Professional Documents
Culture Documents
[FREE PDF sample] Biology of Macrofungi Bhim Pratap Singh ebooks
[FREE PDF sample] Biology of Macrofungi Bhim Pratap Singh ebooks
OR CLICK LINK
https://textbookfull.com/product/biology-of-
macrofungi-bhim-pratap-singh/
Read with Our Free App Audiobook Free Format PFD EBook, Ebooks dowload PDF
with Andible trial, Real book, online, KINDLE , Download[PDF] and Read and Read
Read book Format PDF Ebook, Dowload online, Read book Format PDF Ebook,
[PDF] and Real ONLINE Dowload [PDF] and Real ONLINE
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-endophytic-fungal-
research-present-status-and-future-challenges-bhim-pratap-singh/
https://textbookfull.com/product/woven-terry-fabrics-
manufacturing-and-quality-management-1st-edition-jitendra-pratap-
singh/
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-waste-to-energy-
technologies-1st-edition-rajeev-pratap-singh-editor/
https://textbookfull.com/product/alternative-fuels-and-their-
utilization-strategies-in-internal-combustion-engines-akhilendra-
pratap-singh/
Microbial Inoculants in Sustainable Agricultural
Productivity Vol 1 Research Perspectives 1st Edition
Dhananjaya Pratap Singh
https://textbookfull.com/product/microbial-inoculants-in-
sustainable-agricultural-productivity-vol-1-research-
perspectives-1st-edition-dhananjaya-pratap-singh/
https://textbookfull.com/product/simulations-and-optical-
diagnostics-for-internal-combustion-engines-current-status-and-
way-forward-akhilendra-pratap-singh/
https://textbookfull.com/product/microbial-interventions-in-
agriculture-and-environment-volume-3-soil-and-crop-health-
management-dhananjaya-pratap-singh/
https://textbookfull.com/product/systems-biology-application-in-
synthetic-biology-1st-edition-shailza-singh-eds/
https://textbookfull.com/product/metagenomic-systems-biology-
integrative-analysis-of-the-microbiome-shailza-singh/
Fungal Biology
Biology of
Macrofungi
Fungal Biology
Series Editors
Vijai Kumar Gupta
ERA Chair of Green Chemistry
Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology
School of Science
Tallinn University of Technology
Tallinn
Estonia
Maria G. Tuohy
Head of the Molecular Glycobiotechnology Group
Biochemistry, School of Natural Sciences
National University of Ireland Galway
Galway
Ireland
About the Series
Fungal biology has an integral role to play in the development of the biotechnology
and biomedical sectors. It has become a subject of increasing importance as new
fungi and their associated biomolecules are identified. The interaction between
fungi and their environment is central to many natural processes that occur in the
biosphere. The hosts and habitats of these eukaryotic microorganisms are very
diverse; fungi are present in every ecosystem on Earth. The fungal kingdom is
equally diverse, consisting of seven different known phyla. Yet detailed knowledge
is limited to relatively few species. The relationship between fungi and humans has
been characterized by the juxtaposed viewpoints of fungi as infectious agents of
much dread and their exploitation as highly versatile systems for a range of
economically important biotechnological applications. Understanding the biology
of different fungi in diverse ecosystems as well as their interactions with living and
non-living is essential to underpin effective and innovative technological
developments. This series will provide a detailed compendium of methods and
information used to investigate different aspects of mycology, including fungal
biology and biochemistry, genetics, phylogenetics, genomics, proteomics, molecular
enzymology, and biotechnological applications in a manner that reflects the many
recent developments of relevance to researchers and scientists investigating the
Kingdom Fungi. Rapid screening techniques based on screening specific regions in
the DNA of fungi have been used in species comparison and identification, and are
now being extended across fungal phyla. The majorities of fungi are multicellular
eukaryotic systems and therefore may be excellent model systems by which to
answer fundamental biological questions. A greater understanding of the cell
biology of these versatile eukaryotes will underpin efforts to engineer certain fungal
species to provide novel cell factories for production of proteins for pharmaceutical
applications. Renewed interest in all aspects of the biology and biotechnology of
fungi may also enable the development of “one pot” microbial cell factories to meet
consumer energy needs in the 21st century. To realize this potential and to truly
understand the diversity and biology of these eukaryotes, continued development of
scientific tools and techniques is essential. As a professional reference, this series
will be very helpful to all people who work with fungi and should be useful both to
academic institutions and research teams, as well as to teachers, and graduate and
postgraduate students with its information on the continuous developments in
fungal biology with the publication of each volume.
