Chapter 1

Functions

Abstract
• This lesson is designed to introduce students to the concept of functions, their mathemat-
ical representation, different forms of functions and their computation

Aims
By the end of the lesson participants should be able to:

1. understand patterns, relations, functions and their applications

2. have learned the terminologies associated with functions

3. perform computations involving functions and graph

Introduction
Informally, a set-theoretic function f taking a set A to a set B is a mapping that to each x ∈ A
assigns a unique y ∈ B.
For example, we could define a function

f :S→T

taking S = {0, 1, 2} to T = {0, 2} by assigning f (0) := 2, f (1) := 2, and f (2) := 0.

Alternatively,

1. If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines

exactly one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x

2. A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each input. If the input is
denoted by x, then the output will be denoted by f (x)

Four common ways of representing functions are:

1. Numerically by tables

2. Geometrically by graphs

1
2 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
3. Algebraically by formula

4. Verbally.

The various methods of representing functions include the following:

1. The function may be represented using a tabular structure.

Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Population 15000 14786 12875 16789 23466 89653 31898

2. We may also use graphical means to illustrate a problem.

3. The population P (t) of one of the villages is the Ashanti Region of Ghana will depend
on time t

P (2010) ≈ 450, 345 (1.1)

4. The cost C of your luggage at the VIP station will depend on the weight of your luggage
w

Independent and Dependent Variables

For a given input x, the output of a function f is called the value/image of x under f .

y = f (x) (1.2)

Independent Variables
This represents the input or the argument of f . The terminology used suggests that x is free
to vary but once x has a specific value, a corresponding y is determined.

Dependent Variables
This represents the output variable y.
Considering function in which both the dependent and independent variables are real, then
f is a real-valued function of a real variable.
 3
The equation y = 3x2 − 4x + 2 has the form y = f (x) in which the function f is given by the
formula
f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 2.

For each input x, the corresponding output y is obtained by substituting x in this formula.
For example,

f (0) = 3(0)2 − 4(0) + 2 = 2 f associates y = 2 with x = 0 (1.3)

2
f (2) = 3(2) − 4(2) + 2 = 6 f associates y = 6 with x = 2 (1.4)
2
f (1) = 3(1) − 4(1) + 2 = 1 f associates y = 1 with x = 1 (1.5)

Domain and range

Domain : The set of all allowable input (x - values).
Range : The set of outputs (y - values) that result when x varies over the domain.
Natural Domain
This results when real-valued function is defined by a rule and no domain is specified. The
natural domain is the set of all real numbers for which the rule yields a real value.

Examples
Find the natural domain and range of the following.
p √
f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6 g(x) = 2 + x−1
1 x+1
h(x) = z(x) =
(x − 1)(x − 3) x−1
Solutions.

1 The function f has real values, except when the expression inside the radical is negative.
x2 − 5x + 6 ≥ 0 = (x − 3)(x − 2) ≥ 0.
The inequality is satisfied if x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 3.
So the natural domain of f is (−∞, 2] ∪ [3, +∞).
The range of f is y ≥ 0.

2 The function becomes undefined if [(x − 1)(x − 3)] = 0,then

(x − 1)(x − 3) ≥ 0
The inequality is satisfied if x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 3.
So the domain of f is (−∞, 1] ∪ (1, 3) ∪ [3, +∞).
The range is (−∞, 0).

3 The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 1.

The domain of f is [1, +∞).
The range of f is [2, +∞).
4 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
4 The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 1.
The domain of f is (−∞, 1] ∪ [1, +∞).
The range of f is (−∞, 1] ∪ [1, +∞).

Try Work
Find the domain and range of the following functions.
p 1
g(x) = x2 − 3 h(x) =
1 − sinx

x2 − 4 p
l(x) = f (x) = x2 − 2x + 5
x−2

EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Even function
A function f is said to be an even if

f (−x) = f (x) (1.6)

Odd Function
A function f is said to be an odd if

f (−x) = −f (x) (1.7)

Examples
Classify the function as even,odd or neither.

x5 − x
1.f (x) = −3x2 + 4 2.f (x) =
1 + x2

3.f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 4

Solutions.
Note:
A function f is said to be an even if: f (−x) = f (x).
A function is said to be an odd if: f (−x) = −f (x).

1. Replace x with −x in the above equations.

f (−x) = −3(−x)2 + 4
= −3(x) + 4 (1.8)

We see that f (−x) = f (x).

⇒ the function above is even.
 5
2
(−x)5 −(−x)
f (−x) = 1+(−x)2
(1.9)
−x5 +x
= 1+x2
(1.10)
x5 −x
=− 1+x2
(1.11)

Since f (−x) = −f (−x).

⇒ the function above is odd.

f (−x) = 2(−x)3 − 3(−x)2 − 4(−x) + 4 (1.12)

= −2x3 − 3x2 + 4x + 4 (1.13)

Since

f (−x) = f (x) 6= even. (1.14)

= −f (x) 6= odd (1.15)

⇒ the function above is neither even or odd.

Try Work
Classify the following functions ass odd,even or neither.
x
f (x) = 2 g(x) = 3x2 + 5
x −1

Rational Functions
A function that can be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials is called a rational function.
If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the domain of the rational function
P (x)
f (x) = (1.16)
Q(x)
consists of all x such that Q(x) 6= 0

Examples
Find the domain and range of the following
x2 − 1 x2 + 2x
1.y = 2.y =
x2 − 2x − 3 x2 − 1
x3 − 3x2 + 4 4(x − 1)
3.y = 4.y =
2x − 4 (x − 2)2
Solutions.
6 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
1. The function becomes undefined if [x2 − 2x − 3] = 0 then
(x + 1)(x − 3) ≥ 0
The inequality is satisfied if x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 3.
So the domain of f is (−∞, −1] ∪ (−1, 3) ∪ [3, +∞).
The textbfrange of f is y ≥ −1.

2. The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 1 and x = −1 where division by
zero occur.
The domain is (−∞, −1] ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ [1, +∞).
The range is y ≥ 0

3. The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 2.

The domain of f is (−∞, 2] ∪ [2, +∞).
The range is (−∞, 2] ∪ [2, +∞).

4. The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 2.

The domain of f is (−∞, 2] ∪ [2, +∞).
The range is (−∞, 2] ∪ [2, +∞).

