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 Statistical Downscaling
for Hydrological and
­ nvironmental Applications
E
 Statistical Downscaling
for Hydrological and
Environmental Applications

Taesam Lee and Vijay P. Singh

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

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 TL: Wife Misun and children Sooin and Yeojun
VPS: Wife Anita, son Vinay, daughter Arti, daughter-in-law Sonali,
son-in-law Vamsi, and grandsons Ronin, Kayden, and Davin
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
List of Abbreviations.............................................................................................. xiii
Authors...................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
1.1 Why Statistical Downscaling?....................................................1
1.2 Climate Models..........................................................................1
1.3 Statistical Downscaling..............................................................2
1.4 Selection of Model Scheme........................................................3
1.5 Structure of Chapters..................................................................6
1.6 Summary and Conclusion..........................................................7

Chapter 2 Statistical Background..........................................................................9

2.1 Probability and Statistics............................................................9
2.1.1 Probabilistic Theory......................................................9
2.1.1.1 Probability Density Function and
Cumulative Distribution Function.................9
2.1.1.2 Descriptors of Random Variables..................9
2.1.2 Discrete Probability Distributions............................... 10
2.1.2.1 Bernoulli Distribution.................................. 11
2.1.2.2 Binomial Distribution.................................. 11
2.1.3 Continuous Probability Distributions.......................... 12
2.1.3.1 Normal Distribution and Lognormal
Distributions................................................ 12
2.1.3.2 Exponential and Gamma Distributions....... 13
2.1.3.3 Generalized Extreme Value and
Gumbel Distribution.................................... 15
2.1.4 Parameter Estimation for Probability Distributions.... 16
2.1.4.1 Method of Moments..................................... 16
2.1.4.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation............... 16
2.1.5 Histogram and Empirical Distribution........................ 19
2.2 Multivariate Random Variables................................................ 22
2.2.1 Multivariate Normal Distribution and Its
Conditional Distribution.............................................. 22
2.2.2 Covariance and Correlation........................................24
2.3 Random Simulation..................................................................24
2.3.1 Monte Carlo Simulation and Uniform Random
Number........................................................................24
2.3.2 Simulation of Probability Distributions......................26
2.4 Metaheuristic Algorithm.......................................................... 27
viii Contents

2.4.1 Harmony Search ......................................................... 27

2.5 Summary and Conclusion........................................................ 31

Chapter 3 Data and Format Description.............................................................. 33

3.1 GCM Data................................................................................ 33
3.2 Reanalysis Data........................................................................34
3.3 RCM Data.................................................................................34
3.4 Summary and Conclusion........................................................ 38

Chapter 4 Bias Correction.................................................................................... 39

4.1 Why Bias Correction?.............................................................. 39
4.2 Occurrence Adjustment for Precipitation Data........................ 39
4.3 Empirical Adjustment (Delta Method)..................................... 41
4.4 Quantile Mapping..................................................................... 43
4.4.1 General Quantile Mapping.......................................... 43
4.4.2 Nonparametric Quantile Mapping..............................46
4.4.3 Quantile Delta Mapping.............................................. 47
4.5 Summary and Comparison....................................................... 50

Chapter 5 Regression Downscalings................................................................... 53

5.1 Linear Regression Based Downscaling.................................... 53
5.1.1 Simple Linear Regression........................................... 53
5.1.1.1 Significance Test.......................................... 55
5.1.2 Multiple Linear Regression......................................... 58
5.2 Predictor Selection................................................................... 70
5.2.1 Stepwise Regression.................................................... 70
5.2.2 Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator.........74
5.3 Nonlinear Regression Modeling............................................... 87
5.3.1 Artificial Neural Network........................................... 87
5.4 Summary and Conclusion........................................................92

Chapter 6 Weather Generator Downscaling........................................................ 95

