen edullinen. Kaiken miettimisen jälkeen kenraalitar katsoi
parhaimmaksi liikutettuna sanoa:

»Koska te niin välttämättä tahdotte toisenne, täytynee minun antaa


siunaukseni, lapset.»
Hannasta kaikki oli aivan toisenlaista, kuin mitä hän oli ajatellut.
Kihlausaika ei vastannut hänen toiveitaan. Ewaldin onni tuntui
hänestä liian rauhalliselta; oli kuin Ewald ei ensinkään olisi osannut
panna arvoa hänen suostumuksensa osoittamaan uhrautuvaan
jalomielisyyteen. Hän oli rakkauden alttarille uhrannut tulevaisuuden
hänelle sylissään kantamat kruunut, jalokivet ja helmet, ja Ewaldista
se oli luonnollisin seikka maailmassa. Hänellä ei ollut aavistustakaan
näistä uhratuista haavetimanteista.

Ewald puhui kenraalittaren kanssa heidän tulevan pienen


asuntonsa sisustamisesta. Kolme huonetta ja keittiö. Suuri, valoisa
keittiö. Makuuhuoneessa pähkinäpuiset huonekalut, salissa
mahonkiset. Hänen kirjoituspöytänsä, kirjakaappinsa ja Hannan
ompelupöytä olisivat salissa. Kolmannessa huoneessa olisi kaappeja
ja laatikoita ja sitä voitaisiin ehkä myöhemmin käyttää
lastenkamarina. Palvelustyttö voisi asua keittiössä.

Tällaiset keskustelut saattoivat Hannan alakuloiseksi. Jos Ewald


olisi sanonut tämän olevan vallan liian huonoa hänen kuninkaalliselle
morsiamelleen, jos hän olisi kauhistunut sellaista kotia ajatellessaan,
olisi Hanna ilomielin huudahtanut olevansa valmis seuraamaan
sydämensä valitsemaa miestä vaikka vuorenluolaan ja urheasti
kärsimään punaista huonekalukangasta; mutta kauheinta oli, että
Ewald esitti nämä pöyristyttävät asiat joinakin hauskoina ja
miellyttävinä. Koko hänen käytöksensä oli samalla kylmä ja jäykkä;
ei hän koskaan päästänyt tunteitansa vallalle; hän puheli mitä
joutavimmista asioista; opinnoistaan, oppilaistaan, lapsuudestaan,
tulevaisuuden tuumistaan. Ellei hän niin usein olisi ihaillen ja hellästi
katsonut morsiameensa, ei olisi ensinkään voinut luulla häntä
rakastuneeksi. Hannan alottamat keskustelut lempikirjailijoistaan,
ulkomaisesta kirjallisuudesta, hän katkaisi vakuuttaen, ettei ollut
koskaan lukenut romaaneja tai sentapaisia teoksia eikä koskaan
aikonut tuhlata aikaansa semmoisiin; sellaiset mielikuvat eivät
ensinkään viehättäneet häntä.

»Etkö sinä siis myöskään suosi teattereita?» kysyi kenraalitar


kerran.

»Minä en koskaan käy teatterissa enkä iltamissa; en ole vielä


milloinkaan ollut tanssiaisissa.»

»Hanna, sinusta tulee kadehdittava vaimo!» huudahti Dori täti,


»niin vakava aviomies, joka paraiten viihtyy kotonaan, on
harvinainen. Sinä olet selkäni takana todellakin valinnut viisaasti,
rakas onnenlapsi.»

Hanna huokasi.

Ewaldin virkaloma loppui pian, ja hänen täytyi palata kaupunkiin.