Try Work
x2 + 2x x
f (x) = h(x) =
x2 − 1 1 + x2
x2 + 5
g(x) =
2x − 7

Arithmetic Operations of Functions

Two functions, f and g can be added,subtracted,multiplied and divided in a natural way to form
new functions f + g,f − g,f g and f /g.For example,f + g is defined by the formula

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

which states that for each input the value of f + g, is obtained by adding the values of f and
g.The equation above provides a formula for f + g but does not say anything about the domain
of f + g.However, for the right side of this equation to be defined, x must lie in the domain of
both f and g,so we define the domain of f + g to be the intersection of these two domains.More
generally,we make the following definitions:
Given functions f and g

1. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

2. (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

3. (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

4. (f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x)
 7
Example
√
Let f (x) = x2 + 3 and g(x) = x.Find
a.(f ◦ g)(x) b.(g ◦ f )(x)
Solution.
The formula for f (g(x)) is
√
f (g(x)) = [g(x)]2 + 3 = ( x)2 + 3 = x + 3
Since the domain of g is [0, +∞] and the domain of f is (−∞, +∞),the domain of f ◦ g
√
consists of all x in [0, +∞) such that g(x) = x lies in (−∞, +∞);thus, the domain of f ◦ g
is [0, +∞). The formula of g(f (x)) is
q p
g(f (x)) = f (x) = x2 + 3
Since the domain of f is (−∞, +∞) and the domain of g is [0, +∞),the domain of f ◦g consists
of all x in (−∞, +∞) such that f (x) = x2 + 3 lies in [0, +∞).Thus, the domain of g ◦ f is
(−∞, +∞).Therefore p
(g ◦ f )(x) = x2 + 3
There
√ is no need to indicate that the domain is (−∞, +∞),since this is thee natural domain of
2
x +3

Try Work
1. Find (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) if
√ 1
f (x) = x, g(x) = , h(x) = x3
x
2. Find the domains and formulas for the functions f + g,f − g,f g and f /g given:
√
f (x) = 1 + x − 2 and g(x) = x − 3

THE ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION

Recall that the absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is defined by
(
x, x ≥ 0
|x| = (1.17)
−x, x < 0
The effect of taking the absolute value of a number is to strip away the minus sign if the number
is negative and to leave the number unchanged if it is nonnegative
4 4
|5| = 5 − = |0| = 0
7 7
Properties
1. | − a| = |a|
2. |ab| = |a||b|
3. |a/b| = |a|/|b|, b 6= 0
4. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
8 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
Piece-wise Defined Functions
• A function is considered a piecewise if the rule for f changes depending on the value of
x

• The absolute value function f = |x| is an example of a piecewise function

(
1 − x, if x ≤ −1
f (x) = (1.18)
x2 , if x > −1

Solved Example.
Sketch the graph of the function defined piecewise by the formula.

 √ 0,
 x ≤ −1
f (x) = 1 − x2 , −1 < x < 1
x≥1

 x,

The formula for f changes at the points x = −1 and x = 1.We call these breakpoints
for the formula.A good procedure for graphing functions defined piecewise is to graph the
function separately over the open intervals determined by the breakpoints, and then graph f at
the breakpoints themselves. For the function f in this example
√ the graph is the horizontal ray
y = 0 on the interval (−∞, −1], it is the semicircle y = 1 − x2 on the interval(-1,1), and it
is the ray y = x on the interval [1, +∞).The formula for f specifies that the equation y = 0
applies at the breakpoint −1 [so y = f (−1) = 0], and it specifies that the equation y = x
applies at the breakpoint 1[so y = f (1) = 1].The graph of f is shown above.

Try Work
Graph the following piecewise-function defined as follows:

 x+2
 :x<0
1. f (n) = 3 :0≤x≥1
−x + 3

 :x>0

 3
 : x < −1
2. f (n) = (x + 1)2 − 2 : −1 ≤ x ≥ 1
x−4 :x≥1


Chapter 2

Limits

Abstract
• This lesson is an introduction to evaluating limits of functions

Objectives
By the end of the lesson participants should be able to:

1. understand the definition of a limit

2. distinguish between one-sided and two-sided limits

3. determine if a limit exists or not

Introduction
• The limit of a function is a description of how a function behaves as the independent
variable approaches a given value.

Consider for example:

f (x) = x2 − x + 2 (2.1)

• The limit of the functions as x → 2 is evaluated as follows:

lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 2 + 2) = 4 (2.2)

x→2 x→2

The limit of a function is a description of how a function behaves as the independent variable
approaches a given value.

Use the numerical evidence to make a conjure about the value of the limit below.
Consider
f (x) = x2 − x + 2 lim (x2 − 2 + 2) = 4
x→2

9
10 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
x f (x) x f (x)
1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000
1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000
1.95 3.852500 2.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025
1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001

The result is consistent with the graph of f (x) = x2 − x + 2

Graphically,

Intuitive Definition of Limits

Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a. (This means that f is defined on some
open interval contains a, expect possibly at a itself).
Then we write

limx→a f (x) = L (2.3)

if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by restricting
x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
Note: That f (x) need not be defined when x = a for the limit to be found as x → a. The only
thing that matters is how f is defined near a.

Examples

1. Use a numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the value of

√
t2 + 9 − 3
lim
t→0 t2
Solution
 11
√
t2 +9−3
t t2
±0.001 0.166666...
±0.01 0.166666...
±0.05 0.166655...
±0.1 0.166620...
±0.5 0.165525...
±1.0 0.162277...

√
t2 +9−3
The result is consistent with the graph of f (x) = t2
Graphically,

2. Find the value of

sin x
lim
x→0 x

Solution.

sin x
x x
±1.0 0.84147098
±0.5 0.95885108
±0.4 0.97354586
±0.3 0.98506736
±0.2 0.99334665
±0.1 0.99833417
±0.05 0.99958339
±0.01 0.99998333
±0.005 0.99999583
±0.001 0.99999983

sin x
The result is consistent with the graph of f (x) = x
Graphically,
12 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS

Try Work

Use numerical evidence to make a conjecture about the value of

x−1
lim √
x→1 x−1

One-Sided Limits
If the values of f (x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently
close to a(but greater than a),then we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a+

and if the values of f (x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x sufficiently
close to a(but less than a), then we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a−

Relationship Between One-Sided Limits And Two-Sided Limits

The two-sided limit of a function f (x) exists at a if and only if both of the one-sided limits exist
at a and have the same value;that is

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L

x→a x→a− x→a+

Examples
Consider for example the Heaviside function H is defined by
(
0 if t < 0
H(t) = (2.4)
1 if t ≥ 0
 13
lim H(t) =? lim H(t) =? (2.5)
t→0− t→0+

Solution.
(
0 if t < 0
H(t) = (2.6)
1 if t ≥ 0

lim H(t) = 0 lim H(t) = 1 (2.7)

t→0− t→0+

Since both sides are not the same, then we say the limit does not exist.