Biology of Macrofungi
Editors
Bhim Pratap Singh Lallawmsanga
Molecular Microbiology and Systematics Molecular Microbiology and Systematics
Laboratory Laboratory
Department of Biotechnology Department of Biotechnology
Mizoram University Mizoram University
Aizawl, Mizoram, India Aizawl, Mizoram, India
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This volume is dedicated to
Late Shri Ram Prasad
father of Dr. Bhim Pratap Singh,
Senior Editor of this volume,
for his continuous motivation and
encouragement
K. R. S. Sambasiva Rao
Vice-Chancellor
Mizoram University (A Central University)
Aizawl, Mizoram, India
vii
Preface
Mushrooms are often been referred as functional food due to their high nutritional
contents. They contain high amount of antioxidants, the chemicals that are required
to get rid of free radicals. Free radicals are very dangerous for the body cells as they
lead to several deadly diseases including cancer. Mushrooms have high content of
selenium, a mineral which is not available by eating most of the fruits and vegeta-
bles, and help in detoxifying disease-causing compounds in the body and also play
an important role in preventing inflammation. They are high in fiber, potassium, and
Vitamin C content which play an important role in preventing cardiovascular health.
The present volume has 19 chapters contributed by the researchers and academi-
cians from several countries including the United Kingdom, the United States,
China, Malaysia, Poland, Serbia, Brazil, and India. The volume has covered most of
the recent developments in macrofungal biology starting from the latest methods
used for the identification of wild macrofungi and several applications of macro-
fungi for sustainable livelihood.
Editors of the volume express their gratitude to all the contributors for sharing
their work in this volume. We are also thankful to Springer Nature publishers for
giving us a chance to compile this important volume. We hope that the contents
presented in this book will be useful for the readers involved in macrofungi research
and all concern.
ix
Acknowledgments
My sincere thanks are extended to all the academicians and scientists who have
contributed chapters and happily agreed to share their work on various aspects of
macrofungi in this volume. At the same time, I also express my deepest gratitude to
my family members, especially my wife (Dr. Garima Singh) and my daughter
(Aadita Singh), for their kind support which has prompted me to complete the
assignment on time. I am also thankful to the Department of Biotechnology (DBT),
New Delhi, Government of India, for supporting us financially in the form of sev-
eral externally funded projects from time to time and for the establishment of DBT
Bioinformatics Centre at Mizoram University which was quite useful during the
compilation of the book. I am equally thankful to the Springer Publishing for their
full cooperation during the production of the volume. In particular, I am thankful to
the series editors, Dr. Vijai Kumar Gupta and Prof. Maria G. Tuohy, for accepting
our proposal and providing their full support and encouragements. I am also thank-
ful to the production team of Springer Nature for all their efforts for publishing the
volume on time. I admit that it is quite possible that some mistakes may have
occurred in the text inadvertently, and I take responsibilities for the mistakes, and
please feel free to inform me the same.
I am thankful to Prof. KRS Sambasiva Rao, Vice-Chancellor, Mizoram University,
for his endeavor and motivations at all stages of the progress.
xi
Contents
xiii
xiv Contents
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 395
Contributors
xv
xvi Contributors
1.1 Introduction
Mushroom is a term used to define the fruiting body formed by a group of fungi
such as Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes. They are either epigeous or hypogeous
large enough to be seen with the naked eye and can be picked by hand (Chang and
Miles 1992). The fruiting bodies of fungi (except for bracket) are normally short
lived; and their existence varies from one to another. Mushrooms basically have the
specific nutritional and ecological requirements for their growth and development;
some of them thrive extremely well in soil and some of them utilize degrading plant
residues as saprophytes. Many of the mushrooms exist in symbiotic relationship
with roots of higher plant species. Due to the differences in their lifestyle, their
ecological influence also varies from one to another (Lallawmsanga et al. 2016).
These macrofungi appear at different times in a year and some species do not appear
every year (Packham et al. 2002). They are a group of fungi that forms relatively
conspicuous sporocarp (Ferris et al. 2000). As the tropical regions are considered
rich in biodiversity, most of the new species of mushrooms reported in the recent
years are from these regions; these newly reported mushrooms are usually associ-
ated with the native trees.