Hän tuli nyt vain sunnuntaisin viettämään pari kolme tuntia
molempien naisten luona. Häät oli päätetty viettää syyskuun lopulla.
Hannan pieni pääoma hupeni yksinkertaisten myynien ja muutamien
talouskapineiden ostoon. Hankittiin kaksi ompelijatarta, ja kaikilla oli
kyllin työtä leikatessa ja neuloessa. Hanna ei tuntenut itseään
onnelliseksi. Toisinaan hän saattoi, ajatellessaan sulhastaan, vaipua
runolliseen haaveiluun, kuten ensi aikoina hänen tuntemattomana
osoittaessaan ihailuaan, ja sellaisina hetkinä hän ajatteli: »Niin, minä
rakastan Ewaldia; me tulemme onnellisiksi», mutta toisinaan taas,
varsinkin sunnuntaisin, jolloin Ewald niin rauhallisena saapui ja taas
lähti, hänestä tuntui, kuin hän olisi allekirjoittanut elinkautisvanki-
tuomionsa. Purkamista hän ei ajatellut; arpa oli heitetty. Ja
avioliitossa, joka nuoren tytön mielessä väikkyy niin salaperäisenä,
muuttui kai Ewald häntä kohtaan toisenlaiseksi; hän oli löytävä
hänessä ensimäisen rakkausunelmansa sankarin.

Häät vietettiin Dori kummin luona tavallisten keskiviikko-vieraiden


läsnäollessa. Myöskin kehuttu paroni Schimmerer oli läsnä ja
kuiskasi ihanalle morsiamelle: »Te olette kuin sulotar.» — Hanna
silmäili majuria hyvillään, ensinnäkin koska hän oli imarrellut häntä ja
toiseksi, koska hänen läsnäolonsa oli hänelle lohdutuksena.
»Tuollaisen kaljupäisen ukon kanssa olisi Dori kummi tahtonut minut
naittaa»? — hän ajatteli. — »Minä voin toki ylpein mielin katsella
solakkaa, vaaleakiharaista nuorta sulhastani!» Alttarin edessä
sulhanen, joka oli hyvin liikutettu, lausui »tahdon» väräjävällä
äänellä. Hanna vastasi varmasti ja päättävästi, ikäänkuin sillä
vahvistaakseen sankarillisen uhrin.

Häämatkaa ei Ewaldin virka sallinut, ja nuorikot lähtivät


hääpäivällisten jälkeen uuteen kotiinsa. Äänettöminä he olivat
istuneet vaunuissa, vaiteliaina nousseet kolmannessa kerroksessa
olevaan asuntoonsa. He astuivat sisään. Sali oli täynnä tuoreita
kukkia. Palvelustyttö, joka oli avannut heille oven, otti Hannan hatun
ja palttoon ja poistui. Ewald meni vaimonsa luo, syleili häntä hellästi
ja sanoi:

»Nyt olet kotona, rakas lapsi… Nyt olet vaimoni, toverini,


kaikkeni.»

Hanna nojasi päänsä hänen olkaansa vasten, ja liikutuksen


kyyneleet vuotivat pitkin hänen poskiaan.

»Rakastatko sinä minua todellakin, Ewald?»

»Kaikesta sydämestäni, Hanna.»


V.

