Ecosystems consist of interdependent

components.

Term Defini*on
ecosystem A natural area in which plants, animals and other organisms are link to each other and the
non-living elements of the environment.
bio<c All of the living elements of an ecosystem including plants, animals and bacteria.
abio<c The physical, non-living parts of an ecosystem including temperature, water and light.
fauna Another term for the animals in an ecosystem.
flora Another term for the plants in an ecosystem.
interdependence The reliance of every form of life on other living things and on the natural resources in its
environment.
biome Large-scale ecosystems that are spread across con<nents with unique animals and plants.
Ecosystems
Bio<c elements are all living parts of the Abio<c elements are all non-living parts of the
ecosystem: ecosystem:
- Animals include insects, birds and - Rocks help in the forma<on of soils and
mammals. rock type is important. Weathering releases
- Plants include trees, flowers, grasses, nutrients stored in rocks into the
An
mosses and algae. They provide food and ecosystem.
ecosystem
shelter for animals. - Soils store water and carbon nutrients
- Micro-organisms like fungi and bacteria are which plants can use.
decomposers. They breakdown dead plants - Sunshine and rain are needed for
and animals (decompose), releasing photosynthesis, so they are essen<al to the
nutrients into the ecosystem so they can be ecosystem.
recycled and taken up by new plants.. This - Wind and frost also play a role.
is called nutrient cycling.
The bio<c factors and abio<c factors all rely upon each other (interdependence) – eg animals need plants, plants need
nutrients from the soil, the soil needs the climate to weather the rock to give it new nutrients. A change to one part
of an ecosystem has an impact on other parts because of this interdependence.

Example 1: Example 2:
• Hot, dry summer. • Hedgerow trimmed.
• Reduced plant growth. • Fewer habitats for ladybirds and spiders so
• Fewer berries for birds in winter. numbers fall.
• Numbers of birds falls. • Birds have less to eat so numbers fall.
• Fewer birds for birds of prey to hunt so their
numbers fall too.

Biomes
• Large scale ecosystems are known as biomes.
• Each biome has animals and plants that are unique to it.
• Biomes are iden<fied by their climate, soils, plants and
other species.
• Climate and la<tude (how far it is from the equator) are
important factors in the loca<on of biomes.
• Tropical biomes (tropical rainforests, coral reefs,
tropical grasslands and deserts) are all nearest the
equator and have hot weather.
• Temperate biomes (temperate forests and temperate
grasslands) all have milder temperatures (neither hot
nor cold).
• Polar biomes (polar regions) are furthest from the
equator so have very cold weather.