6.1 Mathematical Background....................................................... 95
6.1.1 Autoregressive Models................................................ 95
6.1.2 Multivariate Autoregressive Model............................. 95
6.1.3 Markov Chain.............................................................. 98
6.2 Weather Generator.................................................................. 100
6.2.1 Model Fitting............................................................. 101
6.2.1.1 Precipitation............................................... 101
6.2.1.2 Weather Variables (Tmax, Tmin, SR).............. 101
6.2.2 Simulation of Weather Variables............................... 107
6.2.2.1 Precipitation............................................... 107
Contents ix

6.2.2.2 Weather Variables (Tmax, Tmin, SR).............. 107

6.2.3 Implementation of Downscaling............................... 109
6.3 Nonparametric Weather Generator........................................ 111
6.3.1 Simulation under Current Climate............................ 112
6.3.2 Simulation under Future Climate Scenarios............. 115
6.4 Summary and Conclusion...................................................... 115

Chapter 7 Weather-Type Downscaling.............................................................. 117

7.1 Classification of Weather Types............................................. 117
7.1.1 Empirical Weather Type............................................ 117
7.1.2 Objective Weather Type............................................ 117
7.2 Generation of Daily Rainfall Sequences................................ 121
7.3 Future Climate with Weather-Type Downscaling.................. 123
7.4 Summary and Conclusion...................................................... 123

Chapter 8 Temporal Downscaling..................................................................... 125

8.1 Background............................................................................. 125
8.1.1 K-Nearest Neighbor Resampling............................... 125
8.2 Daily to Hourly Downscaling................................................. 127
8.3 Summary and Conclusion...................................................... 135

Chapter 9 Spatial Downscaling......................................................................... 137

9.1 Mathematical Background..................................................... 137
9.1.1 Bilinear Interpolation................................................ 137
9.1.2 Nearest Neighbor Interpolation................................. 137
9.2 Bias Correction and Spatial Downscaling ............................. 138
9.3 Bias Correction and Constructed Analogues ........................ 143
9.4 Bias Correction and Stochastic Analogue.............................. 146
9.5 Summary and Comparison..................................................... 152

References.............................................................................................................. 155
Index....................................................................................................................... 159
Preface
Although climate change is understood as a gradual variation at large spatial and
long temporal scales, real impacts of climate change are experienced on short-space
time scales, such as extreme rainfall and floods, and some impacts are also expe-
rienced on large-space time scales, such as droughts, hurricanes, heat waves, cold
waves, extreme snowfall, and winds. Global climate change is understood and mod-
eled using global climate models (GCMs), but the outputs of these models in terms of
hydrological variables are only available on coarse or large spatial and time scales,
but finer spatial and temporal resolutions are needed to reliably assess hydroenvi-
ronmental impacts of climate change. To obtain required resolutions of hydrological
variables, statistical downscaling has been popularly employed.
In the field of hydrologic science and engineering, a number of statistical down-
scaling techniques have been reported during the past several decades. Much of the
literature on statistical downscaling is available in journals, dissertations, and tech-
nical reports, which are not always easily accessible. As a result, their applications
seem limited to only those who are well versed in the area of downscaling. A book
that solely deals with statistical downscaling and covering available approaches and
techniques seems to be in high demand.
The major objective of this book therefore is to present statistical downscaling
techniques in a practical manner so that students and practitioners can easily adopt
the techniques for hydrological applications and designs in response to climate
change. The techniques are illustrated with examples.
The subject matter of the book is divided into nine chapters. Chapter 1 introduces
the concept of statistical downscaling and its necessity and also discusses the cover-
age and focus of the book. Chapter 2 provides the basic statistical background that
is employed for statistical downscaling approaches. Chapter 3 explains the type of
datasets that are required for statistical downscaling and how and where the datasets
can be acquired. Since GCM outputs often present significant biases with observa-
tional data, Chapter 4 describes how these biases can be corrected.
In statistical downscaling, according to the purpose of climate change assess-
ments, final outputs and datasets employed are quite different from each other. In
case a weather station-based hydrological output is needed, a pointwise downscaling
method is necessary. In Chapter 5, transfer function downscaling methods, mostly
based on regression type approaches, are described as a pointwise method.
Regression-type models rely on the dependence between climate variables and
surface hydrological variables, also called transfer function model. However, surface
hydrological variables, such as precipitation and streamflow, do not often exhibit
significant relationships with climate variables, even though the long-term evolution
of these variables is affected by climate variables. Therefore, stochastic simulation
models that only relate climate variables to the parameters of stochastic simula-
tion models have been developed for hydrological variables. Different weather gen-
erator models employing stochastic simulation schemes are therefore presented in
Chapter 6.
xi
xii Preface