Example 2.
For the functions in the figure below,find the one-sided and two-sided limits at x = a if they
exist. .

Solutions
As in the preceding example, the value of f at x = a has no bearing on the limits as x → a, so
in all three cases we have:
lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 2.
x→a+ x→a−

Since the one-sided limits are equal,the two-sided limits exists and
lim f (x) = 2
x→a
14 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
Try Work
Evaluate the following

a. lim g(x) = b. lim g(x) = c. lim g(x) = (2.8)

x→2− x→2+ x→2

d. lim g(x) = e. lim g(x) = f. lim g(x) = (2.9)

x→5− x→5+ x→5

Infinite Limits
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = ∞ (2.10)
x→a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x sufficiently close to a,
but not equal to a
• the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is infinity
• f (x) becomes infinite as x approaches a
• f (x) increases without bound as x approaches a

Examples

Find
1
lim =? (2.11)
x→0 x2
Solution

1
x x2
±1 1
±0.5 4
±0.2 25
±0.1 100
±0.05 400
±0.01 10,000
±0.001 1000000
 15
1
The result is consistent with the graph of f (x) = x2

Graphically,

1
⇒ lim =∞ (2.12)
x→0 x2

Vertical Asymptote
The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ (2.13)
x→a− x→a+ x→a

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ (2.14)

x→a− x→a+ x→a

Examples

Find the following using the diagram above:

2x 2x
lim lim (2.15)
x→3+ x−3 x→3− x−3

Solution
16 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS

2x 2x
⇒ lim =∞ lim −∞ (2.16)
x→3+ x−3 x→3− x−3

Exercise

(a) lim g(t) = (b) lim g(x) = (c) lim g(x) = (2.17)
x→0− x→0+ x→0

(d) lim g(x) = (e) lim g(x) = (f ) lim g(x) = (2.18)

x→2− x→2+ x→2

(g) g(2) = (h) lim g(x) = (2.19)

x→4
Chapter 3

Limits And Continuity

Abstract
• In this lesson, you will be introduced to the precise definition of limits and also to the
concept of continuity.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson participants should be able to:

1. understand the precise definition of a limit

2. examine when a function is continuous

3. identify all forms of discontinuities

4. work with limit laws in evaluating limits

Precise Definition of Limits

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except possibly
at a itself. Then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

• if for every number  > 0 there is a number δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < 

• |x − a| is distance from x to a and |f (x) − L| is distance from f (x) to L we can say that
• ”limx→a f (x) = L means that the distance between f (x) and L can be made arbitrarily
small by requiring that the distance from x to a be sufficiently small (but not 0).”

Example.
Prove that
lim (4x − 5) = 7
x→3

17
18 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Solution.
Preliminary analysis of the problem (guessing a value for δ). Let  be a given positive number.
We want to find a number δ such that
if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then |(4x − 5) − 7| < 
But |(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = |4(x − 3)| = 4|x − 3|.
Therefore we want to δ such that
if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then 4|x − 3| < 
that is

if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then |x − 3| <
4
This implies that δ = /4.
We can go on and show that δ works. Given  > 0, choose δ = /4. If n0 < |x − 3| < δ then

 
|(4x − 5) − 7| = |4x − 12| = |4(x − 3)| = 4|x − 3| < 4δ = 4 =
4
Thus
if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then |(4x − 5) − 7| < 
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

lim (4x − 5) = 7
x→3
Graphically

lim (4x − 5) = 7
x→3

Try Work

1. Prove the following limits using the , δ definition of a limit

1
 
lim 1 + x = 2
x→3 3

lim (2x − 5) = 3
x→4

lim (1 − 4x) = 13
x→−3
 19
Limits of Polynomials as x → ∞
There is a useful principles about polynomials which expressed informally, states:
More precisely, if cn 6= 0, then
lim (c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn ) = lim cn xn
x→−∞ x→−∞

lim (c0 + c1 x + ... + cn x ) = lim cn xn

n
x→+∞ x→+∞
We can motivate these results by forcing out the power of x from the polynomial and examining
the limits of the factored expression.Thus,
c0 c1
c0 + c1 x + ... + cn xn = xn ( n + n−1 + ... + cn )
x x
Examples

lim (7x5 − 4x3 + 2x − 9) = lim 7x5 = −∞

x→−∞ x→−∞

lim (−4x + 17x − 5x + 1) = lim −4x8 = −∞

8 3
x→−∞ x→−∞

Limits of Rational Functions as x → ∞

One technique for determining the end behavior of a rational function is to divide each term in
the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator, after
which the limiting behavior can be determined using results we have already established.

Examples
Find
3x + 5
lim
x→+∞ 6x − 8
Solution
3x + 5 3+ x5
lim = limx→+∞ 6− x8
x→+∞ 6x − 8
limx→+∞ (3+ x5 )
= limx→+∞ (6− x8 )
5
limx→+∞ 3+limx→+∞
= limx→+∞ 6−limx→+∞
x
8
x
1
3+5 limx→+∞
= 6−8 limx→+∞
x
1
x
3+0
= 6−0
= 21

Exercises
Find
a.
4x2 − x
lim
x→−∞ 2x3 − 5
b.
5x3 − 2x2 + 1
lim
x→+∞ 1 − 3x
20 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Continuity
• Note that there are instances where the limit of a function as x approaches a is found by
2.
1.
evaluating the function at a
• Such functions with this property are known as continuous functions.

Definition
A function is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

This implies that

1. f (a) is defined (that is a is the domain of f )
2. limx→a f (x) exists
3. limx→a f (x) = f (a)

Illustration

• The figure shown is an illustration of a continuous function f .