Term Defini*on
circumpolar Flows of air around the Earth’s poles.
winds
herbivores An animal that feeds on plants.
carnivores Am animal that eats other animals.
xerophy<c A type of plant that can survive on very liSle water.
Characteris*cs of Biomes
Biome and its Climate
Loca*on
Tropical rainforests High and constant
Found between the temperatures because the
Tropics of Cancer and sun is always high in the
Capricorn. sky. High temperatures
mean high rainfall (over
2000mm) so they are hot
and humid places.
Coral reefs Ocean temperatures
Found within 30°N/S average 18°C. Water needs
of the equator in the to be shallow (<30m) and
tropical and sub- clear. They are found on
tropical oceans. the con<nental shelf.
Tropical grasslands Have low rainfall and high
Known as savannah temperatures throughout
and found between 5 the year. Have two
and 30°N/S of the seasons; a longer dry
equator. season and a shirt wet
season due to migra<on of
the ITCZ (a belt of low
pressure that brings heavy
rainfall once a year).
Hot deserts Very high temperatures
Found between 5 and during long days but
30°N/S of the temperatures plummet at
equator. night to below freezing.
Annual rainfall is 40mm and
unreliable.
Temperate Cold winters and hot
grasslands summers. Average rainfall
Found between 40 is 250-750mm and mostly
and 60°N/S of the falls in the summer growing
equator. season.
Temperate forests Have four dis<nct seasons;
Found between 40 summers are warm and
and 60°N/S of the winters are mild. Rainfall is
equator. very high (750-1500mm)
and is all year round.
Average temperature is
10°C
Polar regions Long, cold winters and sort,
Arc<c = N Pole cool summers and less than
Antarc<ca = S Pole 250mm of rainfall each
year.
Ecosystems have dis*nct distribu*ons and
characteris*cs.
Flora
The climate is ideal for plant growth.
The growing season is all year round.
Vegeta<on is mainly trees (mahogany,
ebony and rosewood). Vine-like
lianas grow round tree trunks.
Rela<vely small range of plant life –
algae grows on coral to provide it with
energy. Sea grasses are flowering
plants that provide shelter for reef
animals.
Grasses grow in summer rains and die
back in winter to put nutrients back
into the soil. The baobab tree has
adapted to the dry condi<ons and has
thick bark to reduce moisture loss and
few leaves so liSle water lost through
transpira<on. Its roots are long to
find water.
Most plants are xerophy<c so they
can survive with very liSle water; eg
cac< have thick, spiky, waxy leaves to
reduce water loss and to stop animals
from trying to eat them.
Trees and shrubs struggle to grow
quickly; willow and oak grown along
river valleys where there is more
water.
Grasses and small plants provide
habitat and food for animals.
Forests are made up of broad-leaved
trees that shred their leaves in winter
(deciduous) and grow during the
summer months; eg oak, elm and
beech. Below the tree canopy are
shrubs and on the forest floor are
brambles, grasses, bracken and
thorns.
Treeless area. Some evergreen
shrubs, mosses and grasses that keep
their leaves ready for the sun.
Fauna
Most animals and insects like in the
canopy and include toucans,
jaguars, monkeys, chameleons,
frogs and snakes.
Coral is an animal made up of
thousands of polyps related to the
jellyfish.
4000 species of fish including
sarfish, clams, eels and parrot fish.
Mammals include dugongs.
Herbivores include antelopes (eg
gazelles, springbok, impala and
oryx), elephants, zebra, rhinos and
wildebeest.
Carnivores include lions, hyenas
and leopards.
Lack of plants (food) makes it
difficult for animals to survive here
and most are nocturnal to avoid
high temperatures. Animals
include meerkats, camels and
sidewinder raSlesnakes.
Mammals include gophers, rabbits,
coyotes and wolves. Bison and wild
horses are found in N America.
Mammals have to adapt to cooler
winters (some hibernate or migrate
to warmer places) and warmer
summers. Black bears are found in
N America and hibernate in winter.
Squirrels are widespread and owls
and pigeons are found in most
areas.
Mammals include polar bears,
wolves, foxes and reindeer; all have
thick fur for harsh winters.
 There are major tropical rainforests in the
world.

Term Defini*on
biomass The total mass of plants and animals in an ecosystem.
liSer The total amount of organic maSer on the ground including leaves and humus.
nutrient cycling A set of processes whereby organisms extract minerals necessary for growth from the soil or
water before passing them on through the food chain and ul<mately back to the soil through
decomposi<on.

Loca*on of Tropical Rainforests

There are dis<nct layers to the vegeta<on of the
tropical rainforest due to these cycles.
- Emergents – the tallest trees, up to 50m, that
appear to s<ck out above the canopy. They have
large buSress roots to support the thin and
branchless trunk so it can grown tall enough.
- Canopy – most of the trees grow to a height of
about 30m. This layer of trees receive 70% of the
sunlight and 80 of the rainfall and creates a
con<nuous blanket of leaves.
- Under canopy – where there is a gap in the canopy
to give sunlight smaller trees can grow.
- Shrub layer – the lowest layer where only some
species survive because it is very dark; less than
5% of sunlight reaches the forest floor.
Processes within Tropical Rainforests

The Water Cycle

As the rainforest heats up in the morning, the water
evaporates to form clouds. The clouds then rain the
next day. This is called convec<onal rainfall.
Water is lost through the pores in leaves and then
evaporated by heat through evapotranspira<on. The
roots of plants take up some water and then it is lost
again through transpira<on.
The removal of trees means that there is less
moisture in the atmosphere. This leads to less
rainfall and can some<mes lead to drought.