The occurrence of mushroom fruiting bodies varies according to different eco-
logical climate (Arora 1991). They are essential for recycling of nutrients, growth
and development of saplings in the forest base while some of them cause damage to
the trees as they are in parasitic association with them. Humid climate provides
more distribution as compared to hot and dry periods (Sibounnavong et al. 2008).
Mueller et al. (2007) estimated that there are 53, 000 to 110, 000 mushrooms in the
world. However, Hawksworth (2001) estimated the global mushroom is about
140,000 species and approximately 14,000 species of them are known. It is also
assumed that the mushrooms which are still unexplored could be of highly benefi-
cial to mankind. Biodiversity research has become more important following the
Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 to understand the structure and function
of ecosystems (Gadd 2007). Besides flora and fauna, fungi are considered as one of
the most significant organisms in the world due to their important role in ecosys-
tem (Mueller et al. 2004). Fungi have great importance ecologically as well as in
industrially. They are found in almost all part of human life and ecosystems
(Garibay-Orijel et al. 2009).
There are over 27,000 mushroom species recorded in India which makes it the
second largest biotic community after insects (Manoharachary et al. 2005). True
fungi belong to kingdom Eukaryota which has four phyla, 103 orders, 484 families
and 4979 genera. True fungi consists of monophyletic groups, of which
Basidiomycetes alone accounts for 35% of the fungal species described so far. They
are of great importance ecologically as well as industrially. Ascomycetes,
Basidiomycetes, some Zygomycetes and Glomeromycetes are grouped under hypo-
geous fungi (Trappe and Castellano 1991). The loss of spore discharge mechanisms
in Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are the common characteristics observed in the
two (Alessandra et al. 2014).
Mushrooms are rich in food, medicine and plant growth promotion (Ghate and
Sridhar 2015). So they have large number of importance in biodegradation, ecosys-
tems, food industry and pharmacology (Barros et al. 2007). Mushrooms are consid-
ered as healthy foods due to their high composition of nutrients like proteins,
carbohydrates, vitamins, fatty acids, amino acids and various elements in their fruit-
ing body (Liu et al. 2015; Dimitrijevic et al. 2016). Mushrooms are known as an
unlimited source of bioactive compounds and their immense diversity provide a
massive prospective in the discovery and development of several drugs (Butler
2004). They are also known to produce the most important kinds of bioactive com-
pounds including lectins, peptidoglucans, phenolic compounds, polysaccharides,
steroids, etc., that acquire a broad range of pharmacological properties like antimi-
crobial (Alves et al. 2013), antioxidant (Ferreira et al. 2009), anti-tumor (Popovic
et al. 2013), and therapeutic properties such as counteracting diseases including
hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and cancer (Gast et al. 1988). These factors
made the large scale production of mushroom became an important industry in
several countries (Rafique 1996; Izlam et al. 2009).
1 Exploration of Macrofungi in Sub-Tropical Semi-Evergreen Indian Forest Ecosystems 3
Rise in food prices due to high biofuel prices have caused scarcity of food and
malnutrition throughout the world. To lessen this, cultivation of mushroom is
beneficial and applicable for the poor farmers as it is labor intensive, short-duration
for production and land saving (Shah et al. 2004). It could be more applicable in
developing countries where malnutrition is one of the biggest problems as mush-
rooms contain high level of nutrients and its high productivity per unit area (Eswaran
and Ramabadran 2000).
Mushrooms collected from the selected reserve forests were first identified based on
their macroscopic characteristics. The followings are the macroscopic features used
for the identification up to genus: attachment, cap size, colour, gills, shape, surface
texture and moisture, spacing, stem size, the presence or absence of partial and uni-
versal veils. The identification was done by using seven mycological characters
such as hymenium type, cap shape, gills, stipe character, color of the spore print,
ecological type, and edibility (Krishna et al. 2015).
Several numbers of molecular markers have been employed in the rapid identifica-
tion of mushrooms in modern biotechnological research (Lian et al. 2008). DNA
based techniques have eased the knowledge about microbial diversity from the
natural ecosystems (Tuckwell et al. 2005). Mullis and Faloona (1987) have devel-
oped DNA-based PCR and taxon specific primers for the identification and study
various kinds of fungi. The internal transcribed spacer region has been widely
employed for the identification of fungi at species level (Sanchez-Ballesteros et al.
2000). Molecular fingerprinting offer an efficient way to study genetic variations
which further helps in breeding programs due to its properties including high lev-
els of detectable polymorphism and independence of environmental parameters
(Yin et al. 2014).