• f is continuous means that the points (x, f (x)) on the graph of f approach the point
(a, f (a)) on the graph
• Very importantly, there should be no gap in the curve

Continuity on an interval
Definition
1. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
interval.
 21
2. If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we understand continuous
at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous from the left

Example √
Show that the function f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is continuous on the interval [-1,1].

If −1 < a < 1, then we can have

p
lim f (x) = lim (1 − 1 − x2 )
x→a x→a
p
= 1 − lim 1 − x2
x→a
q
= 1− lim (1 − x2 )
x→a
p
= 1− 1 − a2
= f (a)
Based on the previous definition, f is continuous at a if −1 < a < 1. Similar calculations
shows that
lim x → 1+ f (x) = 1 = f (−1) and lim x → 1− f (x) = 1 = f (1)
so f is continuous from the right at -1 and continuous from the left at 1. Therefore f is contin-
uous on [-1,1].

Discontinuity
1. A function that is not continuous at a point a has a discontinuity at a

2. Physical phenomena are usually continuous e.g. velocity of a vehicle varying continu-
ously with time

3. The Heaviside function is discontinuous at 0 because limx→0 H(t) does not exist

Example
At which numbers of f is there discontinuity

Solution
1. At a = 1; there is a break. f (1) is undefined
22 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2. At a = 3; f (3) is defined but the limx→3 f (x) does not exist

3. At a = 5; f (5) is defined and the limx→5 f (x) exists but they are not equal

Exercises
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

x2 − x − 2
f (x) =
x−2
(
1
x2
if x 6= 0
g(x) =
1 if x = 0
(
x2 −x−2
x−2 if x 6= 2
h(x) =
1 if x = 2

Types of Discontinuity
Removable Discontinuity
x2 − x − 2
f (x) =
x−2

Notice that f (2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at 2.

Infinite Discontinuity (
1
x2
if x 6= 0
f (x) =
1 if x = 0
 23

Notice that f (0) is defined, but limx→0 f (x) does not exist.

Jump Discontinuity (
x2 −x−2
x−2 if x 6= 2
g(x) =
1 if x = 2

Important Theorems
Theorem

1. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on R = (−∞, +∞).

2. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous on its
domain.

3. f (x) = xm is a continuous function. Therefore g(x) = cxm is also a continuous function.

So is the sum of functions of this form. Therefore all polynomials are continuous

4. The rational function

P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials has a domain D = {x ∈ R|Q(x) 6= 0}. From the first
note, P and Q are continuous everywhere
24 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Examples
Find
x3 + 2x2 − 1
lim
x→−2 5 − 3x
Solution
The function given is rational so it is continuous on its domain i.e. {x|x 6= 53 }.

Therefore
x3 + 2x2 − 1 1
lim = limx→−2 f (x) = f (−2) = −
x→−2 5 − 3x 11
Exercises

1. Prove the state using the , δ definition of a limit

2 + 4x
lim =2
x→1 3

x2 − 2x − 8
lim =6
x→4 x−4

4
 
lim 3 − x = −5
x→10 5

Additional Notes on Limits

1. Limit Laws

2. Direct Substitution Property

Limit Laws
Suppose that c is a constant and

lim f (x) lim g(x)

x→a x→a

1.
lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim f (x)
x→a x→a x→a

2.
lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a

3.
lim (f (x)g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

4.
f (x) limx→a f (x)
lim = if lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x) x→a
 25
Direct Substitution Property
If a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f , then

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

1. Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a.

2. However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution, as the following example
shows

Example
Find
x2 − 1
limx→1
x−1
Solution

• We cannot find the limit by substituting x = 1 because f (x) is undefined

• We factor the numerator as a difference of two squares

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x−1 x−1
26 CHAPTER 3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Chapter 4

Sequences

Abstract
• In this lesson, we will discuss sequences and limits of sequences. Also featured are very
important concepts such as monotonicity and boundedness

Objectives
By the end of the lesson participants should be able to:

1. understand the precise definition of a sequence

2. determine the limit of sequences

3. identify monotonic and bounded sequences

4. relate the concept of convergence in relation to sequences

Introduction
A sequence (or an infinite sequence) in relation to real numbers is a real valued function defined
on the set of integers {n ≥ k}. A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a
definite order with the domain being the list of integers:

a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . . (4.1)

with the terms defined as follows

a1 − first term
a2 − second term
.. .. ..
. . .
an − nth term

Note here that we usually write an instead of the function notation f (n) for the value of the
function at the number n.

27
28 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
We denote a sequence by listing its terms in order; thus the sequence {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .} is also
denoted by

{an } or {an }∞
n=1

Let us consider some examples of sequences. Some sequences can be defined by giving a
formula for the nth term

1. Using the defined notation {an }∞

n=1

2. Using a defining formula an

3. Writing out the terms of the sequence

Note that n does not necessarily have to start at 1. Consider some examples given below
∞
n n 1 2 3 n
  
an = , , ,···, ,...
n+1 n=1 n+1 2 3 4 n+1

∞
(−1)n (n + 1) (−1)n (n + 1) 2 3 4 (−1)n (n + 1)
  
an = − , ,− ,···, ,...
3n n=1 3n 3 9 27 3n

{(−1)n }∞
n=0 an = (−1)n , n ≥ 0 {1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . , }

n√ o∞ √ n √ √ √ o
n−3 an = n − 3, n ≥ 3 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · , n − 3, . . .
n=3

In this material, if n is not indicated, we take n to start from 0 or 1 unless an is given by

a rule that is invalid for some nonnegative integer, n in which case n is understood to be the
smallest positive integer such that an is defined for all n ≥ k. For example if
1
an =
(n − 1)(n − 5)

Then k = 6 will be an appropriate starting point which means that n starts from 6.

Example
Find a formula for the general term an of the sequence
3 4 5 6 7
 
,− , ,− ,
5 25 125 625 3125
assuming that the pattern of the first few terms continues
Using the nth terms
3 4 5 6 7
a1 = a2 = − a3 = a4 = − a5 =
5 25 125 625 3125
1. Notice that the numerators of these fractions start with 3 and increase by 1 whenever we
go to the next term.
 29
2. The second term has numerator 4, the third term has numerator 5; in general, the nth term
will have numerator n + 2.

