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Fluid Catalytic Cracking
Handbook
An Expert Guide to the Practical
Operation, Design, and Optimization of
FCC Units
Fourth Edition
Reza Sadeghbeigi
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they
have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Reza established RMS Engineering, Inc. (RMS) in January 1995 to provide independent engineering
services to the refining industry in the area of FCC. RMS provides expertise and know-how in
delivering services such as FCC equipment design, troubleshooting, unit optimization, and customized
operator/engineer training.
Should you have any questions or comments on this book, or if you would like to tap into our services,
please feel free to contact Reza at (281) 333-5900 (US) or by e-mail (reza@rmsfcc.com).
xvii
Preface to the Fourth Edition
This fourth edition shares with the readers over 40 years of my experience in the fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC) process. It also marks 25 years of RMS Engineering, Inc. (RMS), providing various
technical and engineering services to more than 100 FCC units worldwide.
Since the first edition in 1995, my objectives have been to deliver the most practical “transfer of
experience” of cat FCC operations. This is especially relevant in these days in which the cat cracking
expertise is shrinking at a rapid pace.
This fourth edition contains
• Update of the chapters especially the chapter regarding FCC catalyst.
• Breaking up the Process Description chapter in two separate chaptersdthe first chapter discusses
the Reactor-Regenerator (Converter) section, whereas the second chapter describes the Main
Fractionator column/circuits, the vapor recovery and product treatment sections.
• A new chapter discussing the use of biofuel in the transportation fuel.
Writing the fourth edition has been quite fulfilling. This is especially true with writing a new
chapter, discussing all aspects of the biofuel in the transportation industry. This fourth edition provides
comprehensive and practical discussions of all aspects of FCCU/RFCC operations. It provides
“tangible” recommendations to troubleshoot and enhance the reliability and profitability of the
FCCU operations. This is a great resource for anyone associated in the field of FCC/RFCC process.
I appreciate the support and the positive feedbacks that I have received in the past 25 years and look
forward to sharing my technical expertise and know-how for few more years.
Sincerely,
Reza Sadeghbeigi
RMS Engineering, Inc.
Bellaire, TX 77401
281-333-5900
xix
CHAPTER
The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process has been in commercial operations for nearly 80 years. It is
the most flexible process in the petroleum refinery. It can process all types of feedstock. Its cracking
severity can be adjusted greatly.
Since the start-up of the first commercial FCC unit in 1942, many improvements have been made to
enhance the unit’s mechanical reliability and its ability to crack heavier, lower-value feedstocks. The
FCC has a remarkable history of adapting to continual changes in market demands. Tables 1.1A and
1.1B highlight some of the major developments in the history of the FCC process.
The FCC unit uses a “microspherical” catalyst which behaves like a liquid when it is properly
fluidized. The main purpose of the FCC unit is to convert high-boiling petroleum fractions called gas
oil to high-value, transportation fuels (gasoline, jet fuel, and diesel). FCC feedstock is often the gas oil
portion of crude oil that commonly boils in the 650 Fþ to 1050 Fþ (330 Ce550 C) range.
Feedstock properties are discussed in Chapter 3.
There are over 400 FCC/RFCC units that are operating worldwide with total processing capacity of
over 20 million barrels per day. United States, China, India, Japan and Brazil have the most operating
units. Most of the existing FCC units have been designed or modified by six major technology
licensors:
1. UOP (Universal Oil Products)
2. Kellogg Brown & Root - KBR (formerly The M.W. Kellogg Company)
3. ExxonMobil Research and Engineering (EMRE)
4. The TechnipdStone & Webster.
5. CB&I Lummus
6. Shell Global Solutions International
Fluid Catalytic Cracking Handbook. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812663-9.00001-1
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
Figs. 1.1e1.9 contain sketches of typical unit configurations offered by the FCC technology li-
censors. Although the mechanical configuration of individual FCC units may differ, their common
objective is to upgrade low-value feedstock to the more valuable products used for transportation and
petrochemical industries. Worldwide, about 45% of all gasoline comes from FCC and ancillary units,
such as the alkylation units.
4 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
PSIG
18.5 PSIG
1.3 24.5
BAR 1.7
BAR
FIG. 1.1
Example of a Model II cat cracker with enhanced RMS Engineering, Inc. design internals.
Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description 5
PSIG
30.1
2.1
BAR
PSIG
34.7
2.4
BAR
FIG. 1.2
Example of a UOP stack design FCC unit.