Another downscaling approach is weather typing by classifying atmospheric cir-

culation patterns to a limited number of weather types. After selecting a weather
type for a certain day, stochastic weather simulation can be adopted by conditioning
the defined weather type to simulate the local variable of interest for future climate.
The procedure is described in Chapter 7.
High temporal resolution of climate variables (e.g., precipitation) is critical for
the assessment of extreme hydrological events, such as floods. Chapter 8 describes a
temporal downscaling method. Meanwhile, downscaling approaches to obtain spa-
tially coarser datasets are explained in Chapter 9.
The book will be useful to graduate students, college faculty, and researchers in
hydrology, hydroclimatology, agricultural and environmental sciences, and water-
shed management who are interested in climate change and its hydrologic impacts. It
may also be useful to policymakers in government at local, state, and national levels.
The first author acknowledges his university (Gyeongsang National University)
supporting his sabbatical fund for this book and Texas A&M University for pro-
viding an excellent environment. Also, he expresses gratitude to the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation climate center in Busan motivating to write this book for
research officials from developing countries.

Taesam Lee
Vijay P. Singh
College Station, Texas
List of Abbreviations
ANN Artificial Neural Network
AR Autoregression
AR5 IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report
ASE Approximation Square Error
BC Bias Correction
BCCA Bias Correction and Constructed Analogues
BCSA Bias Correction and Stochastic Analogues
BCSD Bias Correction and Spatial Downscaling
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
CMIP5 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, Phase 5
CORDEX Coordinate Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment
CV Cross Validation
ECDF Empirical Cumulative Distribution Function
GA Genetic Algorithm
GCM Global Climate Model
GEV Generalized Extreme Value
KNN K-Nearest Neighbor
KNNR K-Nearest Neighbor Resampling
LASSO Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator
LWT Lamb Weather Type
MAR Multivariate Autoregressive Model
MCS Monte Carlo Simulation
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimation
MOM Method of Moments
NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research
NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction
NTD Nonparametric Temporal Downscaling
NWGEN Nonparametric Weather Generator
PDF Probability Density Function
QDM Quantile Delta Mapping
QM Quantile Mapping
RCM Regional Climate Model
RCP Representative Concentration Pathways
RMSE Root Mean Square Error
SWR Stepwise Regression
WGEN Weather Generator

xiii
Authors
Taesam Lee, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at
Gyeongsang National University. He got his Ph.D. degree from Colorado State
University with stochastic simulation of streamflow and worked at Institut National
de la Recherche Scientifique Centre Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-ETE) in
Quebec City as a research fellow with Prof. Taha B.M.J. Ouarda. He specializes
in surface-water hydrology, meteorology, and climatic changes in hydrological
extremes publishing more than 40 technical papers.