3. The denominators are the powers of 5, so a n has denominator 5n .

4. The signs of the terms are alternately positive and negative, so we need to multiply by a
power of −1 . We can either use (−1)n−1 or (−1)n+1 . Therefore

n+2
an = (−1)n−1
5n

Example 2
The Fibonacci sequence {fn } is defined recursively by the conditions

f1 = 1 f2 = 1 fn = fn−1 + fn−2 n≥3

Find the first eight (8) terms of the Fibonacci sequence

Solution
The Fibonacci sequence {fn } is defined recursively by the conditions

f1 = 1 f2 = 1 fn = fn−1 + fn−2 n≥3

The first few terms are given by ...

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .

Exercise
Write out the first 8 terms of the following sequence.
∞ ( )∞ ( )∞
n n2 (−1)n+1

1. 2. 3.
n+3 n=1 4n + 1 n=1
n2 n=1

Limit of a Sequence
A sequence {an } has a limit L and we denote that by

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if we take the terms an as close to L as we like by taking n sufficiently large. If limn→∞

exists, we say that the sequence converges ( or is convergent). Otherwise the sequence is said
to diverge (or is divergent).
30 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES

A sequence {an } has a limit L and we denote that by

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if for every  > 0 there exists a corresponding integer N such that

|an − L| <  whenever n>N

An illustration is given in the Figure above in which a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . are plotted on a number

line. No mater how small an interval (L − , L + ) is chosen, there exists an integer N such
that all terms of the sequence from aN +1 onwards must lie in that interval.
Another illustration is given by considering the points on the graph of {an } must lie between
the horizontal lines y = L +  and y = L −  if n > N . If this picture is valid no matter how
small  is chosen (this requires a larger N ) then the sequence has a limit.
We can also consider limits from the functional point of view. Note that the only difference
between limn→∞ an = L and limx→∞ f (x) = L is that n is required to be an integer. Thus we
can conclude the following theorem that utilizes the familiar definition of limits of functions.
If
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
and f (n) = an when n is an integer then

lim an = L
x→∞

Consider for example limx→∞ (1/xr ) = 0. This is conditionally dependent on r > 0.

Therefore we have
1
lim = 0 if r > 0
x→∞ nr
If an becomes large as n becomes large, we use the notation limx→∞ an = ∞. Let us consider
the formation definition.
The limx→∞ an = ∞ means that for every positive integer M there is an integer N such
that
an > M whenever n > N
If limx→∞ an = ∞, then the sequence {an } is divergent but very specifically, we will say that
{an } diverges to ∞
The Limit Laws for functions also applies for the limits of sequences and their proofs are
similar.
If {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences and c is a constant, then
 31
1.
lim (an ± bn ) = lim an + lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2.
lim can = c lim an lim c = c
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

3.
lim (an bn ) = lim an · lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

4.
an limn→∞ an
lim = if lim bn 6= 0
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn n→∞

5. h ip
lim apn = lim an if p > 0 and an > 0
n→∞ n→∞

Also certain theorems such the squeeze theorem is applicable Squeeze Theorem.
If an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ n0 and
lim an = lim cn = L
n→∞ n→∞
then
lim bn = L
n→∞

Also if limn→∞ |an | = 0 then it implies that limn→∞ an = 0

Example 1
Find
n
lim
n→∞n+1
Notice here that both numerator and denominator approach infinity as n → ∞. This leads
to an indefinite solution. We therefore divide the numerator and denominator by the highest
power of n and use the limit laws
n 1
lim = lim
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1
n
limn→∞ 1
=
limn→∞ 1 + limn→∞ n1
1
= =1
1+0

Example 2
Calculate
ln n
lim
n→∞ n
Notice here that both numerator and denominator approach infinity as n → ∞. We can’t apply
L’Hopital’s Rule directly because it applies not to sequences but to functions of real variables.
However we can apply L’Hopital’s Rule to the related function f (x) = (ln x)/x and obtain
ln x 1/x
lim = lim =0
x→∞ x →∞ 1
Therefore we obtain
ln n
lim =0
n→∞ n
32 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
Example 3
Determine whether the sequence an = (−1)n is convergent or divergent
If we write out the terms of the sequence we obtain

{−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . .}

Graphically, the sequence oscillates between 1 and -1 infinitely often, an therefore does not
approach any number. Thus the limn→∞ (−1)n does not exist; that is the sequence {(−1)n } is
divergent.

Example 4
Evaluate
(−1)n
lim
n→∞ n
if it exists

(−1)n 1
lim = lim =0
n→∞ n n→∞ n

Example 5
Discuss the convergence of the sequence

n!
an =
nn
where n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n
Both numerator and denominator approach infinity as n → ∞ but here we have no corre-
sponding function with L’Hopital. x! is not defined when x is not an integer. Let us write out
the terms to get a feeling of what happens to an as n gets large

1·2 1·2·3
a1 = 1 a2 = a3 =
2·2 3·3·3
1 · 2 · 3···n
⇒ an =
n · n · n···n
It appears from the terms from the expression that terms are decreasing and perhaps approach
0. To confirm, we rewrite an as
1 2 · 3···n
 
=
n n · n···n
Notice that the expression in parenthesis is at most 1 because the numerator is less than (or
equal to) the denominator. So 0 < an ≤ n1 . We know that n1 → 0 as n → ∞. Therefore
an → 0 as n → ∞ using the Squeeze Theorem

Example 6
Verify that
2n + 1
 
an =
2n − 1
then the limn→∞ an = 2
 33
Using the definition of limits
2n + 1 2n + 2 1
|an − L| = − =
n+1 n+1 n+1

hence if  > 0, then the definition holds with L = 2 if N ≥ 1/.