6 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
PSIG
15.6
1.1
BAR PSIG
18.9
1.3
BAR
FIG. 1.3
Example of a Model IV design FCC unit.
Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description 7
psig
32.9
2.3
bar
psig
38.5
2.7
bar
FIG. 1.4
Example of KBR orthoflow design FCC unit.
8 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
PSIG
31.5
2.2
BAR
PSIG
37.1
2.6 W
BAR
FIG. 1.5
Example of a side-by-side design FCC unit.
Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description 9
PSIG
42.7
2.9
PSIG
BAR
43.1
3.1
BAR
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
FIG. 1.6
Example of a UOP high-efficiency design FCC unit.
10 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
psig
34.6
2.4
bar
psig
39.4
2.7
bar
FIG. 1.7
Example of a Flexicracker.
Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description 11
psig
20.8
1.4
psig
bar
25.7
1.8
bar
43
FIG. 1.8
Example of The Technip Stone & Webster design FCC unit.
12 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
PSIG
25
1.7
BAR
PSIG
30
2.1
BAR
FIG. 1.9
Example of Lummus technology, Inc. FCC unit.
FUEL GAS
OVERHEAD
GAS PLANT
DRUM LPG
ISOMERIZATION
UNIT GASOLINE
RAW HYDRO-
KEROSENE
KEROSENE TREATING
ALKY LPG
GAS PLANT UNIT GASOLINE
LIGHT
GAS OIL FLUIDIZED
CATALYTIC SULFUR GASOLINE
CRACKING TREATMENT
GAS OIL
COKER
VACUUM HEAVY
UNIT HDRYO-
GAS OIL HEATING OIL
FUEL
TREATING
GAS
DECANT OIL
N0. 6 OIL
TAR DELAYED GASOLINE TO
COKER REFORMER
COKE
FIG. 1.10
A typical high conversion refinery.
13
14 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
Before proceeding, it is helpful to understand how a typical cat cracker fits into the refining process.
A petroleum refinery is composed of several processing units which convert the raw crude oil into
useable products such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel and heating oil (Fig. 1.10).
The crude unit is the first unit in this refining process. Here, the raw crude is distilled into several
intermediate products such as naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and gas oil. The heaviest portion of the crude
oil, which cannot be distilled in the atmospheric tower, is heated and sent to the vacuum tower where it
is split into gas oil and residue. The vacuum tower bottoms (residue) can be sent to be processed further
in units such as the delayed coker, deasphalting unit, visbreaker, residue cracker, or is sold as fuel oil or
road asphalt.
The gas oil feed for the conventional cat cracker comes primarily from the atmospheric column, the
vacuum tower, and the delayed coker. In addition, a number of refiners blend some atmospheric or
vacuum resid into their feedstocks to be processed in the FCC unit. The charge to the FCC unit can be
fully hydrotreated, partially hydrotreated, or totally unhydrotreated.
The FCC process is very complex. For clarity, the process description has been broken down into
the following separate sections:
• Feed preheat
• Converter (reactor-regenerator)
• Flue gas heat and pressure recovery schemes
• Main fractionator and gas plant
• Treating facilities
In this chapter, feed preheat, converter and the flue gas sections are discussed. Chapter 2 provides
discussions of the main fractionator, vapor recovery and product treating sections.
increased throughput. Additionally, for units in which deep hydrotreated feed is processed, the ability
to increase the feed preheat temperature is an excellent option to control the regenerator bed tem-
perature. Additionally, the furnace is also used, during the unit start-up to heat up the main fractionator
tower.
The effects of feed preheat are discussed in Chapter 8.
Feed surge
drum
LCO Slurry
FC
Feed To riser
preheater
FIG. 1.11
Typical feed preheat system. Note: FC, flow control; LC, level control; TC, temperature control.
16 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
The hot regenerated catalyst will not only provide the necessary heat to vaporize the gas oil feed
and bring its temperature to the desired cracking temperature, but it also compensates for the “internal
cooling” that takes place in the riser due to endothermic heat of reaction.
Depending on the feed preheat, regenerator bed, and riser outlet temperatures, the ratio of catalyst-
to-oil is normally in the range of 4:1 to 10:1 by weight. The typical regenerated catalyst temperature
ranges between 1250 F and 1350 F (677 Ce732 C). The cracking or reactor temperature is often
in the range of 925 F to 1050 F (496 Ce565 C). The cracking and non-cracking reactions deposit
about 4.5 wt% gas oil feed as residue on the catalyst.