Ewald oli puhunut totta. Hän rakasti kaunista vaimoaan kaikesta


sydämestään, mutta hän ei ollut mikään kokenut rakastaja. Hän ei
kyennyt osoittamaan mitä sydämensä tunsi; hän oli arka, miltei ujo.
Rakkaudentunnustuksia ja -vakuutuksia hänen huulensa eivät
koskaan lausuneet. Hän oli sanonut vaimolleen, tämän astuessa
ensi kerran hänen kynnyksensä yli, rakastavansa häntä, ja se oli
hänestä kylliksi. Hänen vaimonsa tiesi sen. Hanna olisi mieheltään
tahtonut kuulla niitä rakkauden sanoja, joita oli oppinut lukemastaan
draamallisesta ja eepillisestä runoudesta, mutta semmoinen ei
juolahtanut Ewaldin mieleenkään. Hän oli tässä suhteessa niin
lapsellinen, että hillitsi sopimattomina palavan nuoruuden tulen
vaatimat tunnepurkaukset. Hän koetti seurustelussaan vaimonsa
kanssa olla niin levollinen ja jokapäiväinen kuin mahdollista. Hän ei
koskaan laskenut leikkiä, eikä keksinyt lempinimiä, vaan sanoi aina
vain »rakas Hanna» tai »rakas vaimo» ja puheli hänen kanssaan
vähäpätöisistä asioista. Kun Hanna laski leikkiä tai yritti hyväillä,
ehkäisi hän sen; hän ei antanut Hannan suudella, kun meni tai tuli.
Jos Hanna halusi antaa keskustelulle hauskan tai haaveellisen
suunnan, niin hän ei sitä tavallisesti ymmärtänyt, vaan johti sen
jollakin kuivahkolla huomautuksella entiseen uomaansa.
Professori Ballmann kuului niihin ihmisiin, jotka luulevat eräiden
asiain tietämättömyyden osoittavan jonkinlaista etevämmyyttä.
Heistä ovat jotkut seura- ja sielunelämän puolet pintapuolisia,
kevytmielisiä, luonnottomia, ja he ovat ylpeitä siitä, etteivät itse tunne
niitä. He unohtavat, että tuntemattoman asian tuomitseminen on aina
ennakkoluuloa ja että mahdotonta on kohottautua semmoisen asian
yläpuolelle, jota ei tunne. Vaikka Ewald ylpeilikin siitä, ettei tuntenut
kaunokirjallisuutta, oli se kuitenkin suuri puute. Hänen olisi pitänyt
ajatella, että tietämättömyys joka suhteessa on paremmin häpeän
kuin ylpeilyn arvoinen. Luonnollisesti ei tarvitse tietää ja osata
kaikkea — se ei olisi kenellekään edes mahdollista — mutta jokainen
tieto ja taito on eduksi. Kirjoissa, joita Ewald ei katsonut maksavan
vaivaa avata, koska ne hänestä olivat pelkkää kuvittelua ja
epätodellisuutta, ne kun eivät sisältäneet numeroita, karttoja tai
tosiasioita, kuvastuu yhteiskunta kokonaisuudessaan inhimillisine
mielenliikutuksineen, intohimoineen, tunteineen, kohtaloineen,
ajatuksineen. Eikö se ole todellisuutta?

Hanna oli lukemalla liiaksi romaaneja tullut haaveilevaksi.


Kasvatus oli siihen syynä. Ewaldin sielussa taas eivät kaikki kielet
olleet päässeet väräjämään, vaan muutamat olivat velttoina ja
äänettöminä; se oli sivistyksen puutetta. Jos Ewald olisi kyennyt
johonkin määrään seuraamaan vaimonsa ajatusten lentoa, olisi
hänen varmaankin onnistunut hillitä hänen haaveellisuuttaan ja
palauttaa hänet järjellisyyden ulkopuolelle ulottuvilta harhateiltä;
mutta vieras kun oli hänen unelmilleen, ei hän kyennyt häntä
johtamaan ja tukemaan. Hanna tunsi, ja syystä kyllä, että miehensä
tässä suhteessa oli häntä alempana. Täten kohoutui muuri heidän
välilleen, mutta siitä oli Hanna yksin tietoinen. Ewald ei sitä
huomannut, sillä se, mikä Hannan mielestä osoitti Ewaldissa tiedon
puutetta, oli Ewaldista etuna pidettävä.
Tämän lisäksi oli Ewaldissa suurena puutteellisuutena hänen
seurusteluhaluttomuutensa. Tässäkin suhteessa hän halveksi sitä,
mitä ei tuntenut. Hänen vaimostaan näytti siltä, kuin hän olisi
pikemmin ollut maallisiin iloihin sopimaton kuin niiden yläpuolella.
Sillä häneltä puuttui seuramiehen siro varmuus ja vapaa käytös. Kun
hän joskus suostui seuraamaan Hannaa vierailuille tai olemaan
läsnä kenraalittaren keskiviikko-kutsuissa, istui hän tavallisesti
jossain nurkassa, ottamatta milloinkaan osaa vilkkaaseen
keskusteluun, vastaili lyhyesti, ja saattoi selvästi huomata, miten
ikävää hänellä oli sekä miten hän kärsi seuraelämästä. Ja siten
hävisi sekin luultu ansio, että hän muka pani suuremman arvon
kotielämän rauhalle ja tutkimuksilleen kuin maallisille tyhjille huveille,
sillä hän ei tuntenut sellaisia iloja; hän ei kyennyt nauttimaan niistä.
Hänellä ei ollut oikeutta pitää salonkikeskusteluja itseään alentavina,
sillä hän ei ollut osoittanut kykenevänsä ottamaan niihin osaa.