Vijay P. Singh, Ph.D., D.Sc., D. Eng. (Hon.), Ph.D. (Hon.), P.E., P.H., Hon.
D. WRE is a distinguished professor, a regents professor, and Caroline & William
N. Lehrer distinguished chair in water engineering in the Department of Biological
and Agricultural Engineering and Zachry Department of Civil Engineering at Texas
A&M University. He specializes in surface-water hydrology, groundwater hydrol-
ogy, hydraulics, irrigation engineering, and environmental and water resources engi-
neering. He has published extensively and has received more than 90 national and
international awards.

xv
 1 Introduction

1.1 WHY STATISTICAL DOWNSCALING?

Recent studies have shown that atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, such
as carbon dioxide, has significantly increased due to human activities. Greenhouse
gases have led to regional and global changes in climate and climate-related variables,
such as temperature and precipitation (Watson et al., 1996). Climate models have the
ability to predict the consequences of the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases.
However, resolutions of climate models are quite coarse for hydrologic and envi-
ronmental modeling that impact assessments through mathematical models (e.g.,
drought/flood modeling) for which employing global climate model (GCM) output
variables is not suitable. To bridge this gap, regional climate models (RCMs) are
developed, based on dynamic formulations using initial and time-dependent lat-
eral boundary conditions of GCMs, with no feedback from the RCM simulation to
the driving of GCM (IPCC, 2001). The basic RCM techniques are essentially from
numerical weather prediction originally developed by Dickinson et al. (1989) that
provide a spatial resolution up to 10–20 km or less. However, these RCMs are still not
fine enough to provide the detailed spatial–temporal scale outputs needed for small
watershed hydrological and field agricultural climate impact studies, where local and
site-specific scenarios are required (Chen et al., 2011). This might hinder extensive
applications of GCM projections for the impact assessment of climate change.
Statistical downscaling methods have been developed to specify the GCM or
RCM scenarios into further fine spatial and temporal scales employing statistical
relations between climate output variables of the scenarios and the variables of local
interest. The statistical downscaling methods are computationally cheaper and much
easier to implement than RCMs. Statistical downscaling is to establish statistical
links between large-scale atmospheric patterns and observed local-scale weather to
resolve the scale discrepancy between climate change scenarios and the resolution
for impact assessment at a watershed scale or a station level (Maraun et al., 2010).
After establishing a statistical relation from large-scale atmospheric patterns in
climate models and weather variables of local interest, future projections of local
interest variables can be made with the established relation and future atmospheric
patterns of climate models. The relationship between the current large-scale patterns
and local weather must remain valid, called stationary. However, it is uncertain that
the established statistical links will be upheld in the future climate system under
different forcing conditions of possible future climates (Caffrey and Farmer, 2014).
This is one of the weak points of statistical downscaling.

1.2 CLIMATE MODELS
Climate models can be categorized into three groups according to their complexity
(McGuffie and Henderson-Sellers, 2005): (1) energy balance models, (2) intermediate
1
2 Statistical Downscaling

complexity models (e.g., statistical dynamical models, earth system models of inter-
mediate complexity, and integrated assessment models), and (3) global circulation
models or GCMs.
Energy balance models are zero or one-dimensional models that estimate surface
temperature as a function of energy balance of the earth with solar radiation. The
observed solar radiation, which excludes the reflected solar radiation from solar radi-
ation input, is equal to the emitted terrestrial radiation as

π R 2 (1 − α p ) S0 = 4π R 2σ Te4 (1.1)

where S0 is the solar energy (1,370 W/m2), and R and T e are the earth radius (6,371 km)
and the effective temperature of the earth, respectively. αp and σ are the planetary
albedo (0.3) and the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10 −8 W/m2/K4), respectively.
(
Note that the emitted terrestrial radiation is the emitted energy from the earth σ Te4 )
by Stefan–Boltzmann law times the surface area of the spherical earth (4πR2). From
this balance, the effective temperature that equalizes the absorbed solar energy and
the terrestrial radiation becomes
1/4
1
Teπ R 2 =  (1 − α p ) S0  (1.2)
 4σ 

The effective temperature from this calculation becomes 255 K (= −18oC).