After exiting the riser, catalyst enters the reactor vessel. In today’s FCC operations, the reactor
vessel serves as housing for the cyclones and/or a disengaging device for catalyst separation. In the
early application of FCC, the reactor vessel provided further bed cracking, as well as being a device
used for additional catalyst separation.
Nearly every FCC unit employs some type of inertial separation device connected on the end of the
riser to separate the bulk of the catalyst from the vapors. A number of units use a deflector device to
turn the catalyst direction downward. On some units, the riser is directly attached to a set of cyclones.
The term “rough cut” cyclones generally refers to this type of arrangement. These schemes separate
approximately 75%e99.9% of the catalyst from product vapors. The combined collection efficiency of
the rough-cut and upper cyclones is >99.995%.
The “spent catalyst” entering the catalyst stripper has hydrocarbons that are adsorbed on the
surface of the catalyst; there are hydrocarbon vapors that fill the catalyst’s pores, and hydrocarbon
vapors that are entrained with the catalyst. Stripping steam is used primarily to remove the entrained
hydrocarbons between individual catalyst particles. The stripping steam does not often address hy-
drocarbon desorption or the hydrocarbons that have filled the catalyst’s pores. However, cracking
reactions do continue to occur within the stripper. These reactions are driven by the reactor temper-
ature and the catalyst residence time in the stripper. The higher temperature and longer residence time
allow conversion of adsorbed hydrocarbons into “clean lighter” products. Shed trays, disk/donut
baffles, and structural packing are the most common devices in commercial use for providing contact
between down-flowing catalyst and up-flowing steam.
The flow of spent catalyst to the regenerator is often regulated by either a slide or plug valve (see
Fig. 1.12). The slide or plug valve maintains a desired level of catalyst in the stripper. In all FCC units,
an adequate catalyst level must be maintained in the stripper to prevent reversal of hot flue gas into the
reactor.
In most FCC units, the spent catalyst gravitates to the regenerator. In others, lift or carrier air is used
to transport the catalyst into the regenerator. The uniform distribution of the spent catalyst is extremely
critical to achieve efficient combustion that minimizes any afterburning and NOx emissions.
The regenerator has three main functions:
• It restores catalyst activity
• It supplies heat for cracking reactions
• It delivers fluidized catalyst to the feed nozzles
1.2 Converter section 17
FIG. 1.12
(A) Example of a typical slide valve and a typical plug valve. (B) Example of a spent catalyst distribution
system. (C) Example of a ski-jump catalyst distributor.
(B) Courtesy of RMS Engineering, Inc.
18 Chapter 1 Fluid catalytic cracking process description
The spent catalyst entering the regenerator usually contains between 0.5 wt% and 1.5 wt% coke.
Components of coke are carbon, hydrogen, and trace amounts of sulfur and organic nitrogen mole-
cules. These components burn according to the following reactions as shown in Table 1.2:
Air provides oxygen for the combustion of this coke and is supplied by one or more air blowers.
The air blower provides sufficient air velocity and pressure to maintain the catalyst bed in a fluidized
state. In some FCC units, purchased oxygen is used to supplement the combustion air. The air/oxygen
enters the regenerator through an air distribution system (Fig. 1.13) located near the bottom of the
regenerator vessel. The design of the air distributor is important in achieving efficient and reliable
catalyst regeneration. Air distributors are often designed for a 1.0 psi to 2.0 psi (7e15 kPa) pressure
drop to ensure positive air flow through all nozzles.
In traditional bubbling bed regenerators, there are two regions: the dense phase and the dilute
phase. At velocities common in these regenerators, 2 ft/se4 ft/s (0.6e1.2 m/s), the bulk of catalyst
particles are in the dense bed, immediately above the air distributor. The dilute phase is the region
above the dense phase up to the cyclone inlet, and has a substantially lower catalyst concentration.
FIG. 1.13
Examples of air distributor designs.
Courtesy of RMS Engineering, Inc.
1.2 Converter section 19
Het St. Pieters Gasthuis, dat zijnen naam ontleent van één der
Gasthuizen welken weleer hier ter stede waren, komt eerst in
aanmerking: het was in oude tijde de Kloosters der Oude en Nieuwe
Nonnen: alles wat hierin gevonden wordt is ongemeen aan het
oogmerk voldoende; het heeft zijne eigene bakkerij en brouwerij, ook is
er de stads Apotheek in geplaatst: even binnen de groote poort is een
Beiërt, alwaar de bedelaars en arme vreemdelingen drie nachten om
niet kunnen logeeren, ontvangende des avonds en morgens ook spijs
en drank.