Hanna raukka ei voinut tuntea itseään onnelliseksi. Hän ei ollut


ylpeä miehestään; hän ei katsonut häneen kuin etevämpäänsä; hän
tiesi, ettei miehensä ymmärtänyt häntä. Hän myönsi kylläkin, että
hänen miehellään oli hyvä sydän, tasainen ja lempeä luonne, että
hän oli rehellinen ja ennakkoluuloton, mutta häneltä puuttui jotain.
Hyvää ymmärrystä, joka oli tehnyt hänestä etevän matemaatikon,
älykkään luonnontutkijan, erinomaisen shakinpelaajan, tunnustetun
tieteellisen kirjailijan (hän oli avustajana arvokkaammissa
tieteellisissä ja kasvatusopillisissa aikakauslehdissä), ei Hanna
pitänyt arvossa, osaksi siitä syystä, ettei ollut siihen suuntaan
kehittynyt, osaksi siksi, että miehensä oli tässä suhteessa häntä
kohtaan suljettu. Ewald piti pikku vaimoansa kykenemättömänä
ymmärtämään tämmöisiä asioita; se oli muuten hänestä aivan
luonnollista, eikä hän siksi koettanutkaan johtaa vaimoansa
ajatuspiiriinsä. Jospa hän kuitenkin olisi koettanut! Ellei Hanna
olisikaan ymmärtänyt häntä, olisi häntä kuitenkin riemastuttanut
miehensä etevämmyys siinä suhteessa. Hanna olisi mielellään
myöntänyt tämän olevan vastapainona niille henkisen kehityksen
aloille, missä hän itse tunsi olevansa etevämpi.

Vielä eräs seikka kiusasi Hannaa, ja se oli heidän miltei köyhyyttä


osoittava yksinkertainen taloutensa. Hän olisi helpommin kestänyt
sitä, jos miehensäkin olisi kärsinyt siitä, jos olisi saanut miehensä
sylissä kaivata puuttuvaa komeutta, jos hänen olisi ollut pakko
lohduttaa ja rohkaista miestään ja jos tämä sitten olisi ihaillut hänen
rohkeuttaan. Jos Ewald olisi ihmetellyt, että hänen pieni vaimonsa
mielellään hänen takiaan kieltäytyi komeuksista, olisi Hanna ilomielin
ollut niitä vailla, mutta Ewald ei edes huomannut, ettei kotinsa ollut
kyllin kaunis ja mukava. Hän ei ollut vanhempainsa kodissa muuhun
tottunut. Vaatimattomuus ja tyytyväisyys olivat hänen
miellyttävimmät ominaisuutensa; turhamaisuus oli hänelle vierasta
— ja siksi hänen pieni kotinsa, jota hänen nuoren vaimonsa
kukoistava sulous kaunisti ja jonka ylläpitämiseksi hänen tulonsa
hyvästi riittivät, oli hänestä ihanteellinen. Hän oli sanalla sanoen
onnellinen.