The Carbon Cycle

Rainforests take in carbon
dioxide from the air as they
photosynthesise and grow.
With their large leaves, plants
and trees store a lot of carbon
which means they have role
to play in reducing global
warming and climate change.
When trees and plants are
burned the carbon is released
back into the atmopshere and
adds to the greenhouse
effect.
Nutrient cycling
All parts of the rainforest (climate, water, soils, plants, animals and people)
are all dependent on one another.
1. Trees are evergreen so dead leaves and other material fall all year round.
2. The warm and wet climate means dead plant material is decomposed
quickly by fungi and bacteria on the forest floor. This makes the top of
the soil high in nutrients so plants grow quickly; this is why many trees
have their roots on the surface.
3. Plants pass on their nutrients when they are eaten by animals. Many
plant and animal species have formed symbio<c rela<onships (where
they depend on each other for survival).
Therefore, most nutrients are stored in the biomass with the rest stored in
dead organic material and the soil.
 Bio-diverse ecosystems are under threat
from human ac*vity: tropical rainforests.

Term Defini*on
deforesta<on Cunng down trees for <mber and/or clearing an area of forest for mining, industry or
agriculture.
indigenous tribes Tradi<onal tribes who have lived in a local area for genera<ons, ooen with liSle outside
influence un<l recently.

The Peruvian Amazon

• Peru has the 2nd largest por<on of the Amazon rainforest.

• Rainforest covers 60% of Peru.
• 5% of Peru’s popula<on live in the rainforest.
• The Peruvian rainforest is the 3rd largest in the world.
• The biome is one of the most diverse in the world; 44% of all bird species
and 63% of all mammals live in the Peruvian rainforest.

Average temperature is 28°C and Animals, birds and insects thrive

annual rainfall is 2600mm – ideal here where the plants provide
for vegeta<on growth. plenty to eat and habitats to live
Valuable mahogany grows here in.
(for construc<on and furniture).
The rainforest is
valuable to people
Interdependence in the rainforest because:
- High biodiversity:
People live and depend on the 16% of its animal
There are few nutrients in the soil as most
rainforest. If people cut down trees species only live
are stored in the flora. Fungi and bacteria
they remove the nutrients and the here.
thrive in the warm and humid condi<ons,
habitats and the ecosystem will - Timber: hardwood
rapidly decomposing dead organic maSer
suffer. Illegal logging is a major trees for logging.
so the nutrients can be immediately
threat in the rainforest. - Minerals: oil, gas and
absorbed by plants and trees.
gold can be found
underground.
Human Ac*vity in the Peruvian Amazon - HEP: there are plans
to build 15 dams to
Threats to biodiversity Managing the rainforest create electricity for
Brazil’s aluminum
- Timber: valuable hardwood trees are - Since 2000 the government has put industry.
logged and profits can be really high. in place management plans to - Archaeology: many
95% of logging is unregulated and regulate all ac<vi<es in the remains on ancient
illegal. If the trees are not replanted, rainforest. But the area is large and civilisa<ons.
the rain washes away the soil and the amount of illegal logging makes - Indigenous tribes:
the area become desert-like. this hard to police. tradi<onal ways of
- Energy: China has invested in oil - Indigenous communi<es have been life.
extrac<on in Madre de Dios region. given land ownership of the land to - Medicinal plants:
Extrac<on of oil causes pollu<on. manage themselves sustainably. thought to be
- Gold mining: Machines remove - Na<onal Parks and Reserves have capable of curing
vegeta<on and blast river banks to been set up to protect areas of high diseases and cancers.
get at the gold, harming the biodiversity.
environment. - The Purus-Manu Conserva<on
- Highways: Building the Trans-oceanic Corridor project supports long-term
highway to connect Brazil to the biodiversity conserva<on of over 10
Pacific ocean ports means going million hectares of land; river CASE
through the rainforest. dolphins and spectacled bears live
- Agriculture: lowland areas are being here.. 60 indigenous communi<es
STUDY
deforested to grow soya beans and live in the area and their tradi<onal
raise caSle. way of life is being protected.
 There are major coral reefs in the world.

Term Defini*on
symbio<c Organisms that live together; one or both of the organisms can benefit from this.
zooanthellae Plant-like algae that live on coral.

Loca*on of Coral Reefs

Florida Reef
A barrier reef off the coast
of Florida, SE USA; forms
the Florida Keys chain of
islands.
Red Sea Reef Great Barrier Reef
Fringing coral reefs World’s largest coral reef
between N Africa and Saudi off the NE coast of
Arabia in the Red Sea. Australia. Made up of 2900
smaller reefs and 900
islands.