Het Burger weeshuis, was weleer het St. Lucie klooster in 1580
daartoe vervaardigd; vóór dien tijd was het fraai herbouwd Logement
de Keizers kroon, het Burger weeshuis: dit huis is groot, aanzienlijk, en
ook zeer rijk.
Van het Dol- of Krankzinnig huis hebben wij reeds gesproken: (zie
boven Bladz. 10).
Het St. Joris hof, staande tegen de oude Waals Kerk: was eertijds het
Pauliniaanen klooster; ’t is nu een Proveniers huis, schoon ’t voorheen
ook voor Leprozen gediend hebbe.
Behalven alle de gemelde gebouwen vindt men hier ter stede nog eene
menigte hofjens en Godsdienstige gestichten, door bijzondere
persoonen van verscheidene Gezinten, met Godsdienstige oogmerken,
aangelegd: de voornaamsten zijn:
WERELDLIJKE GEBOUWEN.
Het zoude ons bestek te veel gevergd weezen, wilde men eene
beschrijving van het inwendige des gebouws van ons [17]vorderen, wij
kunnen er slechts iet weinigs van zeggen; de talrijke vertrekken,
welken er in zijn, zijn allen der bezichtiginge overwaardig; eenigen van
dezelven zijn vercierd met overheerelijke schilderstukken, en
beschilderingen van de voornaamste oude meesters; de
vroedschapskamer munt daarin boven alle anderen uit: op de
wapenkamer zijn ook veele bijzonderheden te zien, voornaamlijk van
oude wapenen, harnassen, enz.
Het Willige rasphuis voor vrouwlieden, dat weleer aan den Y-kant
stond, en ter weeringe van bedelaarij diende, niet alleen, maar ook ter
gevangenplaatse van vrouwen, wier gedrag opsluiting verdiende, en
wier naastbestaanden de kosten van een bijzonder Beterhuis niet
konden draagen, almede door den aanleg van het voornoemde
algemeene Werkhuis, ten onbruike geraakt zijnde, werd de grond
daarvan bebouwd, met het allen lof verdienende Kweekschool voor
de Zeevaart; eene instelling die Amsteldam eere aandoet, en ons ’t
ons voorgeschreven bekrompen bestek doet betreuren; want gaarne
weidden wij ten breedsten over het aanleggen van die lofwaardige
schoole uit.
KERKLIJKE REGEERING.
Ingevolge onze gewoonte in het reeds afgewerkt gedeelte van ons
uitgebreid plan, bepaalen wij ons hier ook weder alleenlijk tot de
Gereformeerde, of Heerschende kerk in Amsteldam: deeze gemeente
dan wordt bediend door 29 Predikanten, één van welken in de
Hoogduitsche taale moet prediken: de Gasthuiskerk had weleer haar
afzonderlijken Predikant; doch thans predikt deeze ook op zijn beurt in
de andere kerken, gelijk de overige Predikanten ook de Gasthuiskerk
op hunne beurt moeten waarneemen: de gewoone kerkenraad bestaat
voords uit gemelde Predikanten, een gelijk getal Ouderlingen, waarvan
jaarlijks de helft afgaan, gelijk ook van de Diaconen, die 42 in getal zijn,
en een afzonderlijk Collegie uitmaaken, doch van den grooten
kerkenraad ook leden zijn: den Diaconen zijn 12 Diaconessen
toegevoegd, [25]die voor al het vrouwlijke in dat groote ligchaam zorg
draagen; voorheen zond de Wethouderschap twee Gemagtigden in
den kerkenraad; doch sedert eenige jaaren vindt zulks geen plaats
meer: in gevalle van eene vacature onder de Predikanten, worden
Burgemeesteren om handopening tot het doen van een beroep
verzocht; na bekomen verlof, maakt de gewoone kerkenraad een
nominatie van drie, het zelfde doet het Collegie van Diaconen: deeze
dubbelde nominatie wordt in den grooten kerkenraad tot een drietal
gebragt, en daaruit wordt bij meerderheid van stemmen één verkozen,
op welke verkiezing vervolgends de goedkeuring van Burgemeesteren
verzocht wordt.
WERELDLIJKE REGEERING.