Huomatessaan vaimonsa monasti olevan surullisen ja luullessaan


syynä siihen olevan seuraelämänkaipuun — Hanna kun ei voinut
tuntea vakavien tutkimusten tuottamaa iloa, mutta tarvitsi kuitenkin
iloa — Ewald päätti, että hänen piti saada mielin määrin huvitella.
Itse hän ei tosin aikonut ottaa osaa vihaamiinsa huveihin, vaan uskoi
vaimonsa Dori tädin huostaan. Tämän hilpeän vanhan rouvan
seurassa Hanna saattoi käydä teattereissa, tanssiaisissa, kävelyillä
ja vierailuilla mielensä mukaan, arveli Ewald. Vanhan,
huvitteluhaluisen naisen paraimpana keinona ihmisten kokoomiseksi
ympärilleen on nuoren kaunottaren läheisyys.
»Puvuistasi pidän kyllä huolen», sanoi kenraalitar Hannalle tämän
pudistaessa päätään miehensä esittäessä ehdotustaan.

»Ei, ei… pukujen takia en epäile… mutta jos Ewald ei ole mukana,
on kai sopimatonta…»

»Joutavia, Hanna! Jos miehesi hyväksyy sen, niin ei kai siinä


mitään sopimatonta ole, kun sinä olet minun siipieni suojassa…
minun, joka olen ollut sinulle kuin äiti… Sinunkaltaisesi nuoren
naisen ei sovi aina kotona kököttää.»

»Rouva kenraalitar on aivan oikeassa, rakas lapsi. Sinulta puuttuu


huveja, ne tulevat tekemään sinulle hyvää. Asia on siis päätetty.
Huomenna on keskiviikko, ja silloin Hanna nuorena rouvana astuu
seuraelämään ja tanssii katrillin majuri Schimmererin kanssa, koska
se on niin hauskaa.»

»Etkö sinä ole mustasukkainen, rakas Ewald?» härnäili


kenraalitar.
»Majuri on Hannan entisiä ihailijoita.»

»Minä? Mustasukkainen? En, se tunne on minulle aivan outo.


Luullakseni sitä tavataan ainoastaan romaaneissa, eikä sillä saa
ahdistaa kunniallista vaimoa.»

»Hanna, sinun miehesi on enkeli, toistan sen vieläkin, etkä sinä


voi kyllin minua kiittää siitä, että saatoin teidät yhteen. Hyvästi nyt,
rakkaat lapset! Asia on siis päätetty; minä odotan sinua huomenna,
Hanna.»

Kun vastanaineet jäivät yksin, meni Hanna miehensä luo, pani


kätensä hänen olalleen ja katseli häntä suoraan silmiin sanoen
vakavasti:

»Ewald, sydämestäni kiitän sinua hyvyydestäsi… mutta etkö luule


olevan parempi, ettet antaisi minun yksin joutua ihmisten pariin? Se
tulee näyttämään heistä kummalliselta. Ja minähän olen sinun
vaimosi ja tahdon jakaa kanssasi elämäsi semmoisenaan. Opeta
minua löytämään oma elämäni kodissamme, äläkä anna minun
vaeltaa omia teitäni.»

»Rakas Hanna, sinulla on niin kummallisia liioiteltuja


päähänpistoja», vastasi Ewald ottaen Hannan käden olkapäältään ja
kääntyen pois. »Ethän sinä voi alituisesti olla läheisyydessäni;
antaessani esimerkiksi tuntejani lukiossa et voi olla vierelläni. Ja
minä taas tahtoisin nähdä sinut iloisena ja tyytyväisenä; seuraelämä
huvittaa sinua, siksi sinun tulee nauttia siitä. Otat asian aivan yhtä
surkeasti, kuin jos lähettäisin sinut pohjoisnaparetkelle tai johonkin
muuhun vaaraan, sen sijaan että otat osaa joihinkin viattomiin
iltamiin.»

»Etkö luule vaaroja väijyvän seuraelämässäkin?»

»Vaaroja? En tiennyt… Et kai tarkoittane ansoja viritettävän


uskollisuutesi tielle? Olipa sekin kummallinen päähänpisto. Mutta
siinä suhteessa minä olen aivan levollinen, ja silloin voit kai sinäkin
olla.»
VI.