Various molecular techniques such as random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis, simple
sequence repeat (SSR) analysis, inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis have
been commonly employed for the genetic characterization of plants, animals,
fungi and other organisms (Mei et al. 2014). RAPD analysis is used to reveal genetic
4 Lallawmsanga et al.
Dampa Tiger Reserve (Mamit District, Mizoram) is the largest wildlife sanctuary in
Mizoram. It covers up an area of about 500 sq.km, falls within 23° 23' 15''N – 23° 42'
20''N latitudes and 92° 16' 25''E – 92° 25' 55''E longitudes. Altitude in the forest
ranged between 800 to 1100 m above mean sea level. The annual rainfall ranged
between 2000 mm to 2500 mm and maximum rainfall occurs in the month of June to
August. Pleasant and warm climate prevails in the reserve all through the year with
temperate to chill winter during November to January in higher altitudes. The natural
vegetation includes Michelia champaca, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, and Terminalia
chebula in the lower elevations while the higher elevations are characterized by
Castanopsis indica, Dendrocalamus longispathus, Gmelina arborea, Lannea
coromandelica, Mesua ferrea, Quercus sp., Schima wallichii and Sterculia
1 Exploration of Macrofungi in Sub-Tropical Semi-Evergreen Indian Forest Ecosystems 5
villosa. The reserve hosts several endangered species including Panthera tigris
(tiger), Neofelis nebulosa (clouded leopard) and Elephus maximus (Asiatic elephant).
It is especially affluent M. assamensis, M. leonina, M. arctoides, Nycticebus benga-
lensis, Trachypithecus pileatus and T. phayrei, Macaca mulatta.
The mushroom samples were collected from the abovementioned forests in 2013–
2015. The mushroom fruiting bodies were first photographed in their natural habitat
before collecting them. The collected fruiting bodies were carefully cleaned to
remove soil and other substrates using fine brush. The collected mushroom samples
were kept in separate paper bags to avoid mixing and were transferred to the labora-
tory. The specimens preserved as herbarium were identified with the help of stan-
dard literatures (Adhikari 2000).
The assessment of mushroom diversity of the Dampa Tiger Reserve and Murlen
National Park (Mizoram, India) was accomplished and we collected 249 mushroom
taxa (Fig. 1.1 A-E and Table 1.1) mainly from the genera Amanita, Boletus, Russula,
Psathyrella, Schizophyllum, Calocybe, Lentinus, Polyporus, Pleurotus, Trametes and
Tricholoma (Fig. 1.2). In total there are 39 mushroom families recorded from the 249
taxa collected (Table 1.2) and the major families are Agaricaceae, Amanitaceae,
Boletaceae, Lyophyllaceae, Marasmiaceae, Polyporaceae, Psathyrellaceae,
Russulaceae, Schizophyllaceae and Tricholomataceae (Fig. 1.3).
6 Lallawmsanga et al.
Fig. 1.1 A-E Wild mushrooms collected from Dampa Tiger Reserve and Murlen National Park,
Mizoram, India (A) Chlorosplenium aeruginascens; (B) Collybia cookie; (C) Clavulinospsis laeti-
color; (D) Auricularia auricular-judae; (E) Favolaschia cyathea; (F) Cookeina tricholoma; (G)
Coltricia perennis; (H) Helvella sp.; (I) Marasmius androsaceus; (J) Xylaria polymorpha; (K)
Scleroderma citrinum; (L) Pholiota squarrosa; (M) Pleurotus sp.; (N) Geoglossum cookeanum;
(O) Oudemansiella mucidula; (P) Mycena sp.; (Q) Xeromphalina campanella; (R) Coprinus
disseminates
1 Exploration of Macrofungi in Sub-Tropical Semi-Evergreen Indian Forest Ecosystems 7
45
40
35
No. of Individuals
30
25
20
15
10
0
Bo a
Ca us
be
s
Co us
ia
us
Po tus
lla
ph a
um
es
a
iu
Ps oru
it
en
om
ich
su
re
et
an
in
in
cy
ar
le
ro
yll
yc
Sc Rus
nt
nt
hy
am
lyp
ol
ltr
lo
ct
Am
eu
Le
Le
ich
La
at
Tr
Pl
zo
Tr
hi
Genus
Fig. 1.2 Major genera recorded from Dampa Tiger Reserve and Murlen National Park, Mizoram,
India
10 Lallawmsanga et al.