However, the existence of atmosphere plays a vital role as greenhouse gases absorb
­thermal radiation, i.e., T = Te + ∆T , where T is the surface temperature and ΔT is
the greenhouse increment. This variation is conceptually modeled in energy bal-
ance models.
Radiative–convective models explicitly calculate the fluxes of solar and ther-
mal radiation for a number of layers in the atmosphere focused on the global
average surface temperature. Dimensionally constrained climate models com-
monly ­represent the vertical and horizontal dimension combining the latitudinal
­dimension of the energy balance model plus the vertical radiative–convective
model. GCMs calculate the full three-dimensional characteristics of the atmo-
sphere and ocean.
GCMs have been employed to project the response of the global climate system
to increase greenhouse gas concentrations. The fundamental equations of GCMs are
derived from the basic laws of physics, such as the conservation laws for momentum,
mass, and energy, governing the motions of the atmosphere, oceans, and sea ice on
earth (Washington and Parkinson, 2005). GCMs present the global climate system
with a three-dimensional grid with a horizontal resolution between 250 and 600 km
and 10 and 20 vertical layers.

1.3 STATISTICAL DOWNSCALING
Statistical downscaling methods have normally been categorized into three parts,
such as regression downscaling or transfer function model (Wilby et al., 2002),
weather generator (Wilby et al., 1998), and weather typing (Bardossy and Plate,
Introduction 3

1992; Storch et al., 1993). The transfer function techniques employ statistical linear
or nonlinear relationships between observed local variables and GCM (or RCM)
output variables. Instead of GCM outputs, a reanalysis dataset in which observa-
tions and a GCM are combined to generate a synthesized estimate of the state of the
system is required to fit the relationships. The scenarios from GCMs do not account
for the real past weather conditions. The transfer function techniques are normally
applied when a specific site needs to assess the impact of climate change. The main
drawback of this technique is the lack of statistical relationships for some variables
(e.g., precipitation). When a weak relation or no relation is found, this technique
cannot be applied. This is one of the main reasons that weather generators have been
developed.
Weather generators employ stochastic simulation techniques with the perturba-
tion of parameters that summarize the statistical characteristics of observations. The
parameters are perturbed according to the changes derived by climate models for
future conditions. A number of climate scenarios, including natural variability, for
climate-related variables of interest (e.g., temperature and precipitation) at a specific
site or multiple sites can be produced within a short computation time. The drawback
of weather generators is that an infinite number of series can be simulated, which
make it difficult to select a representative scenario among them; and specific cli-
mate conditions represented by climate models are indirectly delivered through the
parameters of weather generators.
Weather-type approaches classify atmospheric circulation patterns into a number
of types and relate the patterns to local meteorological variables (mainly precipi-
tation). A future scenario of local variables is simulated by taking a classified pat-
tern similar to the global circulation pattern from a GCM scenario. Therefore, the
local variables are closely linked to global circulation (Bardossy and Plate, 1992).
However, the major drawbacks are (1) no strong relation can frequently be found
between atmospheric circulation patterns and local meteorological variables (espe-
cially precipitation) and (2) future circulation patterns may significantly deviate from
observations not contained in the past observations.

1.4 SELECTION OF MODEL SCHEME

Defining which statistical downscaling method is used belongs to which output
data is needed. If the future change of a hydrometeorological variable (e.g., tem-
perature and precipitation) according to climate scenarios is needed for assessing
climate change impacts at a specific site, the bias-correction in Chapter 4 is some-
times good enough to apply. When the future evolution of a local variable (espe-
cially temperature) affected by climate variables is needed, the regression-based
downscaling methods in Chapter 5 with the procedure illustrated in Figure 1.1 can
be applied. A regression model is established with climate variables of the reanal-
ysis data (explained in Chapter 3) and a variable of local interest. The future evo-
lution of variables of local interest is predicted by the climate variables of GCM
scenarios. When hydrometeorological variables are too random and significant,
relations with other variables (e.g., temperature) cannot be obtained, and weather
generator (stochastic downscaling) discussed in Chapter 6 with the procedure
4 Statistical Downscaling