Ewald Ballmann ei itse asiassa ajatellut panevansa nuorta, kaunista


vaimoaan alttiiksi vaaroille lähettäessään hänen ilman suojaansa
maallisten ilojen pyörteeseen. Hän tunsi, kuten niin monet muut,
jotka eivät pitäneet maallista huvittelua muuna kuin mitättömänä
ajanhukkana, seuraelämän pintapuolisesti ja piti salonkikeskustelua
ainoastaan kuluneiden korulauseiden vaihtamisena ja tanssia
musiikin tahdin mukaan hyppimisenä, naamiohuvia pilapukujen
näyttelemisenä. Hän ei tiennyt, että Eros on näiden huvien
näkymättömänä johtajana. Ewald Ballmannin kaltaisilla miehillä ei
ollut aavistustakaan hehkuvista, toisiaan hakevista katseista,
viuhkojen takaisista hymyilyistä, aavistetuista ajatuksista, sydänten
nopeista lyönneistä, kiemailun ja intohimojen leikistä, valloituksista,
vastarinnasta, joka lopulta herpaantuu, — koko tuosta tanssiaisten
herkästä rakkaushengestä.

Mutta tuskinpa on olemassa ainoatakaan nuorta tyttöä, joka olisi


yhtä tietämätön. Jo tanssisalin kynnyksellä kiehtoo hänet lämmin,
rakkautta uhkuva ilma. Valssin sävelissä, valojen hohteessa, hänen
omien kukkiensa tuoksussa se väräjää huumaavana. Silloin hänen
silmänsä loistavat ilosta, hänen huulensa raottuvat voitolliseen
hymyilyyn; kuten tuulen kannattamana liitelee kevyt olento tanssin
pyörteissä… ja oven suussa seisova isä tai vanhanpuoleinen
aviomies seuraa häntä ylpein mielin ja sanoo:

»Katsokaas, miten hyvin hän tanssii ja miten hauskaa hänellä on.


Huomaa sen selvästi, sehän on niin luonnollista, sillä hän on siinä
iässä; se on viatonta iloa… Pelaammeko uudelleen!»

Viiden ajoissa aamulla saa whistiin väsynyt, uninen vanha herra


pienokaisensa taivutetuksi lähtemään kotiin.

»Oh, miten ikävä ilta!» hän huokaa. »Miten olet nyt huvitellut
lapsi?»

»Kuninkaallisesti!»

Niin, kuninkaallisesti. Hän tuntee kukoistavansa nuoruuden


kuninkaallisessa loistossa; kukkakiehkura tukassa on kruunu, ja
leningin laahus kuninkaallinen mantteli. Hän tuntee olevansa
valtiatar, suosionosoitusten jakaja, ja hänestä melkein tuntuu, kuin
elämä ja kuolema olisivat hänen tahdostaan riippuvaisia; eikö hänen
kavaljeerinsa kotiljongin aikana ollut uhannut ampua itsensä, ellei
hän olisi hänelle suosiollinen?… Sanalla sanoen, hän oli huvitellut
kuninkaallisesti.

Kenraalittaren keskiviikkokutsut eivät olleet likimainkaan niin


vaarallisia. Ja muutkaan iltamat ja tanssiaiset, joihin Hanna
suojelijansa kanssa otti osaa, eivät vaikuttaneet ensinkään niin
hurmaavasti nuoreen rouvaan, kuin tämä oli luullut. Maailma, mihin
hän näin oli joutunut, ei vastannutkaan hänen loistavaa, komeaa
unimaailmaansa. Ajatuksissaan hän oli ollut läsnä hovitanssiaisissa
ja lähetyskuntain palatseissa, seurustellut ruhtinaitten, miljonäärien
ja valtiomiesten kanssa; porvarillinen pikkukaupunkimaisuus, joka
vallitsi siinä piirissä, missä hän nykyään liikkui, tuntui hänestä
kaikkea muuta kuin »hienoston» ilmakehältä. Hänen liialliset
odotuksensa, hänen vallan toisaanne suuntautuvat mielikuvansa
synkistyttivät häntä ympäröivän maailman, joten hän ei elämästään
löytänyt sitä hurmausta, joka saattoi hänen seurapiirinsä nuoret
rouvat ja neitoset huvittelemaan »kuninkaallisesti».