Note here that the definition does not require that there be an integer such that

|an − L| <  for n > N

holds for all , rather it requires that for each positive , there should be an integer N that
satisfies the relation given for that particular . Usually, N depends on  and must increase if 
is increased. Constant sequences are essentially the only ones for which N does not depend on

We say that the terms of a sequence {an }∞ n=1 satisfies a given condition for all n ≥ k for
large n if there exists an integer N > k such that an satisfies the condition whenever n ≥ N .
For example, the terms of {1/n}∞ 7 ∞
n=1 are all positive for all n, while those of {1 − n }n=1 are
positive for large n (take N = 8)

Example 7
For what values of r is the sequence {rn } convergent?
For given exponential functions we know that limx→∞ ax = ∞ for a > 1 and limx→∞ ax =
0 for 0 < a < 1. Therefore
(
n ∞ if r > 1
lim r =
n→∞ 0 if 0 < r < 1

It is obvious that

lim 1n = 1 and lim 0n = 0

x→∞ x→∞

If −1 < r < 0, then 0 < |r| < 1, so

lim |rn | = lim |r|n = 0

n→∞ n→∞

and therefore limn→∞ rn = 0. If r ≤ −1, then {rn } diverges as demonstrated in the Figure
below. The sequence {rn } is convergent if −1 < r ≤ 1 and divergent for all other values of r

(
0 if − 1 < r < 1
lim rn =
n→∞ 1 if r = 1
34 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
Exercise
In each part, determine whether the sequence converges or diverges by examining the limit as
n → +∞.
∞ ∞ ∞
n n 1
  
1. 2. (−1)n+1 3. (−1)n+1 4. {1 + (−1)n }∞
n=1
2n + 1 n=1 2n + 1 n=1 n n=1

Monotonicity
A sequence {an }∞
n=1 is called :

1. Strictly increasing if : a1 < a2 < a3 < · · · < an < · · ·

2. increasing if: a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a3 ≤ · · · ≤ an ≤ · · ·

3. Strictly decreasing if: a1 > a2 > a3 > · · · < an > · · ·

4. decreasing if: a1 ≥ a2 ≥ a3 ≥ · · · ≥ an ≥ · · ·
A sequence that is either increasing or decreasing is said to be monotone, and a sequence that
is either strictly increasing or decreasing is said to be strictly monotone

Example 1
Show whether the sequence is strictly increasing or decreasing.

an = n

Solution
As we inserting values into n,we obtain {1, 2, 3, 4, · · ·}.The values increasing as n → +∞.Therefore
the sequence is strictly increasing.

Example 2
Show if the sequence is strictly increasing or decreasing.
n
an =
n+1

Solution
n o
1 2 3
As we inserting values into n,we obtain 2, 3, 4, · · · .Therefore the sequence is strictly in-
creasing.

Example 3
Show that the sequence given below is decreasing
n
an =
n2 + 1
 35
Solution
We should be able to demonstrate that an+1 < an , that is
n+1 n
2
< 2
(n + 1) + 1 n +1
This implies that
(n + 1)(n2 + 1) < n[(n + 1)2 + 1]
n3 + n2 + n + 1 < n3 + 2n2 + 2n
1 < n2 + n
Since n ≥ 1, we know that an+1 < an and {an } is decreasing.

Example 4
Show that the sequence given below is decreasing.
2n + 1
an =
2n − 1

Solution
Demonstrating an+1 < an , that is
2n + 3 2n + 1
<
2n − 3 2n − 1
This implies that
(2n + 3)(2n − 1) < (2n + 3)(2n − 3)
4n2 − 2n + 6n − 3 < 4n2 − 6n + 6n − 9
4n − 3 < −9
4n < −6
Since n ≥ 1,we know that an+1 > an then we say that {an } is increasing.

Exercise
Use the difference an+1 − an to show that the given sequences {an } is increasing or decreasing.
 ∞
1 ∞
∞
1 n
  
1. 2. 1 − 3.
n n=1 n n=1 3n + 1 n=1

Boundness
1. A sequence {an } is bounded above if there is a number M such that
an ≤ M for all n≥1
2. It is bounded below if there is a number m such that
m ≤ an for all n≥1
3. It is bounded above and below, then {an } is a bounded sequence
36 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
Example 1
Consider the sequence
an = n
We obtain {1, 2, 3, · · ·} as n → +∞ It is bounded below because an > 0.It is however not
bounded above

Example 2
Consider the sequence
n
an =
n+1
It is bounded below & above because 0 < an < 1 . Therefore the sequence is bounded

Example 3
Consider the sequence
(−1)n
an = +2
n
It is bounded below and above because 1 < an < 52 .Therefore the sequence is bounded.

Bounds - The least & the greatest

A number M is called the least upper bound (l.u.b) of the sequence {an } if an ≤ M n =
1, 2, 3, . . . while at least one term is greater than M −  for any  > 0.
A number m is called the greatest lower bound (g.l.b) of the sequence {an } if an ≥ m
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . while at least one term is greater than M +  for any  > 0

Example
Consider the sequence
1
an = n∈N
n
The set an is bounded: 0 < an ≤ 1.
an < 2; therefore 2 is an upper bound; so is 100.

Also an > −1, therefore -1 is a lower bounded.

Sup(an ) = 1.

Inf(an ) = 0 because an is decreasing and

1
lim an = lim =0
n→∞ n→∞ n
 37
The Completeness Axiom
If a nonempty set S of real numbers has an upper bound,then it has a smallest upper bound(called
the least upper bound and if a nonempty set S of real numbers has a lower bound, then it has
a largest lower bound(called the greatest lower bound).

Monotonic Sequence Theorem

Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent.

Proof
Suppose {an } is an increasing sequence.
Since {an } is bounded ⇒ S = {an |n ≥ 1} has an upper bound.
By the Completeness Axiom S has an upper bound,
i.e.

aN > L −  for some integer N

Since {an } is increasing ⇒ an ≥ aN for every n > N . Thus

an > L −  ⇒ 0 ≤ L − an < 

Since an ≤ L then

|L − an | <  whenever n > N

Theorems on Monotone Sequences

Suppose that {an } is a monotonic sequence. Then {an } is convergent if and only if {an } is
bounded. More specifically

1. If {an } is non-decreasing then either {an } is bounded and converges to sup{an } or else
{an } is unbounded and an → ∞

2. {an } is non-increasing then either {an } is bounded and converges to inf{an } or else {an }
is unbounded and an → −∞

Proof
• If the sequence is unbounded, then it diverges, this applies to all sequences and not only
monotonic sequences.

• We then have to show that for any bounded sequence {an }, the limit is sup{an } in the
case where the sequence is non decreasing.

• In the case where the sequence is non-increasing, the it is inf{an }. We proceed to prove
for each of these cases.
38 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
• To apply this theorem, suppose a sequence {an } is given an , we recognize it as increas-
ing(or may be just decreasing), then to establish that it converges, we need to show that
it is bounded above. That is,. we need to find just one number M with

an ≤ M for all n

Let {an } be assumed to be non-decreasing and bounded, and let

L = sup{an }

Then an ≤ L for all n and if β < L there must be some term am say with am > β. Let ε > 0.
We know that there is an m so that

an ≥ am > L − ε

for all n ≥ m But we already know that every term an ≤ L

Combining these together, we have

L − ε < an ≤ L < L + ε

⇒ |an − L| < ε

for all n ≥ m. By definition then an → L as required.