FIGURE 1.1 Procedure of regression downscaling.

illustrated in Figure 1.2 should be applied. After fitting a stochastic model to the
observed data of variables of interest, future climate scenarios of variables of
interest are simulated by updating the model parameter set defined with the GCM
scenarios. A physical process is adapted in a statistical downscaling method in a
way that a large-scale atmospheric circulation is mapped to a small number of cat-
egories to condition local-scale precipitation (Figure 1.3) described in Chapter 7.
After conditioning weather types, a stochastic simulation model is applied in
Chapter 6.
When a fine temporal resolution of GCM or RCM outputs is needed (e.g., hourly
precipitation for small watersheds or urban areas), temporal downscaling discussed
in Chapter 8 with the procedure illustrated in Figure 1.4 can be used. The bias-­
corrected GCM or RCM output can be applied to a predefined temporal downscaling
model with the observed coarse or fine time scale data. If the spatial resolution of
GCM outputs is too coarse to apply in a hydrological simulation, the spatial down-
scaling discussed in Chapter 9 with the procedure illustrated in Figure 1.5 can be
used. Observed gridded data with coarse and spatial resolutions are employed to
establish a spatial downscaling model, and the bias-corrected coarse GCM grid data
is downscaled to the fine GCM grid data.
Introduction 5

FIGURE 1.2 Procedure of weather generator downscaling (or stochastic downscaling).

FIGURE 1.3 Procedure of weather-type downscaling.

6 Statistical Downscaling

FIGURE 1.4 Procedure of temporal downscaling.

1.5 STRUCTURE OF CHAPTERS
The chapters of this book are based on the objectives of statistical downscaling.
Statistical background and data and their formats description are given in Chapters 2
and 3. Chapter 4 discusses bias correction, since bias correction is mainly applied to
the outputs of climate models and the bias-corrected outputs of climate models are
then employed for downscaling. The regression downscaling is explained in Chapter
5 for both linear and nonlinear models. In linear regression downscaling, predictor
selection methods are also added, since the selection of key variables among a num-
ber of output variables of climate models is critical and the selection methods are
applicable for linear regression models. Weather generator (stochastic downscaling)
is discussed in Chapter 6. Weather-type downscaling is presented in Chapter 7. The
three approaches discussed in Chapters 5–7 are mostly used to obtain site-specific
future climate scenarios of local variables.
In contrast, Chapters 8 and 9 deal with temporal and spatial downscaling
approaches, respectively. These chapters mainly focus on precipitation, which is
fundamental for hydrological and agricultural applications. Temporal downscaling
of daily to hourly precipitation is especially presented, since it is critical for small
watersheds and daily precipitation outputs are available from recent GCM and RCM
models. Spatial downscaling describes methods that produce fine grid data from
coarse GCM models.
Introduction 7

FIGURE 1.5 Procedure of spatial downscaling.

1.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Statistical downscaling methods have been popularly developed in the last few
decades for impact assessment of climate change in various fields, such as agricul-
ture, hydrology, and environment, since the produced outputs from climate models
have a significant scale discrepancy. Even though individual investigations have been
overwhelming, an appropriate book, that systematically describes different method-
ologies of statistical downscaling is lacking and is needed. Also, a number of soft-
ware for statistical downscaling are available, but their fundamental backgrounds
are described in a limited way or not easily understandable. Therefore, the main
objective of this book is to present detailed explanations of statistical downscaling
approaches according to their purposes of application. Instead of providing detailed
theoretical backgrounds of the statistical approaches, the focus of the book is on how
to implement statistical downscaling in practice and explain and illustrate them with
examples.
This book would be beneficial for undergraduate and graduate students who are
interested in the assessment of hydrologic and environmental impacts of climate
change. For beginners in governmental and educational sectors who need to assess
the impacts of climate change, this book might serve as a guide to become familiar
with computational procedures.
Another random document with
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262.
11, 25.