Suostuessaan Ewaldin ehdotukseen, Hanna oli vakaasti päättänyt


olla miehensä luottamuksen arvoinen, päättävästi estää
ihailunosoituksia sekä varjella mainettaan ja miehensä kunniaa.
Ylpein tyydytyksen tuntein hän teki tämän lupauksen. Ja hän piti
sanansa. Se tuntui hänestä vain liiankin helpolta; hän oli kuvitellut
taistelua vaikeammaksi ja mielenlujuutta kysyvämmäksi. Useat
nuoret herrat tosin hakivat hänen suosiotaan, mutta heidän
intohimoa ja runollisuutta puuttuvat lähentelynsä eivät panneet
hänen voimiaan vähääkään koetukselle.

Hannasta tuntui, kuin hän olisi kunnianhimoinen,


kunnostautumista janoava upseeri, joka lähetetään sotaan, mutta
saa aina jäädä jälkijoukkoon, pääsemättä taistelun tuoksinaan.
Hänellä ei ollut luotituiskua kestettävänä, lippua pelastettavana,
linnoitusta puolustettavana.

Viimein oli taistelu edessä. Mutta kunnianhimon sokaisema raukka


ei ollut saapa siinä urhoollisuuspalkintoa — hän sai kuolettavan
haavan.

Se tapahtui keväällä. Keskiviikkokutsujen osanottajat panivat


usein toimeen huvimatkoja. Eräänä päivänä oli huvimatkan
päämääränä kreivi Edelbergin tilukset, joissa sekä puisto että linna
olivat katsomisen arvoiset.
Vaunut pysähtyivät kyläravintolan edustalle, missä aiottiin syödä
päivällinen hiukan myöhemmin. Sitä ennen oli määrä jalan kulkea
linnaan, tarkastaa puistot, huoneet, kokoelmat ja tallit. Mutta seuraa
odottikin katkera pettymys. Huvimatkailijat, kahdeksan luvultaan,
olivat jo astuneet suuresta portista sisään ja majuri Schimmerer
silmäili joka taholle löytääkseen oppaan, kun samassa linnanvartia
kiiruhti heidän luokseen.

»Herrasväki haluaisi kaiketi käydä linnassa? Se on mahdotonta;


kreivi saapui tänne eilen.»

»Sepä vahinko. Emmekö saa nähdä edes kokoelmia ja kappelia?»

Samassa pysähtyi ratsastaja portille. Hän hyppäsi hevosen


selästä, heitti ohjakset ratsupalvelijalle ja astui sisään. Ratsastaja oli
tilusten omistaja. Kreivi Edelberg, joka oli noin kolmenkymmenen
ikäinen, oli pitkä ja solakka, itävaltalaisen aatelismiehen perikuva.
Huomatessaan vieraat, jotka hänen tullessaan aikoivat vetäytyä
pois, hän ymmärsi heti mistä oli kysymys ja meni, ottaen hatun
päästään, heidän luokseen.

»Herrasväki kai haluaa nähdä taloani? Älkää antako minun häiritä


itseänne.»

Hän viittasi linnanvartiaa opastamaan seuruetta.

Itse hän aikoi poistua, mutta samassa hänen katseensa osui


Hannaan. Tämä oli juuri luonut tummat silmänsä häneen, mutta
käänsi ne punastuen heti pois. Hanna oli sinä hetkenä hurmaavan
kaunis. Kreivi tarkasti häntä yllätettynä… ja Hanna tunsi sen.

»Hyvin mielelläni näytän itse herrasväelle kokoelmani», sanoi hän.

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