New Caledonia Reef

Mesoamerican Reef A barrier reef in the SW
A barrier reef in the Pacific Ocean off the east
Caribbean Sea and lying off coast of Australia.
the coasts of Mexico,
Belize, Guatemala and
Honduras.
Andros Coral Reef
Lies to the east of Andros Island, the biggest island in
Processes within Coral Reefs the Bahamas in the Atlan<c Ocean.

Three main condi<ons are needed for coral reefs to form:

1. Temperature: they only live in seawater with an average temperature of 18°C and above. The ideal
temperature for coral growth is 23-25°C.
2. Light: corals feed on <ny algae that need light to photosynthesise and grow – no algae means no food! This
means coral is found in shallow waters where there is maximum light available for the algae.
3. Clear water: corals need clear, unpolluted water. Sediments and pollu<on means less light and affect the
coral’s ability to feed.

Nutrient Cycling
Corals live in very nutrient poor waters so they need very efficient nutrient recycling system to make use of the
nutrients they do have.
There is a symbio<c rela<onship between
coral and zooanthellae:
- Zooanthellae lives in the <ssues of the
coral polyp and feeds off the waste
nitrogen and phosphorous from the coral.
- In exchange, as the zooanthellae
photosynthesise they produce nutrients to
feed the coral.
The most important part of this is that is means
nitrogen is not lost as it just passes between the
coral and the zooanthellae.

The coral and algae also get nutrients from other

sources:
- They consume zooplankton. The zooplankton
gets its nutrients from phytoplankton (which
makes its own food from sunlight).
- They consume ammonia (dissolved nitrogen) that has been excreted from fish. In return the coral provides the
fish with food and shelter.
 Bio-diverse ecosystems are under threat
from human ac*vity: coral reefs.

Term Defini*on
Over-fishing Removing fish from the ecosystem at a rate that cannot be replaced by natural reproduc<on.

The Andros Barrier Reef

• Part of the reef system off the SE

coast of Florida; the third most
extensive reef system in the world.
• Andros reef is approx 200km long.
• Mangrove forests and lagoons
separate the reef from the land.
• The outer edge of the reef is a
steep 2000m drop to the boSom of
the ocean.
• Over 164 species of fish and coral
make up the reef including red
snapper, rock lobster and the green
The Value of the Coral Reef turtle.

Coastal protec*on Fish breeding grounds

The shallow waters above the reef causes The coral shelters the mangroves where fish breed. Fish are
storm waves to break before they hit the important commercially both to sell and for tourism. In the
land, protec<ng the land from erosion and Bahamas, local and export markets for snapper, grouper, lobster
flooding. and conch generate millions of dollars.

Tourism Health coral reef

The reefs are a base for recrea<on ac<vi<es As one of the healthiest reefs in the world, the Andros reef is
like cruising and snorkelling. These industries important for scien<fic research. This includes research into the
bring in over $150 million per year. medicinal proper<es of chemicals released by coral species.

Human Ac*vity and the Andros Barrier Reef

Threats to biodiversity Managing the coral reef

- Over-fishing: Commercial fishing can damage the
ecosystem by unbalancing it through removing too
many fish. Corals are damaged by the anchors and
boat hulls. Harves<ng the sponges is an important
local industry to this is harmful to the reef.
- Tourism: Tourists can damage the reef by walking on
it or by not being careful when diving.
- Pollu<on: Agricultural chemicals, sewage and silt
from rivers can damage the reef. When the water
becomes cloudy the zooanthellae cannot
photosynthesise.
- Climate change and global warming: Higher water
temperatures trigger a stress reac<on from the coral
and they expel the zooanthellae. This effects the
nutrient cycle and the coral is bleached (turns white)
and eventually dies if the temperatures do not drop.
- Marine-based pollu<on: oil and chemicals from boats
and ships harm the reef.
- Managed by the Department for Marine Resources
and the Bahamas Na<onal Trust with an aim to
protect 20% by 2020.
- Na<onal parks and reserves have been established;
the Andros Na<onal Park was founded in 2002 to
control developments but s<ll allow local tradi<ons
like fishing and sponging to take place.
- The Crab Regenera<on Reserve protects the best
crab habitat.
- The Exuma Cays Lad and Sea Park has a coral nursery
to conserve threatened species and monitor it
before it is replanted into the reef.
- There are plans to establish a new
park in the north where there has
been extensive damage by
boats.
- Overall, these ac<ons mean CASE
the reef is s<ll one of the STUDY
healthiest in the world