263.
15, 1; 15, 2; 15, 11.

264.
1, 18; 1, 21.

265.
15, 17.

266.
1, 2; 1, 30; 3, 16; 6, 11; 6, 19.

267.
6, 19; 7, 23.

268.
6, 15; 10, 17; 12, 12-13; 12, 27.

269.
11, 23-25. Cf. Jeremiah, 31, 31-34.

270.
15, 4 compared with 15, 14.

271.
15, 6.

272.
Galatians, 1, 18-2, 10.

273.
See McGiffert’s Apostolic Age, 536.

274.
The event is described in Matt., 26, 26-30; Mark, 14, 22-26;
and Luke, 22, 14-20; as well as in 1 Corinthians, 11, 23-26.
275.
Matt., 9, 15.

276.
Matt., 16, 21.

277.
Matt., 17, 22-23; 20, 17-19.

278.
Matt., 20, 28.

279.
Matt., 21, 39; 26, 2; 26, 12.

280.
Matt., 26, 26, 30.

281.
Now universally acknowledged.

282.
Many of the wisest Indians have spoken out on this subject.
The latest utterance is an article on Pseudo-Nationalism in the
Indian Messenger for August 9th.

283.
Many other signs of Christian influence might be noted: thus
the Young Men’s Gītā is a counterblast to a Christian edition of
the Song, and it is besides most evidently arranged and printed
in imitation of some tasteful edition of the Imitation of Christ;
while the Imitation of Sreekrishna proclaims its origin by its
very name.

284.
See an essay by Hirendra Nath Dutta, which originally
appeared in Sāhitya, now republished as an appendix to Nobin
Chundra Sen’s Kurukshetra.
285.
p. ii.

286.
pp. 74-76.

287.
p. 1.

288.
Krishna and Krishnaism, 16.

289.
Krishnacharitra, 42.

290.
Pānini, his Place in Sanskrit Literature, 227.

291.
Srikrishna, his Life and Teachings, vol. I, p. xxv.

292.
Physical Religion, 76.

293.
Pānini, his Place in Sanskrit Literature, 227.

294.
It was published in 1861.

295.
Macdonell, 430-431; Kaegi, 7; Max Müller, Physical Religion,
63-64; Haraprasad Sastri, A School History of India, 4-7; R. C.
Dutt, Brief History of Ancient and Modern India, 17, 27;
Böhtlingk’s Pānini (Leipsic, 1887); Weber, Indische Studien, V,
1-172; Hopkins, R. I., 350; Bühler in S. B. E., vol. II, pp. xxxv,
xxxix-xlii; Eggeling in S. B. E., vol. xii, p. xxxvii; Bhandarkar,
Early History of the Deccan, 5.
296.
Max Müller, A. S. L., 311-312; Macdonell, 36, 39, 268. Cf. what
Whitney says, “The standard work of Pānini, the grammarian-
in-chief of Sanskrit literature, is a frightfully perfect model of the
Sūtra method” (Oriental and Linguistic Studies, I, 71).

297.
Max Müller, Natural Religion, 296; Macdonell, 203-4.

298.
Macdonell, 205.

299.
Max Müller, A. S. L., 138; Natural Religion, 297-298;
Macdonell, 22-23.

300.
Macdonell, 50.

301.
On these texts see Kaegi, Note 77; Macdonell, 48, 50.

302.
Macdonell, 51.

303.
Macdonell, 268.

304.
Macdonell, 269. Goldstücker (op. cit. p. 225) acknowledges
that Yāska earlier than Pānini.

305.
pp. 8-10.

306.
See also Bose, H. C., 33-35.
307.
13th year, 1st part.
Transcriber’s Notes:
Footnotes have been collected at the end of the text, and are
linked for ease of reference.
While the title page included with the source files shows Neil
Alexander to be the author, the original publication is
attributed to John Nicol Farquhar.
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