Example
• Let us show that the sequence
√
an = 1 n
converges

Solution

It is evident that this is a decreasing sequence.Then we have to find a lower bound.

Zero(0) is a good choice because all the terms are positive. Therefore zero is a lower
bound.
Consequently, the sequence must converge.

Other Theorems
Squeeze Theorem
1. This theorem is a useful variant on themes of using the limits of other sequences that are
similar to evaluate/analyze specified sequences.

2. Here an unknown sequences is sandwiched between two convergent sequences, allowing

us to conclude that the sequences converges. Thus the name Squeeze Theorem
 39
Theorem
Suppose that g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing c except at c itself.
If lim g(x) = L = lim h(x) then
x→c x→c
lim f (x) = L
x→c

Proof
Let ε > 0, if we are able to find a δ > 0 such that

|f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − c| < δ

then we would have proved the theorem. Since lim g(x) = L, then ∃δ1 > 0 such that
x→c

|g(x) − L| < ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ1

Thus

−ε < g(x) − L < ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ1 (4.2)

so

L − ε < g(x) < L + ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ1 (4.3)

Similarly some lim h(x) = L: using the definition of limits it means ∃!δ2 > 0
x→c
such that

L − ε < h(x) < L + ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ2 (4.4)

Additionally, since g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing c, there
exists some δ3 > 0 such that

g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all 0 < |x − c| < δ3 (4.5)

Now, we choose δ = min(δ1 , δ2 , δ3 ). Then by 1.2,1.3 and 1.4,we have

L − ε < g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) < L + ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ

Therefore

−ε < f (x) − L < ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ (4.6)

so

|f (x) − L| < ε for all 0 < |x − c| < δ (4.7)

Hence by definition of limits lim f (x) = L

x→c
40 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
Example
Determine whether the sequence
(−1)n
an =
n
converges
• Determine whether the sequence an converges:

(−1)n
an = (4.8)
n
• Since
−1 +1
lim = 0 and lim =0
n→∞ n n→∞ n

• Using the squeeze theorem we have

−1 +1
≤ (−1)n n ≤
n n

−1 (−1)n +1
⇒ lim ≤ lim ≤ lim
n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n

(−1)n
0 ≤ lim ≤0
n→∞ n
The sequence therefore converges to 0.

Limit Uniqueness Theorem

We show in this proof that if lim an = l1 and lim an = l2 then l1 = l2 By hypothesis,

n→∞ n→∞
for any ε > 0, we find N such that

1
|an − l1 | < ε when n>N
2
Then
1 1
|l1 − l2 | = |l1 − an + an − l2 | ≤ |l1 − an | + |an − l2 | < ε + ε = ε
2 2
|l1 − l2 | is less than any positive(however small) and so must be zero. Thus l1 = l2

Sums of Limits Theorem

Theorem

If lim an = A and lim bn = B, then lim (an + bn ) = A + B

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
 41
Proof

We must show that for any  > 0, we can find N > 0 such that

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| < ε for all n>N

|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| = |(an − A) − (bn − B)| ≤ |an − A| + |bn − B|

By hypothesis, given ε > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such that

1
|an − A| < ε for all n > N1
2

1
|bn − B| < ε for all n > N2
2

From 1, 2, 3

1 1
|an + bn ) − (A + B)| <  + ε = ε
2 2

where N is chosen as the larger of N1 and N2 . Hence the proof.

Bounded-Convergence Theorem
1. It is important to note here that the converse of this theorem is not true
2. We can find examples of bounded sequences which have nonexistent limits

Theorem

Every Convergent Sequence is Bounded.

Proof

Given that lim an = A, we must show that there exists a positive number p such that
n→∞
|an | < p for all n. Now

|an | = |an − A + A| < |an − A| + |A|

By hypothesis we can find N such that |an − A| < ε for all n > N that is

|an | < ε + |A| for all n>N

It follows that |an | < p for all n if we choose p as the largest one of the numbers
a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an , ε + |A|
42 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
Limits Product Theorem

Proof

If
lim an = A
n→∞
and
lim bn = B
n→∞
, then
lim an bn = AB
n→∞
We start by having

|an bn − AB| = |an (bn − B) + B(an − A)|

≤ |an ||(bn − B)| + |B||(an − A)|
≤ |P (bN − B) + (|B| + 1)(an − A)|

But since lim an = A and lim bn = B, given any  > 0 we can find N1 and N2 such
n→∞ n→∞
that
ε ε
|an − A| < 2p for all n > N1 , |an − A| < 2(|B|+1) for all n > N2
1 1
Hence from 6 |an bn − AB| < 2  + 2  =  for all n > N , where N is the largest of N1
and N2 . Hence the proof.

Limits Quotient Theorem

Theorem

Suppose that {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences. Suppose further bn 6= 0 or all n
and that
lim bn 6= 0
n→∞
. Then
lim an
1 1 n→∞
a. lim = b. lim an bn =
n→∞ bn lim bn
n→∞
n→∞ lim bn
n→∞

Proof

We start with the proof of Part (a). Suppose that lim = A and lim = B, we start the
an →∞ bn →∞
first part by showing that for any given ε > 0, we can find N such that
1 1 |B − bn |
− = < for all n>N (4.9)
bn B |B||bn |

By hypothesis, given any ε > 0, we can find N 1, such that |bn − B| < 12 B 2  for all
n > N1 . Also since lim bn = B 6= 0, we can find |bn | > 21 |B| for all n > N2 . Then if
n→∞
N = max{N1 , N2 }, we can write (??) as
1 2
1 1 |bn − B| B 
| − |= < 2 1 = for all n>N (4.10)
bn B |B||bn | |B| 2 |B|
 43
Hence the proof
We then consider the Part (b).
From the first Part (a) and the theorem on the product of limits, we can write
an 1 1 1 A
lim = lim (an · ) = lim an · lim =A· =
n→∞ bn n→∞ bn n→∞ n→∞ bn B B
Hence the proof

Subsequences
Consider the sequence

an = {1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 5, −5} (4.11)

This appear to have two sequences

an1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, } and an2 = {−1, −2, −3, −4 − 5} (4.12)

The latter two sequences an1 and an2 in (??) are known as subsequences of the main
sequence an in (??). The formal mathematical definition of subsequence are given as
follows :
Let a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , ... be any sequence. Then the subsequence of this sequence is

an1 , an2 , an3 , a4 , ... (4.13)

where n1 < n2 < n3 < n4 is an increasing sequence of natural numbers.

Monotonic Subsequences

Theorem

Every sequence contains a monotonic subsequence

Proof

We start by constructing a non-increasing subsequence. We call the mth element xm of

the sequence {xn } a turn-back point if all the later elements are less than or equal to
it, symbolically xm ≥ xn for all n > m. If these is an infinite sequence of turn-back
points am1 , am2 , am3 , am4 , . . . then we have found our non-increasing subsequence since
am1 ≥ am2 ≥ am3 ≥ am4 , ≥ · · · This would not be possible if there are only finitely
many turn-points. Let us suppose that xm is the last turn-back points so that any element
xn for n > M is not a turn-back point. Since if it is not, there must be an element further
in the sequence greater than it, in symbols xm > xn for some m > n. Thus we can

choose xm1 > xM +1 with m > M + 1 then xm2 > xm1 with m2 > m1 and then
xm3 > xm2 with m3 > m2
So we can obtain an increasing subsequence

xM +1 < xm1 < xm2 < xm3 < xm4 < · · · (4.14)
44 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
Key Notes
– Based on the monotone convergence criterion, we were able to show that a sequence
can be proved to converge without knowing its limit.
– Apart from this criterion there are other criteria that can lead us to the same conclu-
sion.
– The following are provisions for the presentation of another criteria.
– Suppose that a sequence {xn } converges to x. Then for ε > 0, ∃N such that
|xn − xm | < 2ε for all n, m > N we have
ε ε
|xn − xm | = |xn − x + x − xm | < |xn − x| + |x − xm | < + = ε
2 2
– The conclusion therefore is as follows :
If a sequence xn converges then it satisfies the Cauchy’s Criterion : for ε > 0,
there exists N such that |xn − xm | < ε for all n, m > N

– If a sequence converges then the elements of the sequence get close to the limit as n
increases.
– In case of a sequence satisfying Cauchy’s Criterion, the elements get close to each
other as m, n increases.
– Note also that a sequence satisfying Cauchy’s Criterion is a bounded sequence with
some additional property
– Moreover, it seems to intuitively converge.
– We will show that a sequence satisfying Cauchy’s Criterion does converge.

Nested Intervals

Theorem

For each n, let In = [an , bn ] be a (non-empty) bounded interval of real numbers such that

I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ I3 ⊃ ... ⊃ In ⊃ In+1 ...

T∞
and lim (bn − an ) = 0, then n=1 In contains only one point.
n→∞

Proof

We start by defining [an , bn ], n = 1, 2, 3, · · · as nested interval. Then by this definition,

an+1 ≥ an , bn+1 , bn+1 ≤ bn , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . and
lim lim (an − bn ) = 0
n→∞
Then a1 ≤ an ≤ bn ≤ b1 and the sequences {an } and {bn } are bounded with {an } being
monotonic increasing and {bn } being monotonic decreasing which converges to a and b
respectively.
To show that a = b and thus prove the required result, we note that

b − a = (b − bn ) + (bn − an ) + (an − a) (4.15)

 45
|b − a| ≤ |b − bn | + |bn − an | + |an − a| (4.16)

• Now given ε > 0, we can find N such that for all n > N
ε ε ε
|b − bn | < , |bn − an | < , |an − a| < (4.17)
3 3 3

• Therefore from 1.13,1.14,1.15, |b − a| < ε. Since ε is any positive number, we must have
interval theorem.

Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

Theorem

Every bounded sequence in R has a convergent subsequence

Proof

We prove this in two parts. First we show that the intersection of nested intervals converge
to a single point and secondly show that a subsequence converges to that same point. Let
{wn } be a bounded sequence. Then, there exists an interval [a1 , b1 ] such that a1 ≤ wn ≤
b1 for all n.
This means that

a1 + b1 a1 + b1
   
4 a1 , or , b1 (4.18)
2 2

h terms iof {wn }. That is, there exists infinitely many n in I,

contains infinitely many
such that {wn } is in a1 , a1 +b
2
1
or there exists infinitely many n in I, such that {wn }
h i h i
a1 +b1 a1 +b1
is in 2 i , b1 . If a1 , 2 contains infinitely many terms of {wn } let [a2 , b2 ] =
h h i
a1 , a1 +b
2
1
. Otherwise let [a ,
2 2b ] = a1 +b1
2i , b1 .
h h i
We continue to show that either a2 , a2 +b 2
2
or a2 +b2
2 , b2 contains infinitely many terms
h i h i
of {wn }. If a2 , a2 +b2
2
contains infinitely many terms of {w n }, let [a 3 , b3 ] = a2 , a2 +b2
2 .
h i
a2 +b2
Otherwise, let [a3 , b3 ] = 2 , b2 .
By mathematical induction, we can continue this construction and obtain a sequence of
interval {[an , bn ]} such that for each n
[an , bn ] contains infinitely many terms of {wn } [an+1 , bn+1 ] ⊆ [an , bn ] bn+1 −
an+1 = 12 (bn − an )

Based on the nested interval theorem, it implies that the intersection of the intervals
[an , bn ] is a single point w. We will now proceed to construct a subsequence of {wn }
which will converge to w. Since [a1 , b1 ] contains infinitely many terms of {wn }, there
exists k1 in I such that wk1 is in [a1 , b1 ].
Since [a2 , b2 ] contains infinitely many terms of {wn }, there exists k2 in I, k2 > k1 , such
that wk2 is in [a2 , b2 ].
Since [a3 , b3 ] contains infinitely many terms of {wn }, there exits k3 in I, k3 > k2 , such
46 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
that {wk3 } is in [a3 , b3 ].
Continuing this process by induction, we obtain a sequence {wkn } such that wkn is in
[an , bn ] for each n.
The sequence {wkn } is a subsequence of {wn } since kn+1 > kn for each n. Since
an → w, bn → w and an ≤ wn ≤ bn for each n, The squeeze theorem implies that
wkn → w as n → ∞.